Unit Iv

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1.

AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER


ADF (Automatic Direction Finder) is the radio signals in the low to medium
frequency band of 190 Khz. to 1750 Khz. It was widely used today. It has the major
advantage over VOR navigation in the reception is not limited to line of sight distance.
The ADF signals follow the curvature of the earth. The maximum of distance is depend on
the power of the beacon. The ADF can receives on both AM radio station and NDB (Non-
Directional Beacon). Commercial AM radio stations broadcast on 540 to 1620 Khz. Non-
Directional Beacon operate in the frequency band of 190 to 535 Khz.

ADF COMPONENTS
 ADF Receiver : pilot can tune the station desired and to select the mode of
operation. The signal is received, amplified, and converted to audible voice or
morse code transmission and powers the bearing indicator.
 Control Box (Digital Readout Type) : Most modern aircraft has this type of control
in the cockpit . In this equipment the frequency tuned is displayed as digital readout.
ADF automatically determines bearing to selected station and it on the RMI.

 Antenna : The aircraft consist of two antennas. The two antennas are called LOOP
antenna and SENSE antenna. The ADF receives signals on both loop and sense
antennas. The loop antenna in common use today is a small flat antenna without
moving parts. Within the antenna are several coils spaced at various angles. The
loop antenna sense the direction of the station by the strength of the signal on each
coil but cannot determine whether the bearing is TO or FROM the station.
The sense antenna provides this latter information.
 Bearing Indicator : displays the bearing to station relative to the nose of the aircraft.
Relative Bearing is the angle formed by the line drawn through the center line of the
aircraft and a line drawn from the aircraft to the radio station.
Magnetic Bearing is the angle formed by a line drawn from aircraft to the radio
station and a line drawn from the aircraft to magnetic north (Bearing to station).
Magnetic Bearing = Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing.
TYPE OF ADF INDICATOR
Four types of ADF indicators are in use today. In every case, the needle points to the
navigation beacon.Those four types are:

 Fixed Compass Card : It is fixed to the face of instrument and cannot rotate. 0
degree is always straight up as the nose of aircraft.
 The relationship of the aircraft to the station is refered to as " bearing to the station "
MB or aircraft to magnetic north. This type of indicator, pilot must calculate for the
bearing by formular
MB = RB + MH

 Rotatable Compass Card : The dial face of the instrument can be rotated by a knob.
By rotating the card such that the Magnetic Heading (MH) of the aircraft is adjusted
to be under the pointer at the top of the card.
 The bearing to station (MB) can be read directly from the compass card without
calculation and make it easy for pilot. Today , they designed automatically rotate
the compass card of the instrument to agree with the magnetic heading (MH) of the
aircraft . Thus MB to station can be read at any time without manually rotating the
compass card on the ADF face.
 Single-Needle Radio Magnetic Indicator : Radio Magnetic Indicator is an
instrument that combines radio and magnetic information to provide continuous
heading , bearing , and radial information.
OPERATION
ADF operate in the low and medium frequency bands. By tuning to NDB station or
commercial AM radio stations. NDB frequency and identification information may be
obtained from aeronautical charts and Airport Facility Directory. The ADF has automatic
direction seeking qualities which result in the bearing indicator always pointing to the
station to which it is tuned. The easiest and perhaps the most common method of using
ADF , is to " home " to the station . Since the ADF pointer always points to the station ,
the pilot can simply head the airplane so that the pointer is on the 0 (zero) degree or nose
position when using a fixed card ADF . The station will be directly ahead of the airplane.
Since there is almost always some wind at altitude and you will be allowing for drif,
meaning that your heading will be different from your track. Off track , if the aircraft is
left of track, the head of the needle will point right of the nose. If the aircraft is right of
track , the head of the needle will point left of the nose.

 For fixed compass card , if you are not fly Homing and you want to fly heading at
some degrees. You must use the formular MB = MH + RB to find out what degree
the ADF pointer should be on. Today , the fixed card indicator is very
unsatisfactory for every day use which can still be found on aircraft panels but not
many planes that pilot actually uses it due to it has easier type of indicator.
 For rotatable compass card, it was a big step over the fixed card indicator. The pilot
can rotate the compass card with the heading knob to display the aircraft MH "
straight up " . Then the ADF needle will directly indicate the magnetic bearing to
the NDB station.

