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BOE304/ BOE404

ENERGY SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Unit-I Energy and its Usage

Units and scales of energy use, Mechanical energy and transport, Heat energy: Conversion between heat and
mechanical energy, Electromagnetic energy: Storage, conversion, transmission and radiation, Introduction to the
quantum, energy quantization, Energy in chemical systems and processes, flow of CO2, Entropy and temperature,
Carnot and Stirling heat engines, Phase change energy conversion, refrigeration and heat pumps,
Internalcombustion engines, Steam and gas power cycles, the physics of power plants. Solid-state phenomena
including photo, thermal and electrical aspects

Unit-II Nuclear Energy

Fundamental forces in the universe, Quantum mechanics relevant for nuclear physics, Nuclear forces, energy
scales and structure, Nuclear binding energy systematics, reactions and decays, Nuclear fusion, Nuclear fission
and fission reactor physics, Nuclear fission reactor design, safety, operation and fuel cycles.

Unit-III Solar Energy

Introduction to solar energy, fundamentals of solar radiation and its measurement aspects, Basic physics of
semiconductors, Carrier transport, generation and recombination in semiconductors, Semiconductor junctions:
metal-semiconductor junction & p-n junction, Essential characteristics of solar photovoltaic devices, First
Generation Solar Cells, Second Generation Solar Cells, Third Generation Solar Cells

Unit-IV Conventional & non-conventional energy source

Biological energy sources and fossil fuels, Fluid dynamics and power in the wind, available resources, fluids,
viscosity, types of fluid flow, lift, Wind turbine dynamics and design, wind farms, Geothermal power and ocean
thermal energy conversion, Tidal/wave/hydro power.

Unit-V Systems and Synthesis

Overview of World Energy Scenario, Nuclear radiation, fuel cycles, waste and proliferation, Climate change,
Energy storage, Energy conservation. Engineering for Energy conservation: Concept of Green Building and Green
Architecture; Green building concepts, LEED ratings; Identification of energy related enterprises that represent the
breath of the industry and prioritizing these as candidates; Embodied energy analysis and use as a tool for
measuring sustainability. Energy Audit of Facilities and optimization of energy consumption

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UNIT-1 Energy and Its Usage

Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Energy comes in various forms. Here are 10 common types of energy
and examples of them. Energy is a scalar quantity

1. Mechanical Energy-Mechanical energy is energy that results from movement or the location of an object.
Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy. Examples: An object possessing mechanical
energy has both kinetic and potential energy, although the energy of one of the forms may be equal to zero. A
moving car has kinetic energy. If you move the car up a mountain, it has kinetic and potential energy. A book
sitting on a table has potential energy.

2. Thermal Energy-Thermal energy or heat energy reflects the temperature difference between two systems.
Example: A cup of hot coffee has thermal energy. You generate heat and have thermal energy with respect to your
environment.

3. Nuclear Energy-Nuclear energy is energy resulting from changes in the atomic nuclei or from nuclear
reactions. Example: Nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, and nuclear decay are examples of nuclear energy. An atomic
detonation or powers from a nuclear plant are specific examples of this type of energy.

4. Chemical Energy-Chemical energy results from chemical reactions between atoms or molecules. There are
different types of chemical energy, such as electrochemical energy and chemical luminescence. Example: A good
example of chemical energy is an electrochemical cell or battery.

5. Electromagnetic Energy-Electromagnetic energy (or radiant energy) is energy from light or electromagnetic
waves. Example: Any form of light has electromagnetic energy, including parts of the spectrum we can't see.
Radio, gamma rays, x-rays, microwaves, and ultraviolet light are some examples of electromagnetic energy.

6. Sonic Energy-Sonic energy is the energy of sound waves. Sound waves travel through the air or another
medium. Example: A sonic boom, a song played on a stereo, your voice.

7-Gravitational Energy-Energy associated with gravity involves the attraction between two objects based on their
mass. It can serve as a basis for mechanical energy, such as the potential energy of an object placed on a shelf or
the kinetic energy of the Moon in orbit around the Earth. Example: Gravitational energy holds the atmosphere to
the Earth.

8. Kinetic Energy-Kinetic energy is the energy of motion of a body. It ranges from 0 to a positive value. Example:
An example is a child swinging on a swing. No matter whether the swing is moving forward or backward, the
value of the kinetic energy is never negative.

9. Potential Energy-Potential energy is the energy of an object's position. Example: When a child swinging on a
swing reaches the top of the arc, she has maximum potential energy. When she is closest to the ground, her
potential energy is at its minimum (0). Another example is throwing a ball into the air. At the highest point, the
potential energy is greatest. As the ball rises or falls it has a combination of potential and kinetic energy.
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10. Ionization Energy-Ionization energy is the form of energy that binds electrons to the nucleus of its atom, ion,
or molecule. Example: The first ionization energy of an atom is the energy needed to remove one electron
completely. The second ionization energy is energy to remove a second electron and is greater than that required to
remove the first electron.

High Grade Energy: Electrical and chemical energy are high-grade energy, because the energy is concentrated in
a small space. Even a small amount of electrical and chemical energy can do a great amount of work. The
molecules or particles that store these forms of energy are highly ordered and com- pact and thus considered as
high grade energy. High-grade energy like electricity is better used for high grade applications like melting of
metals rather than simply heating of water.

Low-Grade Energy: Heat is low-grade energy. Heat can still be used to do work(example of a heater boiling
water), but it rapidly dissipates. The molecules, in which this kind of energy is stored (air and water molecules),
are more randomly distributed than the molecules of carbon in a coal.

Units and Scales of energy use: The units of energy are very wide. The usage of units varies with country,
industry sector, systems such as FPS, CGS, MKS and SI, and also with generations of earlier period using FPS and
recent generations using MKS. Even technology/equipment suppliers adopt units that are different from the one
being used by the user of that technology/equipment.

Energy Units and Conversions (What are three examples of units used for energy?) AKTU 2019-20 (2 marks)

Joule (J) is the MKS unit of energy

1 kilowatt-hour is the energy of one kilowatt power flowing for one hour. (E = P t).

1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.6 x 106 J = 3.6 Mega Joules. (The energy unit used for electricity)

1 calorie of heat is the amount needed to raise 1 gram of water 1 degree Centigrade.

1 calorie (cal) = 4.18 joule (The Calories in food ratings are actually kilocalories.) Food energy is measured in
calories or kilocalories

A BTU (British Thermal Unit) is the amount of heat necessary to raise one pound of water by 1 degree Farenheit
(F).

1 British Thermal Unit (BTU) = 1055 J (The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat Relation)

1 BTU = 252 cal = 1.055 kJ

1 Quad = 1015 BTU (World energy usage is about 300 Quads/year, US is about 100 Quads/year in 1996)

1 Therm = 100,000 BTU (One Therm is equal to about 105.5 megajoules.)

1,000 kWh = 3.41 million BTU

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In physics and chemistry, convenient, units is electron volts (eV)= 1.6x10-19 joule. The Hartree (the atomic unit of
energy) is commonly used in calculations.

In Explosions A gram of TNT releases 980–1100 calories upon explosion. 1 gram TNT = 4184 J.

