Power system –II

KEE-601
SESSION 2022-23
SOLUTION

Q1

a) Prove that 1+α+α2 = 0

Solution

b) The per-unit impedance of an alternator corresponding to base values 13.2 kV and 30 MVA
is 0.2 p.u. The p.u. value of the impedance for base values 13.8 kV and 50 MVA in p.u. will
be………

Z_new = 1 * (13.8 kV / 13.2 kV)^2 / (50 MVA / 30 MVA)

Solu:-
= 0.305 p.u.

c) Explain the significance of slack bus. Why it is also named as reference bus.
Sol: : Usually this bus is numbered 1 for the load flow studies. This bus sets the angular
reference for all the other buses. Since it is the angle difference between two voltage
sources that dictates the real and reactive power flow between them, the particular
angle of the slack bus is not important. However it sets the reference against which
angles of all the other bus voltages are measured. For this reason the angle of this bus is
usually chosen as 0° . Furthermore it is assumed that the magnitude of the voltage of
this bus is known.

d) Mention four important reasons why load flow studies are performed.
  Power flow analysis is very important in planning and designing
the future expansion of power systems or addition to existing
ones like adding new generator sites, meeting increase load
demand and locating new transmission sites.
 The load flow solution yields the nodal voltages and the phase
angles, the power injection, power flows and the line losses in a
network.
 The best place, as well as the optimal capacity of a generating
station, substation and new lines can regulate by load flow
study.
 Minimization of System transmission losses and prevention of
line overloads. The operating voltages of the buses being
determined, it aids in voltage stability analysis and voltage
levels at certain buses can keep within the closed tolerances.

e)
A travelling wave of magnitude 200 V in transmission line of surge
impedance400 ohms passes into a cable of surge impedance 40 ohms
.What will be refraction voltage magnitude travelling into the cable

solution :-
V”= V (2 *R/R+Z)
36.36 Volt

f) Determine the magnitudes of refraction and reflection coefficients if a travelling wave is

terminated by an open circuit condition.
 g) Mention the various factors to improve transient state stability.
1. Fast acting governor system
2. Reducing system reactance by using parallel lines
3. Fast acting excitation control system
4. By the use of high speed CBs and auto reclosing breaking
5. Dynamic breaking
6. Single pole switching
7. Shunt compensation

h) Define accelerating power Pa.

Pa = Pm – Pe

i) Explain the term pick up value of the relay

The deflecting force crosses the controlling force, the moving parts of the relay initiate to move
to change the position of the contacts in the relay. The current for which the relay initiates its
operation is called pick up current of relay.

j) Calculate the Breaking current of a 3 phase oil circuit breaker rated at 66KV,
3000MVA, 1000A, 3-secs.

Solution :- Making current is 66.92 KA

(Making current is 2.55 times of the breaking current of circuit breaker. )

PART B
Q2 (a) : For the following power system network shown in the figure draw a
reactance diagram , the specifications of the component are as follows:
G1: 25 KV, 100 MVA, X=9%

G2: 25 KV, 100 MVA, X=9%

T1: 25 / 220 kV, 90 MVA, X=12%

T2: 220 KV/25 kV, 90 MVA, X=12%

Transmission Line 1: 220 KV, X=150 ohms.

Choose 25 KV as the base voltage and 200 MVA as the MVA base.

SOLUTION ;-
Q2(b) :-Draw a flow chart for load flow solution using gauss seidel
method when both PV and PQ buses are present.

Solution:-
 Q2(c) : Derive the equation for a travelling wave which travels over a
uniform transmission line of surge impedance Zc..
Solution
Q2(d) : Explain equal area criteria by taking suitable example of power
system.
The equal area criterion is a simple graphical method for concluding the transient stability of two-
machine systems or a single machine against an infinite bus. This principle does not require the
swing equation for the determination of stability conditions. The stability conditions are recognized
by equating the areas of segments on the power angle diagram between the p-curve and the new
power transfer line of the given curve.

The principle of this method consists on the basis that when δ oscillates around the equilibrium
point with constant amplitude, transient stability will be maintained.

Starting with swing equation

where, M = Angular Momentum
PE = Electrical Power
PS = Mechanical Power
δ= Load Angle

Multiplying both sides of the above equation by dδ/dt, we get

or

Rearranging, multiplying by dt and integrating, we have

Where δo, is the torque angle at which the machine is operating while running at synchronous speed
under normal conditions. Under the above conditions, the torque angle

was not changing i.e. before the disturbance.

Also, if the system has transient stability the machine will again operate at synchronous speed after
the disturbances, i.e.,
Hence the condition for the transient state stability is given by the equation

The area A1 represents the kinetic energy stored by the rotor during acceleration, and the
A2 represents the kinetic energy given up by the rotor to the system, and when it is
all given up, the machine has returned to its original speed.