2. Measuring Equipment (DME)

Radar principles
The word Radar stands for RAdio Detection And Ranging earlier it used pulses waves for
its operation but subsequently continuous wave (CW) techniques were also developed.
There are two kinds of radar system used primary radar and secondary radar.

Primary Radar
A Primary Radar uses pulses of radio energy reflected from a target (cloud or aircraft) i.e.
it uses one frequency throughout. It was initially use of radar was to locate aircraft and
display their range and bearing on a monitor. A pulse was radiated towards the target and
the strength of the returned energy is measured and used to determine the range of the
target. The antenna used is directional as it provides omnidirectional information.
Primary radar has its disadvantages, one of which is that the amount of energy being
transmitted is very large compared with the amount of energy reflected from the target.
Secondary Radar
A Secondary Radar transmits pulses on one frequency, but receives on a different
frequency i.e. the object transmits its own energy. It is a system utilizing an interrogator
and transponder; the transponder can be located in the aircraft or on the ground. It was
initially used for Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) which differentiate between friendly
aircraft and ships.
The principles of secondary radar now have a number of applications including distance
measuring equipment (DME).

The DME has the following functions


 It provides very accurate slant range, a circular position line and in conjunction with
another DME, or a co-sited VOR, two position line fixes.
 It integrates the change of slant range into ground speed and elapsed times when the
aircraft is fitted with an appropriate computer.
 It permits more accurate flying of holding patterns and DME arcs.
 It provides range and height checks when flying non-precision approach procedures, e.g.
 It locator only and VOR let-downs.
 It indicates accurate ranges to the runway threshold, and heights for range, when flying
an ILS/DME procedure.
DME operation
DME is a secondary radar system providing slant range by pulse technique. However if
the aircraft is above the DME station it will indicate altitude above DME station.
The difference between computed slant range and actual ground distance increases
the higher and closer an aircraft gets in relation to the DME. As a general rule the
difference becomes significant when the aircraft is at a range which is less than 3 × height.
When the aircraft is directly over the DME (0 NM ground distance), it will indicate the
aircraft’s height in nautical miles. There is a small cone of confusion over a DME, plus
range indications continue to be computed as the equipment has a 10 second memory
circuit.

The DME ground station responds to the interrogations of 50–100 aircraft; these all send
their interrogations at the same DME station frequency.

3.VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)


Basic VOR Terminology
In order to understand the basic principle of VOR navigation, certain terms are needs to be
defined as follows

Aircraft Heading
The clockwise angle from the north pole to the nose of the aircraft is termed as heading of
an aircraft. If the direction is taken from magnetic north it is termed as Magnetic Heading,
If the direction is taken from true north it is termed as True Heading.

Bearing
The clockwise angle for the north pole to the radio station is termed as bearing to an
station. If the angle is taken from the magnetic north it is termed as Magnetic Bearing and
if the angle is taken from true north then it is termed as True Bearing.

Relative Bearing
The angle between the bearing of an station and the heading of an aircraft is termed as
relative bearing.

he bearing of the station is always calculated in the a clockwise direction, there can be two
types of bearing

Bearing TO the station and Bearing FROM the station. The TO and FROM bearing
depends on the heading or the position of aircraft with respect to the station, whether it is
flying towards (TO) the station or away (FROM) from the station.
VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
Very High Frequency (VHF) Omni-Directional Range (VOR) is a type of short-
range radio navigation system for aircraft, enabling aircraft with a receiving unit to
determine its position and stay on course by receiving radio signals transmitted by a
network of fixed ground radio beacons.

VOR has the following uses:


 Marking the beginning, the end and centre line of airways or sections of airways.
 As a let-down aid at airfields using published procedures.
 As a holding point for aircraft.
 As a source of en route navigational position lines.

VOR Operation
The VOR station works on the lighthouse principle, and assume you're sitting north of the
lighthouse and watching the beam go around, you see a bright flash only when the light
points directly at you. At that moment, begin counting to see how much time it takes for
the beam to flash again.
The VOR works on a similar principle to that of the light house, however VOR has
two signals, which are 30 Hz sine waves modulated onto the VHF carrier, one is called the
reference signal and other is called the variable signal.