Power Conversion: 1 horsepower (hp) = 745.7 watts

Gas Volume to Energy Conversion

1. One thousand cubic feet of gas (Mcf) -> 1.027 million BTU = 1.083 billion J = 301 kWh

2. One therm = 100,000 BTU = 105.5 MJ = 29.3 kWh

Energy Content of Fuels Coal

Coal 25 million BTU/ton

Crude Oil 5.6 million BTU/barrel Oil

Oil 5.78 million BTU/barrel = 1700 kWh / barrel

Gasoline 5.6 million BTU/barrel (a barrel is 42 gallons) = 1.33 therms / gallon

Natural gas liquids 4.2 million BTU/barrel

Natural gas 1030 BTU/cubic foot

In Australia, natural gas is sold in Cubic Meters (1m3 = 38 megajoules). In the most of the world, natural gas is
sold in gigajoules.

Various scales of energy their uses are as follows :

1. Milli (10-3) Milli refers to something that is in the 10-3 range.

Uses : A typical scientific calculator uses power in the scale of 0.1 milliWatt.
2. Micro (10-6) : Micro refers to something that is in the 10-6 range.
Uses : In measuring instrument in the fields of science and engineering.
3. Kilo (103) : Kilo refers to something that is in the 103 range.
Uses : In solar panels and batteries in Hubble space telescope
4. Nano (10-9) : Nano refers to something that is in the 10-9 range.
Uses: Electron micrograph is an example of instrument using 10-9 range.
5. Pico (10-12): Pico refers to something that is in the 10-12 range.
Uses: High precisian power supply used in laboratories to make very precise measurements of current,
voltage and resistance of specific samples.
6. Femto (10-15): Femto refers to something that is in the 10-15 range.
Uses: Certain specialized medical facilities, have a certain lasers referred to as Femtoseeond lasers.

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So, Femtosecond lasers are laser which are on' for of a second and then they go 'off'.
7. Mega (106): Mega refers to something that is in the 106range.
Uses: Used in large vehicles like submarines.
8. Giga (109): Giga refers to something that is in the 109 range.

9. Uses: Modern day mobile phones have built in storage, which a, the order of 16 GB, 64 GB which mean
mobile phone store several gigabyte.

10. Tera (1012): Tera refers to something that is in the 1012 range

Uses : Cameras and computers today uses hard disks in the scale.

11. Peta (1015) : Peta refers to something that is in the 1015 range.
Uses : Today's supercomputers operate in hundreds of petaflops.
12. Exa (1018) : Exa refers to something that is in the 1018 range.
Uses : 1018 is a kind of a quantity that is indicated with prefixna, world today uses energy in the range of
500 exajoules.
13. Zetta (1021) : Zetta refers to something that is in the 1021 range

Uses : In 2010 humanity is said to have crossed the 1 zetta byte mar! terms of data created and stored
overall. And we might be ctos: 7 zetta byte mark by 2020.

14. Yotta (1024) : Yotta refers to something that is in 1024 range. Uses: We can understand this scale when
we compare something in the scale of the galaxies and universe.
Mechanical energy and transport: Mechanical energy can be converted into heat, and heat can be converted
into some mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy i.e
Mechanical energy = potential energy (mgh) + kinetic energy (1/2 mv2)
Many devices are used to convert mechanical energy to other forms of energy, e.g. an electric motor converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy, an electric generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and
a heat engine converts heat energy to mechanical energy. For example: satellite

Mechanical energy of the satellite-Earth system is given by = U+ K

Kinetic energy: The kinetic energy of a body is the energy that is possessed due to its motion. Let us consider a
particle is at rest when a force is applied on it so it moves with distance d and velocity become v.

Initial velocity = 0, Final velocity = v, Displacement = S

work done = F x S = ma x S ----(1)

using third equation of motion v2 = u2 + 2aS

v2 = 0 + 2aS → aS = v2/2

putting in equation 1 we get, w = ½ mv2

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Transport phenomenon

A transport phenomenon is the subject which deals with the movement of different physical quantities
in any chemical or mechanical process and describes the basic principles and law of transport. It also describes the
relations and similarities among different types of transport that may occur in any system. Transport in a chemical
or mechanical process can be classified into three types:

(i)Momentum Transport: Momentum transport deals with the transport of momentum in fluids and is also
known as fluid dynamics

(ii)Energy Transport: Energy transport deals with the transport of different forms of energy in a system and is
also known as heat transfer.
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(iii)Mass Transport: Mass transport deals with the transport of various chemical species themselves

Conversion of mechanical work into heat (Joule Law)

Whenever heat is converted into mechanical work or mechanical work is converted into heat, then the ratio of
work done to heat produced always remains constant.
W  Q or W = JQ

This is Joule’s law and J is called mechanical equivalent of heat.

From W = JQ if Q = 1 then J = W. Hence the amount of work done necessary to produce unit amount of heat is
defined as the mechanical equivalent of heat. J is neither a constant, nor a physical quantity rather it is a
conversion factor which used to convert Joule or erg into calorie or kilo calories vice-versa.

When water in a stream falls from height h, then its potential energy is converted into heat and temperature of
water rises slightly.
From W = JQ

mgh = J ms t [where m = Mass, s = Specific heat of water]

# The kinetic energy of a bullet fired from a gun gets converted into heat on striking the target. By this
heat the temperature of bullet increases by t.

From W = JQ so ½ mv2 = J m s t

[where m = Mass, v = Velocity of the bullet, s = specific heat

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Heat: Heat is a form of energy called thermal energy which flows from a higher temperature
body to a lower temperature body when they are placed in contact. Heat or thermal energy of a
body is the sum of kinetic energies of all its constituent particles, on account of translational,
vibrational and rotational motion.

The SI unit of heat energy is joule (J). The practical unit of heat energy is calorie. 1 cal = 4.18 J

Specific Heat: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass the substance
through 1°C is called its specific heat. It is denoted by c or s.

Its SI unit is joule/kilogram-°C'(J/kg-°C). Their dimension is [L2T-2θ-1].

The specific heat of water is 4200 J kg-1°C-1 or 1 cal g-1 C-1, which high compared with most
other substances.

Gases have two types of specific heat

1. The specific heat capacity at constant volume (Cv). 2. The specific heat capacity at constant
pressure (Cp). Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) is greater than specific heat constant
volume (Cv), i.e., Cp > CV .

For molar specific heats Cp – CV = R where R = gas constant and this relation is called Mayer’s
formula. The ratio of two principal specific heats of a gas is represented by γ.

Amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of any substance is given by

Q = mcΔt where, m = mass of the substance, c = specific heat of the

substance and Δt = change in temperature.

Latent Heat: The heat energy absorbed or released at constant temperature per unit mass for
change of state is called latent heat.

Heat energy absorbed or released during change of state is given by Q = mL where m = mass of
the substance and L = latent heat.

Its unit is cal/g or J/kg and its dimension is [L2T-2].

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For water at its normal boiling point or condensation temperature (100°C), the latent heat of
vaporisation is L = 540 cal/g = 40.8 kJ/ mol = 2260 kJ/kg

For water at its normal freezing temperature or melting point (0°C), the latent heat of fusion is

L = 80 cal/ g = 60 kJ/mol = 336 kJ/kg

It is more painful to get burnt by steam rather than by boiling was 100°C gets converted to water
at 100°C, and then it gives out 536 heat. So, it is clear that steam at 100°C has more heat than
water 100°C (i.e., boiling of water).

After snow falls, the temperature of the atmosphere becomes very cold this is because the snow
absorbs the heat from the atmosphere to down. So, in the mountains, when snow falls, one does
not feel too but when ice melts, he feels too cold.

