CCCS 431 - Networking Fundamentals

Section 774 – Summer 2021

Lecture 1 – Introduction to Computer Networks
Ali Jannatpour

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 Acknowledgement
 The following slides are reproduced from online materials (links are provided)

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 Session Learning Outcomes

• Explain OSI as well as the TCP/IP Network Models

• Explain and Determine Network Topologies
• Use Number Systems, Calculate and Convert numbers from
one system to another

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 Session Overview
• This class delivers an introduction to computer networks. An overview of the
computer networks and related technologies are discussed.
• In this class you will learn the fundamental concepts of computer networks,
evolution of computer networks, the network layers, and their components.
• At the end of this session, you will be able to explain the major functions of network
hardware with respect to the OSI seven-layer model.
• In addition to above, number systems (conversions from decimal to binary and vice
versa) are explained. Various number systems are used in Network addressing and
calculating and converting numbers from one to another is crucial.

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Introduction

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 What is a Computer Network?

• A computer network is a set of connected computers.

Computers on a network are called nodes.
• The connection between computers can be done via cabling,
most commonly the Ethernet cable, or wirelessly through radio
waves.
• Connected computers can share resources, like access to the
Internet, printers, file servers, and others.

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 Sneakernet

• Networks did not exist when computers were first created

– Sneakernet was the method of moving files
– A more efficient method of sharing data was developed

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 Evolution of Computer Networks

The Mainframe Model

• via Terminals

An IBM 704 mainframe (1964)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer

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 Evolution of Computer Networks 1

Client Server

A computer network diagram

A network based on the client- of clients communicating with
server model, where individual a server via the Internet
clients request services and
resources from centralized
servers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model

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 Evolution of Computer Networks 2

Peer-to-peer

• Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or

networking is a distributed
application architecture that
partitions tasks or workloads
between peers.

A peer-to-peer (P2P) network in

which interconnected nodes
("peers") share resources
amongst each other without the
use of a centralized
administrative system

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer

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 Evolution of Computer Networks 3

The Internet

• is the global system of interconnected computer

networks that uses the Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of
networks that consists of private, public, academic,
business, and government networks of local to global
scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless,
and optical networking technologies.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model

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 Network Connections

• Wired Technologies
– i.e. Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiberoptic, …
• Wireless Technologies
– i.e. Radio, Satellite, Terrestrial Microwave, …

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 Network Topologies
• Computer networks can be broken down historically
into topologies, which is a technique of connecting computers.
• “Network topology is the arrangement of the elements (links,
nodes, etc.) of a communication network.” -- wikipedia
– Examples:
• Point-to-Point
• Daisy-Chain
• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• Mesh Example of Network Topologies: Ring, Mesh, Star,
Fully Connected, Line, Tree, and Bus
• Hybrid …
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology

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 Network Interface

A network interface controller (NIC) is

computer hardware that provides a computer
with the ability to access the transmission
media, and has the ability to process low-level
network information.
An ATM network interface in
the form of an accessory
card. A lot of network
The NIC responds to traffic addressed to a interfaces are built-in.

network address for either the NIC or the

computer as a whole.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_interface_controller

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 Network Interface 1

A wireless network interface controller

(WNIC) is a network interface controller which
connects to a wireless network, such as Wi-Fi
or Bluetooth, rather than a wired network,
such as a Token Ring or Ethernet. A WNIC, just
like other NICs, works on the layers 1 and 2 of A wireless network interface
device with a USB interface

the OSI model and uses an antenna to and internal antenna

communicate via radio waves.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network_interface_controller

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 Network Model

The OSI Seven-Layer Model

• The OSI 7-layer model was

developed starting in the late 1970s
to support the emergence of the
diverse computer networking
methods.
• It consists of seven layers:
– Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport,
Session, Presentation, and Application

https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/ccna-study-guide/osi-seven-layers-model-explained-with-examples.html

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 Network Protocol
• A communication protocol is a system of rules that allows two or
more entities of a communications system to transmit information
via any kind of variation of a physical quantity.

• Protocols are sets of rules.

– The protocol defines the rules, syntax, semantics and synchronization of
communication and possible error recovery methods. Protocols may be
implemented by hardware, software, or a combination of both.
– What do you want to do? (Application)
– Where are you going? (Addressing)
– How do you get there? (Media types)
– Did you get there? (Acknowledgments, Error checking)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_protocol

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 Network Models

• Network Model is a conceptual model that characterizes and

standardizes the communication of a network without regard
to its underlying internal structure and technology.
– Two popular models are: OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) and
TCP/IP

Communication in the OSI-

Model (example with layers
3 to 5)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model

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 Early Days of Networking Software
• Several competing standards
• Protocols: individual rules used by software
• Protocol suites: many protocols lumped together
– Novell Netware: IPX/SPX
– Microsoft: NetBIOS/NetBEUI
– Apple: AppleTalk
– UNIX: TCP/IP

• TCP/IP won out as the protocol of choice

– Only protocol on the CompTIA Network+ exam
CompTIA Network+ Certification All-In-One Exam Guide by Mike Meyers

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 TCP/IP , OSI, The Layers and Protocols

• Examples of protocols used in various layers are illustrated in

the following:

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-logical-mapping-between-OSI-basic-reference-model-and-the-TCP-IP-stack_fig2_327483011

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 Ethernet
• Ethernet is a family of wired computer networking technologies
commonly used in local area networks (LAN), metropolitan area
networks (MAN) and wide area networks (WAN).