Types of VOR
The following types of VOR are in use
 CVOR - Conventional VOR is used to define airways and for en-route navigation.
 BVOR - A broadcast VOR which gives weather and airfield information between beacon
identification.
 DVOR - A Doppler VOR - this overcomes siting errors.
 TVOR - Terminal VOR which has only low power; and is used at major airfields.
 VOT - This is found at certain airfields and broadcasts a fixed omni-directional signal for
a 360° test radial. This is not for navigation use but is used to test an aircraft’s equipment
accuracy before IFR flight. More than +/-4° indicates that equipment needs servicing.
 VORTAC - Co-located VOR and TACAN (DME) beacons.
Conventional VOR (CVOR)
Conventional VOR (CVOR) stations radiate two horizontally polarized v.h.f. wave
modulated signals:
 Omnidirectional reference signal
 Directional variable signal

The omnidirectional (or reference) signal is 30 Hz (frequency modulated) on a subcarrier


of 9950 Hz (amplitude modulated) with a deviation of + 480 Hz. The directional (variable)
signal is 30 Hz (Amplitude Modulated) radiated as a cardioid pattern, electronically
rotating clockwise at 30 revolutions per second.

Doppler VOR (DVOR)


Due to the site errors in the CVOR, the Doppler VOR (DVOR) was developed. It works
on the Doppler effect which can be summarised here as: ‘…the frequency of a wave
apparently changes as its source moves closer to, or farther away from an observer’.

The transmission differences are:


 The reference signal is AM.
 The variable phase directional signal is FM.
 The directional signal is anti-clockwise.
VOR Equipments
There are 4 main components of the VOR equipment in the aircraft, namely:
 Aerial
 Receiver
 Control Panel
 Indicator
4.LONG RANGE NAVIGATION

LORAN (Long Range Navigation) The latest system known as LORAN-C .This system
will be discontinued due to cost not effective. The US will continue to operate the
LORAN-C system beyond the previously planned December 31, 2000. The termination
date is continuing to evaluate the long term need for continuation of the system. User will
be given reasonable notice so that they will have the opportunity to transfer to alternative
navigation aids. At this time we will talking about this system a little because they might
keep this system as a back up system.

OPERATION LORAN is a net work of land based radio transmitters and was developed
to provide an accurate system for long range navigation. LORAN Stations Operations are
organized into sub-groups of four to six stations called " CHAIN ".One station in the
Chain is designated the " MASTER " and others are called " SECONDARY " or " SLAVE
" Stations.

The theory is to calculate the time between reception of the signals from the MASTER and
SLAVE stations, which are emitted at different frequencies , at low or very low bands
90kHz - 110 kHz. in pulse group and has power of 400 - 1600 kilowatts. The master
station emits its own signal first, when that signals reach the slave station , it emits its own
signal after a predetermined delay. When the master station's signal reaches the aircraft ,
its Navigation system counts the time until the slave station's signal arrives. Your position
is found as the intersection of the line of two LORAN stations.

LORAN UNIT
 SIGNAL PROCESSOR
 NAVIGATION COMPUTER
 CONTROL and DISPLAY
Signal Processor receives the signals and measures the difference between the time of
arrival of each secondary station pulsegroup and the master station pulse group. The time
difference is depend on the location of the receiver on the aircraft in relation to the three or
more transmitters.Each time difference value is measured to a precision of about 0.1
microseconds.
Navigation Computer converts time difference values to location corresponding
latitude and longitude.
Control and Display
 The functions of the LORAN UNIT is:
 Preset Position in Latitude-Longitude and/or relative to a destination, waypoint or
check point.

 Bearing and distance to your destination

 Ground speed and estimated time enroute.

 Course Deviation Indicator.

 Storage in memory of airports.add-on programable and updatable database.

 Continuous computation of bearing and distances to the nearest airports. computation


of wind direction and velocity.

 Add-on such as fuel flow analyzers to estimate fuel need to reach destination.etc.