There is more shivering effect of ice cream on teeth as compare that of water (obtained from
ice). This is because when ice cream down, it absorbs large amount of heat from teeth.

Melting: Conversion of solid into liquid state at constant temperature is melting.

Evaporation: Conversion of liquid into vapour at all temperatures (even below boiling point) is
called evaporation.

Boiling: When a liquid is heated gradually, at a particular temperature saturated vapour pressure
of the liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure, now bubbles of vapour rise to the surface d
liquid. This process is called boiling of the liquid. The temperature, at which a liquid boils, is
called boiling point. The boiling point of water increases with increase in pre sure decreases with
decrease in pressure.

Sublimation: The conversion of a solid into vapour state is called sublimation.

Electromagnetic energy: electromagnetic energy is a form of energy that is reflected or

emitted from an object in the form of electrical and magnetic waves that can travel in space with
speed of light. Example: Radio Waves, Radar waves, Heat (infrared radiation), Ultraviolet Light
(This is what causes Sunburns), X-rays Short waves, Microwaves, Gamma Rays. Sunlight is also
a form of electromagnetic energy.

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Electromagnetic radiation is created when an atomic particle, such as an electron is accelerated

by a potential V produced electric field. The movement produces oscillating electric and
magnetic fields. The movement produces oscillating electric and magnetic fields, which travels
at right angles to each other in a bundle of light energy called a photon. Photons travel in
harmonic waves at the fastest speed possible in the universe. The transfer of energy by an
electromagnetic wave is at right angles to both electric and magnetic components of the wave
vibration and its rate is proportional to the vector product of their amplitudes which is called
pointing vector.

Electromagnetic storage in LC circuit

LC circuits are circuits that contain inductors and capacitors. Therefore, we see that the energy
stored within an LC circuit oscillates back and forth between the electric fields of the capacitor
and the magnetic field of the inductor. This oscillation is known as electromagnetic oscillation.

The energy stored on a capacitor is U = ½ CV2

Energy in an Inductor: When a electric current is flowing in an inductor, there is energy stored
in the magnetic field. Considering a pure inductor L, the instantaneous power which must be
supplied to initiate the current in the inductor is

Power P = Vi = Li di/ dt

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Energy store = ∫ = ∫ =

Electromagnetic storage device

1. Capacitor 2 Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES):

2. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES): Superconducting magnetic energy

storage (SMES) systems store energy in a magnetic field created by the flow of direct current
through a superconducting coil. A SMES system comprises a superconducting coil in a
cryogenic enclosure. An electronic converter to match the DC power in the coil to the AC on the
grid and an electronic switch to control the flow of current into and out of the coil. The
superconducting coil is charged by applying a DC voltage which causes the current through the
coil to increase. the current reaches its working value an electronic switch isolates the DC supply
and short-circuits the coil. Because the coil has zero resistance the current continues to circulate
without losses and with no heat generation. To release the stored energy, the sv is opened and
the coil discharges through the converter, yielding AC power which can be fed to the grid. Their
primary advantage compared to other types of energy storage is their very short reaction time
and ability to provide high power for short periods. Because they can be switched on with
virtually no time delay, SMES systems can counteract abrupt changes in demand for
applications where even the shortest interruptions are unacceptable.

Storage, conversion, transmission and radiation

Electromagnetic energy can be stored in the form of an electric field or a magnetic field, the
latter typically generated by a current-carrying coil. Practical electrical energy storage
technologies include electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs or ultra capacitors) and
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)

Magnetic reconnection is a fundamental process of electromagnetic energy conversion into

kinetic energy and heat that operates in the solar corona, astrophysical accretion disks, active
galactic nuclei, and planetary magnetospheres

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Electromagnetic spectrum

At the time Maxwell predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, the only familiar
electromagnetic waves were the visible light waves. The existence of ultraviolet and infrared
waves was barely established. By the end of the nineteenth century, X-rays and gamma rays had
also been discovered. We now know that, electromagnetic waves include visible light waves, X-
rays, gamma rays, radio waves, and microwaves, ultraviolet and infrared waves. The
classification of em waves according to frequency is the electromagnetic spectrum. There is no
sharp division between one kind of wave and the next. The classification is based roughly on
how the waves are produced and /or detected.

Gamma rays: They were discovered by Becquerel and Curie in 1896. Their wavelength is of
the order of 10-14m to 10_10m. The main sources are the natural and artificial radioactive
substances. These rays affect the photographic plate. These rays are mainly used in the treatment
of cancer disease.

X-rays: They were discovered by Roentgen in 1895. Their wavelength is of the order of 10-12m
to 10-8m. X-rays are produced, when highly energetic cathode rays are stopped by a metal target

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of high melting point. They affect the photographic plate and can penetrate through the
transparent materials. They are mainly used in detecting the fracture of bones, hidden bullet,
needle, costly material etc., inside the body, and also used in the study of crystal structure.

Ultraviolet Rays: They were discovered by Ritter in 1801. Their wavelength is of the
order 109 m to 4 x 10-7m. In the radiations received from sun, major part is that of the ultraviolet
radiation. Its other sources are the electric discharge tube, carbon arc etc. These radiations are
mainly used in excitation of photoelectric effect and to kill the bacteria of many diseases.

Visible Light: This was first studied in 1666 by Newton. The radiations in the range of
wavelength from 4x10-7 m to7x10-7 m fall in the visible region.
The wavelength of the light of violet colour is the shortest, and that of red colour is the longest.
Visible light is obtained from the glowing bodies, while they are white hot. The light obtained
from the electric bulbs, sodium lamp, fluorescent tube is the visible light.

Thermal or Infrared Waves: They were discovered by Herchell in 1800. Their wavelength is
of the order of 7 x 10-7 m to 10-3 m. A body on being heated emits out the infrared waves. These
radiations have the maximum heating effect. The glass absorbs these radiations, therefore for the
study of these radiations, rock salt prism is used instead of a glass prism. These waves are
mainly used for therapeutic purpose by the doctors, because of their heating effect.

Microwaves:They were discovered by Hertz in 1888. Their wavelength is in the range of

nearly 10-4 m to m. These waves are produced by the spark discharge or magnetron valve. They
are detected by the crystal or semiconductor detector. These waves are used mainly in radar and
long distance communication.

Radio waves: They were first discovered in 1895 by Marconi. Their wavelength is in the range
of 0.1m to 105m. They can be obtained by the flow of high frequency alternating current in an
electric conductor. These waves are detected by the tank circuit in a radio receiver or
transmitter.

Applications of Electromagnetic Spectrum:The different regions of the total electromagnetic

spectrum have been put to the following uses

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1. Radiowaves are used in radar and radio broadcasting.

2. Microwaves are used in long distance wireless communications via satellites.
3. Infrared, visible and ultraviolet radiations are used to know the structure of molecules.
4. Diffraction of X-rays by crystals, gives the details of the structure of crystals.
5. The bones are opaque to X-rays but flesh is transparent. X-ray pictures of a human body
are used in medical diagnosis of fractures and cracks of bones.
6. The γ – rays are used in the study of the structure of the nuclei of atoms.
Energy Quantization: Any atom or molecule can only have certain fixed energies, energy is
quantized and an atom or molecule can exist only in certain discrete levels. Since, the minimum
energy is ½hv the molecule is always vibrating. It is never at rest. It has zero point energy,
which must be allowed for many applications.