– It was commercially introduced in 1980

– First standardized in 1983 as IEEE 802.3.
A twisted pair cable with an
8P8C modular connector
attached to a laptop
computer, used for Ethernet

– Has since been refined to support higher bit rates, a greater number of nodes, and longer link
distances, but retains much backward compatibility.
– Over time, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as Token Ring,
FDDI and ARCNET.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet

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Break

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Number Systems
Representations, and
Basic Arithmetic

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 Number Systems

• Binary numbers
– 0’s and 1’s
• Base conversion
– i.e. decimal, hex, etc.; we need to know how to convert from one to
another.
• Number systems
– There are more than one way to express a number even in binary.
i.e. 1010 could be -2, -5 or -6; we need to know which one.

https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 Number Systems
• Bases we will use • Addition and subtraction
– Binary: Base 2
1011 1011
– Octal: Base 8
+ 1010 – 0110
– Decimal: Base 10 10101 0101
– Hexadecimal: Base 16

• Positional number system

– 1012= 1×22 + 0×21 + 1×20
– 638 = 6×81 + 3×80
– A116= 10×161 + 1×160

https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 Binary vs. Octal

N=5610=1110002

• Each successive divide liberates an LSB (least significant bit)

https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal Conversions

• Conversion from binary to octal/hex

– Binary: 10011110001
– Octal: 10 | 011 | 110 | 001 = 23618
– Hex: 100 | 1111 | 0001= 4F116

• Conversion from binary to decimal

– 1012= 1×22 + 0×21 + 1×20 = 510
– 63.48 = 6×81 + 3×80 + 4×8–1 = 51.510
– A116= 10×161 + 1×160 = 16110

https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 Mike Meyers’ CompTIA Network+® Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting
Networks, Fifth Edition (Exam N10-007)

Binary to Decimal Conversion

Binary Decimal Binary Decimal
00000000 0 11111000 248
00000001 1 11111001 249
00000010 2 11111010 250
00000011 3 11111011 251
00000100 4 11111100 252
00000101 5 11111101 253
00000110 6 11111110 254
00000111 7 11111111 255
00001000 8
(skip a bunch) (skip a bunch)

Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.

 Mike Meyers’ CompTIA Network+® Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting
Networks, Fifth Edition (Exam N10-007)

Manual Dotted Decimal to Binary

Conversion
• Write bit values in decimal from left to right
• Take binary value and place ones and zeroes
under appropriate positions
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
• Add the decimal values that have a 1
underneath
128 + 16 + 4 + 2 = 150
Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.
 Mike Meyers’ CompTIA Network+® Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting
Networks, Fifth Edition (Exam N10-007)

Manual Decimal to Binary Conversion (1 of 2)

• Manually converting 221 decimal to binary

– Start with bit values beginning with 128
– Place decimal value above the first value on the
left which it exceeds and subtract and place a one
to represent this binary value
221
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
93
1
Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.
 Mike Meyers’ CompTIA Network+® Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting
Networks, Fifth Edition (Exam N10-007)

Manual Decimal to Binary Conversion (2 of 2)

• Place the remainder above the next bit value

that it exceeds (place a zero in positions that
are skipped)
93 29 29 13 5 1
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
29 13 5 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
– Decimal 221 = binary 11011101

Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.

Number Systems
Complex Arithmetic

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 Negative Numbers
• How do we write negative binary numbers?
• Historically: 3 approaches
– Sign-and-Magnitude
– One’s Complement
– Two’s Complement
• For all 3, the most-significant bit (MSB) is the sign digit
– 0 ≡ positive
– 1 ≡ negative
• Two’s-complement is the important one
– Simplifies arithmetic
– Used almost universally https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 Sign-and-Magnitude
• The most-significant bit (MSB) is the sign digit
– 0 ≡ positive
– 1 ≡ negative

• The remaining bits are the number’s magnitude

• Problem 1: Two representations for zero

– 0 = 0000 and also –0 = 1000

• Problem 2: Arithmetic is cumbersome

https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 One’s Complement
• Negative number: Bitwise complement positive number
– 0011 ≡ 310
– 1100 ≡ –310
• Solves the arithmetic problem

• Remaining problem: Two representations for zero

– 0 = 0000 and also –0 = 1111
https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 Two’s Complement
• Negative number: Bitwise complement plus one
– 0011 ≡ 310
– 1101 ≡ –310
–1 0
–2 +1
• Number wheel 1111 0000
–3 1110 0001 +2
1101 0010
Only one zero! –4 +3
1100 0011