THE DECCA NAVIGATOR SYSTEM


ADMIN JUNE 15, 2023 THINGS TO SEE & DO

Decca navigation technology, also known as the Decca Navigator System, was a radio-
based navigation system developed in the mid-20th century. Here’s an overview of how
it worked:
1. Transmitter Network: The Decca system consisted of a network of shore-based
transmitting stations strategically located around coastlines. These stations emitted low-
frequency radio signals known as Decca signals.
2. Hyperbolic Positioning: The core principle behind Decca navigation was hyperbolic
positioning. Each Decca transmitter emitted a unique set of continuous wave signals on
different frequencies. By comparing the phase differences between these signals, a
receiver on a ship could determine its position.
3. Receiver Equipment: Ships equipped with Decca navigation receivers had antennas that
could pick up the Decca signals. The receivers were designed to measure the phase
differences between the signals received from different Decca transmitters.
4. Three-Chains Technique: The Decca system used a three-chains technique to calculate
the ship’s position. It required the receiver to lock onto the signals of three nearby
Decca transmitters. Each chain consisted of a master and a secondary station. The
master station transmitted a reference signal, while the secondary station transmitted a
time-delayed version of the reference signal.
5. Phase Comparison: The receiver on the ship compared the phase differences between
the reference signals and the time-delayed signals received from the three chains. These
phase differences were used to determine a hyperbolic line of position (LOP) for each
chain.
6. Cross-Fixing: To obtain an accurate position fix, the receiver would plot the three
hyperbolic LOPs on a navigational chart. The intersection point of these LOPs
represented the ship’s position.
7. Chart Overlays: To aid navigation, specialised Decca charts were created, which had the
hyperbolic LOPs pre-drawn on them. These charts allowed navigators to quickly and
accurately plot their positions based on the phase differences obtained from the Decca
receiver.
8. Accuracy and Limitations: The Decca Navigator System offered relatively accurate
navigation, with position fixes typically within a few hundred meters. However, the
accuracy could be affected by various factors such as atmospheric conditions,
interference, and signal reflections.
9. Legacy and Evolution: The Decca Navigator System was widely used in maritime
navigation during the 20th century. However, with the advent of more advanced
satellite-based navigation systems like GPS (Global Positioning System), the Decca
system became less common and was eventually phased out.

While the Decca Navigator System is no longer in widespread use, it played a


significant role in maritime navigation and was an important milestone in the
development of radio-based navigation technology.

5. ILS: HOW THE INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM WORKS


The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is a radio navigation system that provides precision
guidance to aircraft approaching a runway.

ILS approaches allow most general aviation pilots to land in as little as 1/2 statute mile
visibility and as low as 200-foot cloud ceilings.

There are several components that make up an ILS system:

 Localizer for horizontal guidance


 Glideslope for vertical guidance
 Approach lights (optional)
 Marker beacons (optional)
Localizer
The localizer antenna is used for horizontal guidance, and it's positioned on the far end of
the runway. The localizer transmits signals on 108.1 MHz, up to and including 111.95
MHz (odd tenths only). Localizers have an adjusted course width so the course is 700 feet
wide at the runway threshold (full scale fly-left to a full scale fly-right).

Two signals are transmitted laterally: one at 90 Hz and one at 150 Hz. Where the two
frequencies intersect is usually aligned with the extended runway centerline, and is shown
as "on-course" when viewing cockpit instrumentation. The ILS receiver interprets the
overlap of the two frequencies to determine which side of the localizer course the airplane
is flying on, or if it's flying down the middle of the course.
While you might receive localizer signals outside of the service volume, the localizer is
only guaranteed to be accurate up to 10 degrees on either side of the runway to 18NM. At
an angle of 35 degrees on either side of runway centerline, the useful volume is limited to
10NM.

Glideslope
The glideslope provides vertical guidance, and the antenna is typically located 750 to 1250
feet down the runway, and 400 to 600 feet from the side of a runway's centerline. You can
usually find the glideslope shed next to the runway's aim point markers.

The glideslope works the same as a localizer, but just turned on its side. The equipment
transmits 90 Hz and 150 Hz lobes, which are interpreted by the ILS receiver.

The beam is 1.4 degrees thick, with .7 degrees of glidepath projected on either side of the
beam. A typical glideslope will take the airplane down toward the runway at a 3-degree
angle.

False Glideslopes

Objects below 5,000 feet AGL have a tendency to reflect glideslope signals. This can
create false glideslopes, which are often at 9-degree and 12-degree angles to the runway.
Pilots are taught to intercept the glideslope from below to ensure they don't capture a
"false" glideslope.

If you were to actually capture a false glideslope, you would fly a much steeper descent
angle to the runway.
Approach Lighting
The approach light system (ALS) helps pilots identify the runway environment in low-
visibility. It's designed to help pilots transition from instrument flying to visual flying, and
also to aid with identifying the runway's centerline.