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propagation and the direction of magnetic field. Therefore, the electric field component along
the z-axis is obtained as Ez = 60 sin (0.5 × 103 x + 1.5 × 1011 t) V/m

Que. What is the importance of Quantum mechanics? (AKTU 2021)

Quantum mechanics is an important tool to understand at the theoretical level the electronic
structure of chemical compounds and the mechanism, thermodynamics, and kinetics of chemical
reactions.

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Wave Particle Duality : According to Einstein, the energy of light is concentrated in small
bundles called photon. Hence, light behaves as a wave on one hand and as a particle on the other
hand. This nature of light is known as dual nature, while this property of light is known as wave
particle duality.
Wave Function and its Significance: The wave function ψ is described as mathematical
function whose variation builds up matter waves. IψI2 defines the probability density of finding
the particle within the given confined limits.
Quantization: The process of restricting the possible values of a physical quantity to a set of
discrete values is called quantization.

de Broglie's waves or matter waves: When a material particle moves in a medium, a group of
waves is associated with it due to which it shows the wave particle duality. These waves are
known as matter waves or de Broglie waves.

According to de Broglie's concept, each material particle in motion behaves as waves,

having wavelength associated with moving particle of momentum p.

Properties of Matter Waves:

1.The de-Broglie wave length of a wave associated with a fast moving particle is less than the
wavelength associated with a slow moving particle.

2.The de-Broglie wave length of a wave associated with a particle at rest is infinite matter waves
is valid only when the material particles are in motion.

3.The de-Broglie wavelength does not depend upon the charge of the particle.

4.The velocity of a matter wave is greater than the velocity of electromagnetic wave

5.The velocity of matter wave depends upon the velocity of the material particle.

6.The wave and particle aspects of matter never appear simultaneously in the same experiment.

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Schrodinger's Wave Equation: This wave equation is a fundamental equation in quantum

mechanics and describes the variation of wave function in space and time.

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Temperature: Temperature of a body is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body. A device
which is used to measure the temperature is called a thermometer.

Branch of Physics dealing with production and measurement temperature close to 0 K is known
as cryagenics, while that deal with the measurement of very high temperature is called
pyrometer. Temperature of the core of the sun is 107 K while that of its surface 6000 K.

NTP or STP implies 273.15 K (0°C = 32°F).

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Different Scale of Temperature

1. Celsius Scale: In this scale of temperature, the melting point ice is taken as 0°C and the
boiling point of water as 100°C and space between these two points is divided into 100 equal
parts

2. Fahrenheit Scale: In this scale of temperature, the melt point of ice is taken as 32°F and the
boiling point of water as 211 and the space between these two points is divided into 180 equal
parts.

3. Kelvin Scale: In this scale of temperature, the melting pouxl ice is taken as 273 K and the
boiling point of water as 373 K the space between these two points is divided into 100 equal
parts.

− 32 − 273
= = =
100 180 100 80

or
− 32 − 273
= = =
5 9 5 4

Thermodynamic System: An assembly of an extremely large number of particles whose state

can be expressed in terms of pressure, volume and temperature, is called thermodynamic system.

Thermodynamic system is classified into the following three systems

(i) Open System: It exchange both energy and matter with surrounding.

(ii) Closed System: It exchanges only energy (not matter) with surroundings.

(iii) Isolated System: It exchanges neither energy nor matter with the surrounding.

Thermodynamic equilibrium: A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if the temperature

and pressure at all points are same; there should be no velocity gradient; the chemical
equilibrium is also necessary. Thus, for attaining a state of thermodynamic equilibrium the
following three types of equilibrium states must be achieved:

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1. Thermal equilibrium The temperature of the system does not change with time and has same
value at all points of the system.

2. Mechanical equilibrium There are no unbalanced forces within the system or between the
surroundings. The pressure in the system is same at all points and does not change with respect
to time.

3. Chemical equilibrium No chemical reaction takes place in the system and the chemical
composition which is same throughout the system does not vary with time.

Internal energy (∆U): The total energy possessed by any system due to molecular motion
and molecular configuration, is called its internal energy. It is the heat energy stored in a gas.
If a certain amount of heat is supplied to a gas the result is that temperature of gas may increase
or volume of gas may increase thereby doing some external work or both temperature and
volume may increase; but it will be decided by the conditions under which the gas is supplied
heat. If during heating of the gas the temperature increases its internal energy will also increase.
Joule’s law of internal energy states that internal energy of a perfect gas is a function of
temperature only. In other words, internal energy of a gas is dependent on the temperature
change only and is not affected by the change in pressure and volume.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: According to this law, two systems in thermal equilibrium
with a third system separately are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Thus, if A and B are
separately in equilibrium with C, that is if TA = TC and TB = TC, then this implies that T A = TB
i.e., the systems A and B are also in thermal equilibrium.

First Law of Thermodynamics: Heat given to a thermodynamic system (ΔQ) is partially

utilized in doing work (ΔW) against the surrounding and the remaining part increases the internal
energy (ΔU) of the system. Therefore, ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW

First law of thermodynamics is the principle conservation of energy

For isothermal process, change in internal energy is zero (ΔU = 0). Therefore, ΔQ = ΔW

For adiabatic process, no exchange of heat takes place, i.e., ΔQ = O. Therefore, ΔU = – ΔW

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In adiabatic process, if gas expands, its internal energy and hence, temperature decreases and
vice-versa.

For isochoric process, work done is zero, i.e., ΔW = 0, therefore ΔQ = ΔU

Thermodynamic Processes: A thermodynamic process is said to take place when some

changes’ occur in the state of a thermodynamic system i.e., the thermodynamic parameters of the
system change with time.

(i) Isothermal Process: when a process taking place in a thermodynamic system at constant
temperature is called an isothermal process. Isothermal processes are very slow processes.

These process follows Boyle’s law, according to which PV = constant

Since dU = nCvdT as dT = 0 so dU = 0, i.e., internal energy is constant.

From first law of thermodynamic dQ = dW, i.e., heat given to the system is equal to the work
done by system surroundings.

Work done W = µRT log (V2 / V1) = 2.3026µRT logl0 (V2 / V1) where, µ = number of moles, R
= ideal gas constant, T = absolute temperature and V1 V2 are initial volumes and final volume`
Examples (a) Melting process is an isothermal change, because temperature of a substance
remains constant during melting.
(b) Boiling process is also an isothermal operation.
Adiabatic Process: A process taking place in a thermodynamic system for which there is no
exchange of heat between the system and its surroundings. Adiabatic processes are very fast
processes. This process follows Poisson’s law, according to which

= = = constant

Since dQ = nCdT, Cadi = 0 as dQ = 0, i.e., molar heat capacity for adiabatic process is zero.

From first law, 0 = ΔU + ΔW hence dU = – dW, i.e., work done by the system is equal to
decrease in internal energy. When a system expands adiabatically, work done is positive and
hence internal energy decrease, i.e., the system cools down and vice-versa.

Work done in an adiabatic process is W = = ( 1 − 2)

Examples (a) Sudden compression or expansion of a gas in a container with perfectly non-
conducting wall.

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(b) Sudden bursting of the tube of a bicycle tyre.

(c) Propagation of sound waves in air and other gases.
Isobaric Process: A process taking place in a thermodynamic system at constant pressure is
called an isobaric process.
Molar heat capacity of the process is Cp and dQ = nCpdT.
Internal energy dU = nCv dT
From the first law of thermodynamics dQ = dU + dW dW = pdV = nRdT
Process equation is V / T = constant. Hence P- V curve is a straight line parallel to volume axis.