The area under the curve PA should be zero, which is possible only when P A has
both accelerating and decelerating powers, i.e., for a part of the curve P S> PE and
for the other PE> PS. For a generation action, PS> PE for the positive area and A1>
PS for negative areas A2 for stable operation. Hence the name equal area criterion.

The equal area criterion is also used for determining the maximum limit on the
load that the system can take without exceeding the stability limit. This can happen
only when the area between the PS line and the PE curve is equal to the area
between the PS line, and the PE curve is equal to the area between the initial torque
angle δ0 and the line PS. In this case, the area A2 is less than the area A1; the system
will become unstable.
 2(e)- Explain the low resistance and high resistance methods of arc extinction
in a circuit breaker.
 PART C
Q3 (a) Derive an expression for a fault current when L-G fault occurs in the
terminal of a R phase of an alternator.

Solution :-
3 (b) A 25 MVA ,13.2KV alternator with solidly grounded neutral has a sub
transient reactance of 0.25p.u . The negative and zero sequence reactance are
0.35 and 0.1 p.u respectively. A double line to ground fault occurs at the
terminals of unloaded alternator derive the fault current in all the three
phases.

Solution :-
Q4 (a) Explain the three types of buses in power system. Describe how the
power flows and losses are calculated in load flow solution
Answer

.
LO

LOAD FLOW EQUATION :-

POWER LOSSES :-
Q4 (a) Form the elements of y bus for a below network. Admittance between
nodes 1 -2 is 0.02+j0.04 , between node 2-3 is 0.0125+j0.025 , between
node 1-3 is 0.01+j0.03 .

Solution :-

Q5 (a) Derive the expression of reflection and refraction coefficient of

voltage and current when a line is terminated by a resistance R.

Solution :-
Q 5 (b) : Explain Bewlays lattice diagram with a suitable a suitable example . What
information we obtained from bewlays lattice diagram.
Q6 (a) Derive the swing equation for a machine connected to an infinite bus..
If a synchronous generator is of 100MVA have inertia constant of
20MJ/MVA. Find the angular momentum.

Solution : Angular momentum M = HS/(180*f) MJsec/electrical degrees

Where, H = Inertia constant S = Rating of the machine Angular momentum
M = 20*100/(180*50) = 0.22 MJsec/electrical degrees.
The Swing Equation of generator describes the relative motion between the rotor axis
and the synchronously rotating stator filed axis with respect to time. This equation is
very helpful in analyzing the stability of connected machines (machine here means
generator).
Derivation of Swing Equation:
As we know that in a synchronous generator the speed of rotor axis and stator filed axis
is equal to synchronous speed (N = 120f/P) during normal operating condition. This
simply means that the relative speed between rotor axis and stator field axis is zero.
Thus a constant angle δ is maintained between the rotor field axis and stator filed axis
under normal operating condition. This angle δ is known as Load Angle or Torque
Angle.

The value of load angle depends on the loading of machine. The more is the load, the
more will be the load angle δ as suggested by the power equation
P = EfVtSinδ / Xs
where Ef = No Load Excitation Voltage
Vt = Generator Terminal Voltage
Xs = Synchronous Impedance
Also, during steady state operation of generator the value of electromagnetic torque
Te is equal to shaft torque Ts. Since electromagnetic torque Te and load torque Ts act in
opposite direction, there is no net torque on the rotor. This is the reason; rotor rotates at
constant angular velocity during steady state operation of generator.
But when there is a sudden change in the loading of machine i.e. if some load is added
or removed from the rotor shaft, the rotor will accelerate or decelerate with respect to
the synchronously rotating stator field. Suppose steam input to the generator is
suddenly increased, under this condition the rotor will accelerate as the electromagnetic
torque Te will remain almost constant during transient period but shaft torque Ts has
been increased. Thus a relative motion will set in between the rotor and stator field axis.
Since generator terminals are assumed to be connected to Grid, the stator filed axis can
be taken as reference for study of relative motion. Due to this relative motion, the load
angle δs will vary with time and can be written as
δs = ωrt + δ ………………(1)
where δs is the angle between the reference stator field axis and rotor axis at any time t
and δ is the load angle just before the rotor disturbance.
where wr is the relative angular speed between the rotor axis and stator filed axis.
Also, Ts – Te = Ta
where Ta = Net Accelerating Torque
Since a synchronous machine rotates at constant angular speed, hence the above
torque can be replaced by power for analysis. Hence Te is replaced by electromagnetic
power Pe and Ts by shaft power Ps. Thus the rotor accelerating power Pa can be written
as,
Ps – Pe = Pa
But as per mechanics, power = Torque x Angular Speed
Therefore,
Accelerating power Pa = Taω ………(2)
Since, Torque = Inertia (I) x Angular Acceleration (α)
Therefore from (2),
Pa = Iωα ………………(3)
Let, M = Iω
But Iω is the angular momentum, hence M is called the angular momentum of generator
rotor. Therefore from (3),
Rotor / Shaft Accelerating Power Pa = Mα …….(4)
It should be noted here that while applying mechanics for the analysis of relative motion
between rotor axis and stator axis, the unit of angular speed w should be considered in
mechanical radian per second. But since we can convert this mechanical radian per
second into electrical radian per second by suing
Electrical radian or degree = Mechanical Radian or degree x No. of Pole Pairs
But the angular position of rotor w.r.t is described by (1),
δs = ωrt + δ
Differentiating both side w.r.t time,
dδs / dt = ωr +dδ/dt
Again differentiating w.r.t time,
d2δs / dt2 = d2δ/dt2
But d2δs / dt2 = angular acceleration of rotor i.e. α
Hence from (4),
Pa = Mα = Md2δ/dt2
But Pa = Ps – Pe
⇒ Ps – Pe = Md2δ/dt2 …………..(5)
The above equation is known as the Swing Equation.