Marker Beacons

The ILS was originally developed before DME was widely accessible. Because of that,
marker beacons are sometimes included in an ILS approach. Each beacon designates a
specific position on the approach, with an audible tone and/or visual light that illuminates
in the cockpit.

Sometimes there may be one or two, but not necessarily all three kinds of marker beacons
established on a specific approach:

 Outer Marker: Identifies glideslope intercept or the Final Approach Fix (light flashes
blue)
Middle Marker
 Marker Beacons
 The ILS was originally developed before DME was widely accessible. Because of
that, marker beacons are sometimes included in an ILS approach. Each beacon
designates a specific position on the approach, with an audible tone and/or visual
light that illuminates in the cockpit.
 Sometimes there may be one or two, but not necessarily all three kinds of marker
beacons established on a specific approach:
 Outer Marker: Identifies glideslope intercept or the Final Approach Fix (light
flashes blue)
6. MLS:
INTRODUCTION :
The Microwave Landing System (MLS) was designed to replace ILS with an
advanced precision approach system that would overcome the disadvantages of ILS and
also provide greater flexibility to its users. However, there are few MLS installations in
use at present and they are likely to co-exist with ILS for a long time. MLS is a precision
approach and landing system that provides position information and various ground to air
data. The position information is provided in a wide coverage sector and is determined by
an azimuth angle measurement, an elevation measurement and a range measurement.
ILS DISADVANTAGES:
ILS has the following disadvantages: ¾ There are only 40 channels available worldwide.
¾ The azimuth and glideslope beams are fixed and narrow. As a result, aircraft have to be
sequenced and adequately separated which causes landing delays. ¾ There are no special
procedures available for slower aircraft, helicopters, and Short Take Off and Landing
(STOL) aircraft. ¾ ILS cannot be sited in hilly areas and it requires large expanses of flat,
cleared land to minimise interference with the localiser and glideslope beams. ¾ Vehicles,
taxying aircraft, low-flying aircraft and buildings have to be kept well away from the
transmission sites to minimise localiser and glideslope course deviations (bending of the
beams).

THE MLS SYSTEM The Microwave Landing System (MLS) has the following
features: ¾ There are 200 channels available worldwide. ¾ The azimuth coverage is at
least ± 40° of the runway on-course line (QDM) and glideslopes from .9° to 20° can be
selected. The usable range is 20-30 nm from the MLS site; 20nm in the UK. ¾ There is no
problem with back-course transmissions; a secondary system is provided to give overshoot
and departure guidance ± 20° of runway direction up to 15° in elevation to a range of 10
nm and a height of 10,000 ft. ¾ It operates in the SHF band, 5031 - 5090 MHZ. This
enables it to be sited in hilly areas without having to level the site. Course deviation errors
(bending) of the localiser and glidepa.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION MLS employs the principle of Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM) (see Figure 10.5) whereby only one frequency is used on a channel but the
transmissions from the various angle and data ground equipments are synchronised to
assure interference free operations on the common radio frequency. ¾ Azimuth location.
Time referenced scanning beam (TRSB) is utilised in azimuth and elevation as follows:
the aircraft computes its azimuth position in relation to the runway centre-line by
measuring the time interval in microseconds between the reception the ‘to’ and ‘fro’
scanning beams. The beam starts the ‘to’ sweep at one extremity of its total scan and
travels at a uniform speed to the other extremity. It then starts its ‘fro’ scan back to its start
position. The time interval between the reception of the ‘to’ and ‘fro’ pulses is
proportional to the angular position of the aircraft in relation to the runway on-course line.
The pilot can choose to fly the runway on-course line (QDM) or an approach path which
he selects as a pre-determined number of degrees ± the runway direction. ¾ Glideslope
location. Another beam scans up and down at a uniform speed within its elevation limits.
The aircraft’s position in relation to its selected glideslope angle is thus calculated in the
same manner by measuring the time difference between the reception of the pulses from
the up and down sweep. The transmissions from the two beams and the transmissions from
the other components of the MLS system are transmitted at different intervals i.e. it uses ‘
time multiplexing’. ¾ Other components of the system are: • Flare. Although the standard
has been developed to provide for flare elevation, this function is not intended for future
implementation • Back azimuth. Gives overshoot and departure guidance ± 20° of runway
direction up to 15° in elevation. • DME Range along the MLS course is provided not by
markers but by a DME.
7. DEFINITION OF AN INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)
An inertial navigation system, commonly known as an INS, is an electronic system that uses a variety of
environmental sensors that are able to detect and measure the change in motion of an object. Using sensor
data, an inertial navigation system can determine the position of the vehicle or object relative to its
starting point – this is known as dead-reckoning.