Isochoric Process: A process taking place in a thermodynamics system at constant volume is

called an isochoric process.
dQ = nCvdT, molar heat capacity for isochoric process is Cv.
Volume is constant, so dW = 0,
Process equation is P / T = constant. P- V curve is a straight line parallel to pressure axis.
Cyclic Process: When a thermodynamic system returns to initial state after passing through
several states, then it is called cyclic process. Efficiency of the cycle is given by

=
Heat supplied

Work done by the cycle can be computed from area enclosed cycle on P- V curve.
Second Law of Thermodynamics: The second law of thermodynamics gives a fundamental
limitation to the efficiency of a heat engine and the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator.
It says that efficiency of a heat engine can never be unity (or 100%). This implies that heat
released to the cold reservoir can never be made zero.

Kelvin’s Statement: It is impossible to obtain a continuous supply of work from a body by

cooling it to a temperature below the coldest of its surroundings.

Clausius’ Statement: It is impossible to transfer heat from a lower temperature body to a higher
temperature body without use of an extemal agency.

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Planck’s Statement: It is impossible to construct a heat engine that will convert heat completely
into work. All these statements are equivalent as one can be obtained from the other.

Equivalence of Clausius Statement to the Kelvin-Planck Statement: Consider a higher

temperature reservoir T1 and low temperature reservoir T2. Fig. shows a heat pump which
requires no work and transfers an amount of Q2 from a low temperature to a higher temperature
reservoir (in violation of the Clausius statement). Let an amount of heat Q1 (greater than Q2) be
transferred from high temperature reservoir to heat engine which develops a net work, W = Q1 –
Q2 and rejects Q2 to the low temperature reservoir. Since there is no heat interaction with the low
temperature, it can be eliminated. The combined system of the heat engine and heat pump acts
then like a heat engine exchanging heat with a single reservoir, which is the violation of the
Kelvin-Planck statement.

Entropy: Entropy is the measure of a system's thermal energy per unit temperature that is
unavailable for doing useful work. Because work is obtained from ordered molecular motion, the
amount of entropy is also a measure of the molecular disorder, or randomness, of a system.

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The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the state of entropy of the entire universe is an
isolated system. Entropy in the universe can never be negative.

When a small amount of heat dQ is added to a substance at temperature T, without changing its
temperature appreciably, the entropy of the substance is given by

dS = dQ/ T Joules per Kelvin

The term dQ/ T is called entropy and its change from state 1 to state 2 during reversible process
is given as,

When heat is removed, the entropy decreases, when heat is added the entropy increases.

The entropy of any substance is a function of the condition of the substance. It is a physical
property of the substance. For an ideal gas it is a function of its temperature and volume, and for
a solid and liquid it is a function of its temperature and internal structure. The entropy is
independent of the past history of the.

Principle of entropy: According to this principle, entropy of an isolated system cither

increases or in the limit remains constant.
An isolated system does not undergo any energy interaction (i .e., work or heat energy) with
its surroundings, and the total energy of all the possible states remains constant. Therefore for
an isolated system, dQ=0

(ds)Isolated ≥ 0

(i)If the process is reversible, (ds) Isolated = 0

(ii) if the process is irreversible (ds)Isolated > 0

From above we see that the entropy of an isolated system can never decrease. It always
increases with every irreversible process and remains constant during a reversible process. This
is called principle of entropy Increase.

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Reversible process : A reversible process is one which can be reversed in such a way that all
changes occurring in the direct process are exactly repeated in the opposite order and inverse
sense and no change is left in any of the bodies taking part in the process or in the surroundings.

For example if heat is absorbed in the direct process, the same amount of heat should be given
out in the reverse process, if work is done on the working substance in the direct process then the
same amount of work should be done by the working substance in the reverse process.

The conditions for reversibility are

(i) There must be complete absence of dissipative forces such as friction, viscosity, electric
resistance etc.
(ii) The direct and reverse processes must take place infinitely slowly.
(iii) The temperature of the system must not differ appreciably from its surroundings.
Some examples of reversible process are

(a) All isothermal and adiabatic changes are reversible if they are performed very slowly.

(b) When a certain amount of heat is absorbed by ice, it melts. If the same amount of heat is
removed from it, the water formed in the direct process will be converted into ice.

(c) An extremely slow extension or contraction of a spring without setting up oscillations.

(d) When a perfectly elastic ball falls from some height on a perfectly elastic horizontal plane,
the ball rises to the initial height.

(e) If the resistance of a thermocouple is negligible there will be no heat produced due to
Joule’s heating effect. In such a case heating or cooling is reversible. At a junction where a
cooling effect is produced due to Peltier effect when current flows in one direction and equal
heating effect is produced when the current is reversed.

(f) Very slow evaporation or condensation. It should be remembered that the conditions
mentioned for a reversible process can never be realised in practice. Hence, a reversible process
is only an ideal concept. In actual process, there is always loss of heat due to friction,
conduction, radiation etc.

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Irreversible process: Any process which is not reversible exactly is an irreversible process. All
natural processes such as conduction, radiation, radioactive decay etc. are irreversible. All
practical processes such as free expansion, Joule-Thomson expansion, electrical heating of a
wire are also irreversible. Some examples of irreversible processes are given below

(i) When a steel ball is allowed to fall on an inelastic lead sheet, its kinetic energy changes
into heat energy by friction. The heat energy raises the temperature of lead sheet. No
reverse transformation of heat energy occurs.
(ii) (ii) The sudden and fast stretching of a spring may produce vibrations in it. Now a part
of the energy is dissipated. This is the case of irreversible process.
(iii) Sudden expansion or contraction and rapid evaporation or condensations are examples
of irreversible processes.
(iv) Produced by the passage of an electric current through a resistance is irreversible.
(v) Heat transfer between bodies at different temperatures is also irreversible.
(vi) Joule-Thomson effect is irreversible because on reversing the flow of gas a similar
cooling or heating effect is not observed.
Heat reservoir or thermal energy reservoir: It is defined as the source of infinite heat energy
and a finite amount of heat absorbed or heat rejected from the heat reservoir will not have any
effect on its temperature i.e., heat reservoir is maintained at a constant temperature.

Source: 1.Thermal reservoir which supplies heat to a system is known as source.

2. This is at high temperature, e.g., boiler furnace, combustion chamber. nuclear reactor etc

Sink: 1. Thermal reservoir which absorbs heat from a system is known as sink.
2. This is at low temperature, e.g., ocean, river, atmospheric air.

Carnot Engine & Carnot cycle: It is a theoretical engine which works on the Carnot cycle. The
cycle was first suggested by a French engineer Sadi Carnot in 1824 which works on reversible
cycle and is known as Carnot cycle. Any fluid may be used to operate the Carnot cycle which is
performed in an engine cylinder the head of which is supposed alternatively to be perfect
conductor or a perfect insulator of a heat. Heat is caused to flow into the cylinder by the
application of high temperature energy source to the cylinder head during expansion, and to flow

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from the cylinder by the application of a lower temperature energy source to the head during
compression.
The assumptions made for describing the working of the Carnot engine are as follows:

(i) The piston moving in a cylinder does not develop any friction during motion.

(ii) The walls of piston and cylinder are considered as perfect insulators of heat.

(iii)The cylinder head is so arranged that it can be a perfect heat conductor or perfect heat
insulator. (iv) The transfer of heat does not affect the temperature of source or sink.