• MSB is the sign digit – 5 1011 0100 + 4

0 ≡ positive 1010 0101
–6 1001 0110 +5
1 ≡ negative
–7 1000 0111 +6
–8 +7
https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 Two’s Complement 1

• Arithmetic is easy
– Subtraction = negation and addition
• Easy to implement in hardware

https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 Two’s Complement 2
• Summing two positive numbers gives a negative result

• Summing two negative numbers gives a positive result

–1 0 –1 0
–2 1111 0000 + 1 –2 1111 0000 + 1
– 3 1110 0001 + 2 – 3 1110 0001 + 2
1101 0010 1101 0010
– 4 1100 0011 + 3 – 4 1100 0011 + 3
– 5 1011 0100 + 4 – 5 1011 0100 + 4
1010 0101 1010 0101
–6 1001 0110 + 5 –6 1001 0110 + 5
–7 1000 0111 + 6 –7 1000 0111 + 6
–8 +7 –8 +7

6 + 4 ⇒ –6 –7 – 3 ⇒ +6
• Make sure to have enough bits to handle overflow

https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 Two’s Complement of non-integers

• Two’s Complement of non-integers

1.687510 = 01.10112
–1.687510 = 10.01012

https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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Number Systems
Signal Encoding

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 What is Signal Encoding?

• Encoding refers to the way data is prepared before being sent

on the electric or optical signal

– Indicating start and end of frames

– Establishing standard signal patterns

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 Analog and Digital Signals

• Real world is analog (continuous); we need to know generally

how they become 0’s and 1’s.

• Measure analog quantities

– Speech waveforms, etc.
• Control analog systems
– Drive motors, etc.

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Digital vs Analog Signal

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 ADC / DAC Conversions
– Analog-to-digital converter (A/D)
• Example: CD recording

– Digital-to-analog converter (D/A)

• Example: CD playback

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 ADC / DAC Conversions
• Quantization
– Conversion from analog to discrete values

• Quantizing a signal
– We sample it

Datel Data Acquisition and

Conversion Handbook

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 Binary Data Requires Encoding

• Can’t infer a representation from a number

– 11001 is 25 (unsigned)
– 11001 is –9 (sign magnitude)
– 11001 is –6 (ones complement)
– 11001 is –7 (twos complement)

https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 BCD Encoding
• Digital = discrete
– Binary codes (example: BCD) Decimal BCD
– Decimal digits 0-9 Symbols Code
0 0000
1 0001
• Binary codes 2 0010
– Represent symbols using binary digits (bits) 3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
• Digital computers: 7 0111
– I/O is digital 8 1000
• ASCII, decimal, etc. 9 1001
– Internal representation is binary
• Process information in bits https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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 Excess-3 Encoding
• Excess-3, 3-excess or 10-excess-3 binary code (often abbreviated as XS-3, 3XS[1] or
X3), shifted binary or Stibitz code (after George Stibitz, who built a relay-based
adding machine in 1937) is a self-complementary binary-coded decimal (BCD) code
and numeral system.
– Excess-3 code was used on some older computers as well as in cash registers and hand-held
portable electronic calculators of the 1970s, among other uses.
– It is a biased representation.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excess-3

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 Gray System
• The reflected binary code (RBC), also known just as reflected binary (RB) or Gray
code after Frank Gray, is an ordering of the binary numeral system such that two
successive values differ in only one bit (binary digit).
Decimal Gray Decimal BCD
Symbols Code Symbols Code
0 0000 0 0000
1 0001 1 0001
2 0011 2 0010
3 0010 3 0011
4 0110 4 0100
5 0111 5 0101
6 0101 6 0110
7 0100 7 0111
8 1100 8 1000
9 1101 9 1001
https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/08au/Lecture%20Slides/Lec2_NumberSystems.ppt

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Break

50
Software
Wireshark,
Cisco Packet Tracer,
GNS3

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 Session Summary
• In this class an overview of a computer networks and related concepts
was presented. The fundamental concepts such as connections,
topology, layers and protocols, interfaces, and models were discussed.
Two important network models (OSI vs. TCP/IP were presented.
• In addition to above, you were introduced to various number systems
that are used in computer networks.
• In the next class, we will review a detailed overview of the functions of
each individual layer. Below are a few questions that may be answered
in the next module:
– Why using different number systems are used in Computer Networks?
– What are the similarities and differences between the OSI and TCP/IP models?
– Why Network Topology is important?

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 Acknowledgements
• https://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/cse370/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model
• https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/ccna-study-guide/osi-seven-layers-model-explained-
with-examples.html
• https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-logical-mapping-between-OSI-basic-reference-model-and-
the-TCP-IP-stack_fig2_327483011

• See also:
– https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal

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Next - Network Models, A Detailed Overview

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