Inertial sensors used in an Inertial Navigation System (INS)


There are a number of types of sensors used in inertial navigation systems, however, the two primary
types are accelerometers and gyroscopes.
Accelerometers can measure changes in linear velocity. As most objects can move in three-dimensional
space, it is typical to use three accelerometers mounted orthogonally; that is, the axis of each
accelerometer is at 90 ° to the others. They are usually given the labels of X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis.
Gyroscopes measure rotational velocity, and again, as most objects are free to rotate in three-
dimensional space, using three gyroscope axes is typical. They are also mounted on the object
orthogonally, and aligned as best as possible with the three accelerometer axes.

Image depicting the accelerometers and gyroscopes in the three axes of movement. Each accelerometer
and gyroscope is positioned at 90 ° to the others (orthogonally).
A typical INS will have other in-built sensors or connected equipment to provide a more comprehensive
dataset that is broader than motion alone, such as:
 GNSS receivers simultaneously receive and decode signals from multiple navigation satellites
to provide three-dimensional position data. Using more than one receiver can aid in
determining heading and orientation.
 Magnetometers detect and measure the strength and direction of the Earth’s magnetic fields.
Three magnetometers are used to provide a three-dimensional orientation with respect to
magnetic north.
 Pressure sensors measure external pressure. For example, a water pressure sensor for
determining depth in underwater applications and an air pressure sensor (barometer) for
determining altitude.

Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)


In many modern inertial navigation systems, inertial sensing is performed by a module known as an
“inertial measurement unit” (IMU), sometimes also called an inertial reference unit (IRU) or motion
reference unit (MRU) . The IMU outputs raw motion data that is used by other parts of the INS, typically
in conjunction with a GNSS input and perhaps other sensors. For more information on the IMU, read the
“Inertial measurement unit (IMU) – an introduction” article.

Inertial frames of reference


It is important to understand the concept of frames of reference when measuring the motion of an object.
To obtain accurate motion data, inertia must be measured within the constraints of an inertial frame of
reference (also called “inertial reference frame”). This can be explained using Newton’s law of inertia.
The law of inertia states that an object at rest remains at rest, or an object in motion remains moving at
the same velocity unless acted upon by an external force. The inertia created by external forces on an
object within an inertial frame of reference can be measured because the reference frame is not
accelerating. If the reference frame is also accelerating, then other forces come into play that affects the
inertial measurement.
Typically, we use the Earth as an inertial reference frame, even though it is experiencing acceleration that
causes it to spin on its axis and to orbit the Sun, which is also moving and so on. Fortunately, the
complex mathematics required to use a non-inertial reference frame as an inertial frame of
reference is taken care of by the navigation system, so its output can be considered as a record of
motion of an object as though moving in 3D space and not being acted upon by other forces, such as
gravity.

How do Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) work?


To understand how inertial navigation systems work, it is useful to consider a train on a level, straight
piece of track. Movement of the train is constrained – it can go only forward or backward. It cannot go up
or down, left or right, and it cannot rotate in any manner.

Measuring and using linear acceleration


Using the train example, when the train is not moving, accelerometers measure the forwards / backwards
axis (usually the X-axis) will be outputting a value of zero. When the train starts to move forward the
accelerometer will detect the change in velocity and output the instantaneous acceleration values at a
rapid rate, typically up to 1000 data points per second (1 kHz). Using the principles of integral calculus, it
is possible to log the acceleration values over a period of time and calculate the distance the train has
travelled. We can now, with confidence, locate the train along the track, but only relative to its starting
position – we may or may not know the absolute position in the world where the train starting position is.
To determine an absolute position using the surface of the Earth as a reference frame requires additional
information – information that is typically provided by a GNSS/GPS receiver.
For vehicles not on a straight track, this method of measuring acceleration values, and by extension
calculating relative position and distance from the starting point, can be extended from all three axes of
motion using the accelerometers. The data from the accelerometers is combined into a single vector of
travel using trigonometry.

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