(v) Working medium is a perfect gas and has constant specific heat.

(vi)Compression and expansion are reversible.

Following are the four stages of Carnot cycle:

Stage 1. (Process 1-2). Hot energy source is applied. Heat Q1 is taken in while the fluid expands
isothermally and reversibly at constant high temperature T1.

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Stage 2. (Process 2-3). The cylinder becomes a perfect insulator so that no heat flow takes place.
The fluid expands adiabatically and reversibly whilst temperature falls from T1 to T2.

Stage 3. (Process 3-4). Cold energy source is applied. Heat Q2 flows from the fluid whilst it is
compressed isothermally and reversibly at constant lower temperature T2.

Stage 4. (Process 4-1). Cylinder head becomes a perfect insulator so that no heat flow occurs.
The compression is continued adiabatically and reversibly during which temperature is raised
from T2 to T1. The work delivered from the system during the cycle is represented by the
enclosed area of the cycle. Again for a closed cycle, according to first law of the
thermodynamics the work obtained is equal to the difference between the heat supplied by the
source (Q1) and the heat rejected to the sink (Q2).

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OR = 1−

Note : The efficiency of an actual engine is much lesser than that of an ideal engine. Actually the
practical efficiency of steam engine is about (8-15)% while that of a petrol engine is 40%. The
efficiency of a diesel engine is maximum and is about (50-55)%.

Carnot theorem: The efficiency of Carnot’s heat engine depends only on the temperature of
source (T1) and temperature of sink (T2), i.e

2
= 1−
T1

Carnot stated that “no heat engine working between two given temperatures of source and
sink can be more efficient than a perfectly reversible engine (Carnot engine) working
between the same two temperatures”. Carnot's reversible engine working between two given
temperatures is considered to be the most efficient engine

Carnot vapour power cycle with T-S diagram.

It is an ideal cycle having highest thermodynamic efficiency. Carnot cycle is shown in Fig.

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Various processes of Carnot cycle are as follows:

Process 1-2: It is reversible isothermal heat addition process in the boiler.

Process 2-3: It is reversible adiabatic expansion process in steam turbine.

Process 3-4: It is reversible isothermal heat rejection process in the condenser.

Process 4-1: It is reversible adiabatic compression process or pumping process in feed water
pump.

Efficiency :

= = = 1−

W3 Means work done in process 3 to 4 so W3 = Q34 and W1= Q12

34
= 1−
Q12

Assuming entropy at point 1, 2, 3, 4 is S1, S2, S3, S4

34 = = 2( 4 − 3) = ( 3 − 4) 12 = 1
= ( 2 − 1)

From fig S1=S4 and S2= S3

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( )
= 1− ( )
so it becomes

2( 3 − 4)
= 1−
1( 3 − 4)

2
= 1−
T1

Stirling Engine : It is a heat engine which is operated by a cyclic compression and expansion of
air or other gas at different temperatures such that there is a net conversion of heat energy to
mechanical work. It works on Stirling cycle.

Stirling cycle: Stirling cycle consists of two isothermal and two constant volume processes. It is
externally reversible cycle. Heat rejection and heat addition takes place at constant volume. This
cycle has mean effective pressure greater than Carnot cycle. But efficiency in ideal case equal to
the Carnot cycle.

From Fig. 1. it is clear that amount of heat addition and rejection during constant volume
process is same. In practical use Stirling cycle incorporated with a heat exchanger which
absorb the heat rejected during constant volume process and supplies back to the cycle in
heat addition during constant volume. So amount of heat transfer through heat exchanger
absorb heat and heat supplied back to cycle is same. But efficiency of heat exchanger is not
100%. So efficiency of Stirling cycle will be less than the Carnot cycle.

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Refrigeration : Refrigeration means the cooling or removal of heat from a system. It is science
of producing and maintaining temperatures below the of the surrounding atmosphere i.e ,
removal of heat from a substance under controlled conditions.
The equipment employed to maintain the system at a low temperature is termed as
refrigerating system and the system which is kept at lower temperature is called refrigerated
system.

TYPES OF REFRIGERATION

Refrigeration is classified as based on working substance used

i.Air refrigeration system (Bell-Coleman cycle)

ii. Water refrigeration system

iii. Ice refrigeration system

iv. Refrigeration by special fluid

Refrigeration effect:

The rate at which the heat is absorbed in a cycle of from the interior space to be cooled is
called refrigeration effect. It is defined as the quantity of heat removed to the time taken. It is
also called as the capacity of a refrigerator.

The standard unit of refrigeration is ton refrigeration or simply ton denoted by TR.

Refrigerator: A refrigerator or heat pump is basically a heat engine run in reverse direction.
It operates as a reversed heat engine. Its duty is to extract heat as much as possible from cold
body and deliver the same to high temperature body/surroundings. It essentially consists of
three parts:
1.Source : At higher temperature T1
2.Sink : At lower temperature T2
3.Working substance : It is called refrigerant liquid ammonia as a working substance. The
working substance takes heat Q2 from a sink (contents of refrigerator) at lower temperature,
has a net amount of work done W on it by an external agent (usually compressor of
refrigerator) and gives out a larger amount of heat Q1 to a hot body at temperature T1 (usually
atmosphere). Thus, it transfers heat from a cold to a hot body at the expense of mechanical
energy supplied to it by an external agent. The cold body is thus cooled more and more.

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The performance of a refrigerator is expressed by means of “coefficient of performance”,

which is defined as the ratio of the heat extracted from the cold body to the work needed to
transfer it to the hot body.

Coefficient of performance, (COP)ref = =

From the first law of thermodynamics, ΔQ = W so Q1 - Q2=W

Hence (COP)ref =

A perfect refrigerator is one which transfers heat from cold to hot body without doing work
i.e. W = 0 so that Q2Q1 and hence (COP)ref 

Applications of Refrigeration:
1. Making of ice.

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2.It is used in transportation [cod at a required temperature.

3.It is used in industrial and comfort air conditioning.
4.It is in processing food products and beverages.
Heat pump: A heat pump is a reversed heat engine. It receives heat from a low temperature
reservoir and rejects it to a high temperature reservoir. This transfer of heat from n low
temperature body high temperature one is none spontaneous process and that calls for the help of
external work which is supplied to the heat pump. A heat pump extracts Q2 amount of heat from
the low temperature T2 and deliver Q1 amount of heat to the high temperature by consuming W
amount of external work.

Coefficient of performance, (COP)HP = =

From the first law of thermodynamics, ΔQ = W so Q1 - Q2=W

Hence (COP)HP =

Heat engine:
A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy
and uses this energy to produce mechanical work continuously through a cyclic process.
The essential parts of a heat engine are

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Source: It is a reservoir of heat at high temperature and infinite thermal capacity. Any
amount of heat can be extracted from it.
Working substance: Steam, petrol etc.
Sink : It is a reservoir of heat at low temperature and infinite thermal capacity. Any amount of
heat can be given to the sink.

The working substance absorbs heat Q1 from the source, does an amount of work W, returns the
remaining amount of heat to the sink at T2 temperature and comes back to its original state and
there occurs no change in its internal energy. By repeating the same cycle over and over again,
work is continuously obtained.

The performance of heat engine is expressed by means of “efficiency ” which is defined as the
ratio of useful work obtained from the engine to the heat supplied to it.

or = 1−

A perfect heat engine is one which converts all heat into work i.e. Q1  W so that Q2 = 0 and
hence

=1. But practically efficiency of an engine is always less than 1

Heat engine is classified into two types-

(a)External combustion engine (b) internal combustion engine

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Comparison between external combustion engine and internal combustion engine:

S. No. External combustion engine Internal combustion engine

1. Combustion of air-fuel is outside the engine Combustion of air-fuel is inside the engine
cylinder (in a boiler)
cylinder (in a boiler)

2. The engines are running smoothly and silently Very noisy operated engine

due to outside combustion

3. Higher ratio of weight and bulk to output It is light and compact due to lower ratio of

due to presence of auxiliary apparatus like weight and bulk to output.

boiler and condenser. Hence it is heavy

and cumbersome.

4. Working pressure and temperature inside Working pressure and temperature inside

the engine cylinder is low; hence ordinary the engine cylinder is very much high
alloys are
hence special alloys are used
used for the manufacture of engine cylinder
and

its parts.

5. It can use cheaper fuels including solid High grade fuels are used with proper filtration

6. Lower efficiency about 15-20% Higher efficiency about 35-40%

7. Higher requirement of water for dissipation of Lesser requirement of water

energy through cooling system

8. High starting torque IC engines are not self-starting

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External combustion engine: In this engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel transfer
heat to a second fluid which is the working fluid of the cycle.

Examples: In the steam engine or a steam turbine plant, the heat of combustion is employed to
generate steam which is used in a piston engine (reciprocating type engine) or a turbine (rotary
type engine) for useful work.

In a closed cycle gas turbine, the heat of combustion in an external furnace is transferred to gas,
usually air which the working fluid of the cycle.

Internal combustion engine (IC Engines): The engines in which the combustion of air and
fuels takes place inside the engine or within the cylinder are known as internal combustion
engines.
Types of Internal combustion engine (IC Engines)

It can be classified into the following types:

1. According to the basic engine design

(a) Reciprocating engine (Use of cylinder piston arrangement),

(b) Rotary engine (Use of turbine)

2. According to the working cycle- (a) Otto cycle (constant volume cycle) engine, (b) diesel
cycle (constant pressure cycle) engine, (c) dual combustion cycle (semi diesel cycle) engine.

3. According to the number of strokes per cycle-

(a) Four stroke and (b) Two stroke engine

4. According to the type of fuel used-

(a) Petrol engine or gasoline engine,

(b) Diesel engine,

(c) Gas engine (CNG, LPG)

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(d) Alcohol engine (ethanol, methanol etc)

5. According to the fuel supply and mixture preparation-

(a) Carburetted type (fuel supplied through the carburettor)

(b) Injection type (fuel injected into inlet ports or inlet manifold, fuel injected into the cylinder
just before ignition).

6. According to the method of igniting the fuel-( Ignition)

(a) Spark ignition engine (SI engine),

(b) compression ignition engine(CI engine) and

(c) hot spot ignition engine

7. According to the number of cylinder- (a) Single cylinder and (b) multi-cylinder engine

8. According to Method of cooling- (i) water cooled engine (ii) air cooled engine

9. According to Speed of the engine- Slow speed, medium speed and high speed engine

10. According to Cylinder arrangement-Vertical engines, horizontal engines, inline engines,

V-type engines, radial engines, opposed cylinder or piston engines.

11. According to Valve or port design and location- Overhead (I head), side valve (L head); in
two stroke engines: cross scavenging, loop scavenging, uniflow scavenging.

12. According to Method governing- Hit and miss governed engines, quantitatively governed
engines and qualitatively governed engine.

13. According to Application- Automotive engines for land transport, marine engines for
propulsion of ships, aircraft engines for aircraft propulsion, industrial engines, and prime movers
for electrical generators.

Internal combustion engine (IC Engines): Main components of IC engines are

1. Cylinder. It is one of the most important part of the engine, in which the piston movesto and

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fro in order to develop power. Generally, the engine cylinder has to withstand a high
pressure (more than 50 bar) and temperature (more than 2000°C).
2. Cylinder head: It is fitted on one end of the cylinder, and acts as a cover to close the
cylinder bore. Generally, the cylinder head contains inlet and exit valves for admitting fresh
charge and exhausting the burnt gases. In petrol engines, the cylinder head also contains a
spark plug for igniting the fuel-air mixture, towards the end of compression stroke. But in
diesel engines, the cylinder head contains nozzle (i.e. fuel valve) for injecting the fuel into
the cylinder.
3. Piston: It is considered as the heart of an I.C. engine, whose main function is to transmit the
force exel1ed by the burning of charge to the connecting rod. The pistons are generally made
of aluminium alloys which are light in weight.
4. Piston rings: These are circular rings and made of special steel alloys which retain elastic
properties even at high temperatures. The piston rings are housed in the circumferential
grooves provided on the outer surface of the piston. Generally, there are two sets of rings
mounted for the piston.
5. Connecting rod: It is a link between the piston and crankshaft, whose main function is to
transmit force from the piston to the crankshaft.
6. Crankshaft: It is considered as the backbone of an I.C. engine whose function is to convert
the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion with the help of connecting rod.
This shaft contains one or more eccentric portions called cranks.
7. Crank case: It is a cast iron case, which holds the cylinder and crankshaft of an I.C. engine.
It also serves as a sump for the lubricating oil. The lower portion of the crank case is known
as bed plate, which is fixed with the help of bolts.
8. Flywheel: It is a big wheel, mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to maintain its
speed constant. It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke, which is
returned during other strokes.

Terminology used in IC engine:

1.Cylinder Bore: It is the nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder It is represented by D.

2.Piston Area : It is the area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore.

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3.Stroke : The distance travelled by piston from top dead centre to bottom dead centre is known
as stroke.

4. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): It is the dead centre when the piston nearest to the crankshaft
or lowest position of the piston towards crank end side of cylinder.

5. Top Dead Centre (TDC): It is the dead centre when the piston farthest from the crankshaft or
top most position of the piston towards cover end side of cylinder.

6. Displacement Volume (or Piston Swept Volume) :

This is the volume swept by the piston moving from one dead centre to other. It is calculated as
the product of piston area and stroke.
vs = Piston area (A) x Stroke (L)

= L

7.Clearance Volume : The volume contained in the cylinder above top of the piston when the
piston is at top dead centre is called Clearance volume.

8. Cylinder Volume : The sum of swept volume and clearance volume is known as Cylinder
volume. V = Vs + Vc
9. Compression Ratio r: This is defined as the ratio of the volume at the beginning of
compression to the volume at the end of compression.

Vs + Vc Vs
r= = 1+
Vc Vc

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Working of internal combustion:

Working of internal combustion four stroke spark ignition engine is as follows :

Suction Stroke :
1.Suction stroke starts when the piston is at top dead centre position and about to move toward
bottom dead centre.

2.During this stroke, inlet valve is open and outlet valve is closed.

3.Due to the suction created by downward motion of the piston, charge consists of mixture of
air and fuel drawn into the cylinder.

4.At the end of suction stroke, both the inlet and outlet valves are closed.

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Compression Stroke:
1. The fresh charge taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed during the
return stroke of the piston.

2. In this stroke both the inlet and outlet valves remain closed. Just before end of the
compression stroke, mixture of air ignited with the help of spark plug.

3. Burning takes place when the piston is almost at top dead center.

5. During the burning process chemical energy of the charge is converted into sensible energy

and producing a temperature rise of about 20000c and pressure is also increased.

Expansion or Working Stroke:

1. Due to high pressure burnt gages forces the piston toward the dead centre so power is obtain
during this stroke.

2. Both pressure and temperature decreases during this stroke. In this stroke, both the valves
remain closed.

Exhaust Stroke: In this stroke Inlet valve is dosed and outlet valve is open. Piston moving from
bottom dead centre to top dead centre and burn gases sweep out from the cylinder.

Comparisons between SI engine and CI engine

S. No. Description Spark ignition engine (SI engine) Compression ignition engine(CI engine)
1. Basic cycle Otto cycle Diesel cycle
2. Fuel used Gasoline (petrol) Diesel

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3. Ignition Spark plug is used. Self ignition due to high pressure and
temperature caused by compression of
4. Compression ratio 6 to 10 14 to 22
5. Weight Lighter Heavier
6. Speed High speed Low speed
7. Efficiency Lower efficiency due to low Higher efficiency due to high compression
compression ratio. ratio.

DEFINITION OF A CYCLE: A cycle is defined as a repeated series of operations occurring

in a certain order. It may be repeated by repeating the processes in the same order. The cycle
may be of imaginary perfect engine or actual engine. The former is called ideal cycle and the
latter actual cycle. In ideal cycle all accidental heat losses are prevented and the working
substance is assumed to behave like a perfect working substance.

Steam Power cycles: These are the cycles which uses steam as their working fluid. Rankine
cycle is the example of steam power cycle.

Rankine cycle: These are the cycle which uses steam as their working fluid. Rankine cycle is
the example of steam power cycle. Rankine cycle is the theoretical steam cycle on which turbine
works. Rankine cycle is shown in Fig. It consists of following processes:

Process 1-2 : Adiabatic expansion (in turbine).

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Process 2-3 : Isobaric heat release (in condenser).

Process 3-4 : Adiabatic pumping (in pump).
Process 4-1 : Isobaric heat addition (in boiler).

Fig. T-s diagram of Rankine cycle

Gas Power Cycles: These are the cycles which use air or gas as their working fluid.

Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Brayton cycles are the examples of gas power cycles.

Brayton Cycle : It is a theoretical cycle for gas turbines and also known as constant pressure
cycle for a perfect gas. The basic components of a Brayton cycle are shown in Fig.

There occur two isentropic processes and two constant pressure processes. Compression and
expansion of working fluid is done by isentropic process while addition and rejection of heat is
done at constant pressure. Brayton cycle P-V& T-s diagram respectively is

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Brayton cycle shows has two adiabatic and two constant pressure processes:
Process 1-2 adiabatic compression
Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3-4: Adiabatic expansion
Process 4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection

Now, Work done/ cycle = Heat added/cycle —Heat rejected/cycle

Heat added in (process 2-3) Q2-3 = m Cp (T3-T2)

Heat rejected in( process 4-1)Q4-1= m Cp (T4-T1)

Work done / cycle = = m Cp (T3-T2)- m Cp (T4-T1)

Efficiency of Brayton Cycle:

wor k done per cycle m Cp ( T3 − T2) − m Cp ( T4 − T1)

= =
heat addition per cycle m Cp ( T3 − T2)

( T4 − T1)
= 1−
( T3 − T2)

1
T2 P2
From process 1-2, T1
= P1
= = T1 ( rp) where p2 / p1 is called pressure ratio rp.

In process 3-4, = T4 ( rp)

Hence

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( T4 − T1) 1
= 1− = 1−
T4 ( rp) − T1 ( rp) ( rp)

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Diesel cycle- Thermodynamic cycle for low speed CI/diesel engine -Reversible adiabatic
compression and expansion process -Constant pressure heat addition (combustion) and heat
rejection process (exhaust) following figure show the diesel cycle.

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For same compression ratio and same heat input

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Problem 1: A heat engine receives heat at the rate of 1500 kJ/min and gives an output of 8.2
kW. Determine: (i) The thermal efficiency (ii) The rate of heat rejection.

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Problem6. An ice tray contains 500 g of water. Calculate the change in entropy of the water
as it freezes completely and slowly at 00C.

Solution: The water freezes at 0 oC = 273 K. ΔS = ΔQ/T

ΔQ = -mL, m = mass of water, L = latent heat of fusion = 333000 J/kg.

ΔS = -(0.5 kg)(333000J /kg)/273 K = -610 J/K.

FUELS &FUEL INJECTION

In IC engines, the chemical energy contained in the fuel is converted into mechanical power by
burning (oxidizing) the fuel inside the combustion chamber of the engine.

Fuels suitable for fast chemical reaction have to be used in IC engines, they are following types-

(a) Hydrocarbons fuels derived from the crude petroleum by proper refining process such as
thermal and catalytic cracking method, polymerisation, alkylation, isomerisation, reforming and
blending.

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(b) Alternative fuels such as-Alcohols (methanol, ethanol)

Natural gas (methane)

LPG (propane, butane)

Hydrogen

Factors for designing a power plant: Following factors should consider while designing a
power plant:

1. Availability of cooling water (if coaling towers are used the possibility of adequate maake
up water)
2. Availability of fuel (water, rail or pipe connection to the fuel source, and the cost of fuel
transport).
3. Distance from the centre o gravity of load demand.
4. Cost of land including space for extension, maintenance, and workshop and storage yard.
5. Main wind direction and water current in cooling Water source (sea, lake or river) in order to
air and Water pollution. and other ecological considerations.
6. Character of soil.
7. With coal fired stations, disposal of ash.
8. If the plant is erected far from town, accommodation for staff.
9. Rail and road connection.
10. Security condition.
Power plant: A power plant may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that
generates and delivers a flow of mechanical or electrical energy. The main equipment for the
generation of electric power is generator. When coupling it to a prime mover runs the generator,
the electricity is generated.

The major power plants are,

1. Steam power plant 2. Diesel power plant 3. Gas turbine power plant 4. Nuclear power plant

5. Hydro electric power plant`

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The Steam Power Plant, Diesel Power Plant, Gas Turbine Power Plant and Nuclear Power Plants
are called THERMAL POWER PLANT, because these convert heat into electric energy.

Steam is the most common working fluid used in steam/Thermal power plant because of its
many desirable characteristics, such as low cost, availability and high enthalpy of vaporization

Site selection: Selection of site of any power plant plays an important role in the economy of the
station. Site selection is based on various important factors, some of which for thermal power
plant is given as:
(a)Cost of land: Cost of land should be reasonable and further extensions, if necessary should
be possible.
(b)Nature of land: The type of the land selected as site should have good bearing
capability to withstand the load of the plant.
(c)Availability of fuel: Thermal power stations requires huge amount of fuel per day. Therefore
it is necessary that the location of the plant should in such that the fuel may available at low
cost and it should be easy to deliver fuel from coal fields at a low transportation charges
and within time.
(d)Availability of water: Thermal (steam) power plants requires large amount of water
because water is used as working fluid which is respectively evaporated and condensed.
Abundant quantity of cooling water for condenser should also available and its large amount is
required for ash handling. It is therefore, necessary to locate the power plant near water body.
(e)Easy transportation facility: It is also a very important consideration. It is always
necessary to have easy transportation by which transportation of fuel and heavy
machinery becomes an easy task.
(f)Waste disposal facility: It is an important factor because proper disposal of waste products is
very important, since they affects environment and may create serious problems.

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