Q6(b) Derive an expression for maximum power between two nodes. Show
that this power is maximum when X= 3R , where X is the reactance and R is
the resistance.

Solution :-

I = V1∠δ - V2∠0

Z∠θ

V1 V2
= ∠(δ - ∠0) - ∠- θ
Z Z

Power received, P2 = Re [V2I*]

 V1 V2
= Re V2 ∠(θ - δ) - ∠θ
Z Z

V1V 2 V²2
= cos(θ - δ) - cos θ
Z Z

Let θ = 90° – α, then

V1V 2 V²2
= cos(90° - α - δ) - cos(90° - α)
Z Z

V1V 2 V²2
= sin(α + δ) - sin α
Z Z

V1V2 V²2
P2 max = - sin α[α + δ = 90°]
Z Z

r
As, sin α = , then
Z

V1V2 V²2 r
P2 max = - .
√r² + x² √r² + x² √r² + x²

For P2 max to be maximum,

dP2 max
=0
dx

x1 2xr
or V²2 2/3 - =0
(r² + x²) (r² + x²)²

Here V1 = V2
∴ r² + x² = 4r²
or x = √3r
 Q6 (a) : Explain the working principle of differential relay and derive
its operational condition with a suitable diagram. Why restraining coil is used
in differential relay .

Answer :-

Differential Relay Working Principle

Differential relay works on the principle of comparison between the phase angle &
two or more same electrical quantities magnitudes. Comparing these two electrical
quantities within a circuit with a differential relay is very simple in application &
positive in action.For instance, in comparison to the entering current & leaving
current in a line, if a huge current goes through the protected line as compared to
the current leaving from it, then additional current must supply within the fault. So,
the difference between the two electrical quantities can control a relay to separate
the circuit.In normal operating conditions, the entering & leaving currents are
equivalent in phase & magnitude thus the relay will not work. However, if any
fault occurs within the system, then these flow of currents will be no longer
equivalent in phase & magnitude.

This kind of relay is used in such a way that the difference between the entering &
leaving current supplies throughout the relay’s operating coils. So, the relay coil
can be energized in fault conditions because of the various quantity of the current.
So, this relay functions & opens the circuit breaker for tripping the circuit.

Differential Relay Circuit

In the above differential relay circuit, there are two current transformers which
are connected to any face of the power transformer like one CT is connected on the
primary side and the other is connected at the secondary side of the PT (power
transformer). This relay simply compares the flow of currents on both sides. If
there is any unbalance in the current flow of the circuit then this relay tends to
operate. These relays can be current differential, voltage balance & biased
differential relays.
Types of Differential Relay

These relays are classified into three types current differential, voltage balance, and
percentage differential relay or biased beam relay.

Current Balance Differential Relay

This differential relay works whenever there is a fault in the protected region then
there will be a variation in the entering & leaving current of that region. So by
comparing these currents either in phase or magnitude or in both, we can detect the
fault within the protected region. if the difference beats a fixed value then this relay
compares the two currents & transmits a trip signal to the CB (circuit breaker). The
differential relay protection circuit connections for the normal condition or external
fault & during internal fault are shown in the following figure correspondingly.

Current
Differential Relay

The two CTs in the above circuit are utilized at every end of the section to be
protected. In between the two CTs, the relay coil is simply connected at the
equipotential position so that there is no flow of current throughout the relay coil in
normal conditions. So that malfunctioning of the relay can be avoided.

In normal & external fault conditions from the above circuit, the flow of current
moving into the protected region is equivalent to the flow of current going away
from the protected region (I1 – I2 = 0). Therefore no flow of current will be there
throughout the relay coil. So, it remains out of service.

Similarly, in an internal fault case from the above figure, the flow of current into
the protected region is dissimilar from the flow of current leaving it (I1 – I2 ≠ 0).
So these current flow differences are known as the circulating current which is fed
to the operating coil of the relay & the relay works if the operating torque is higher
as compared to the restraining torque.

Voltage Balance Differential Relay

The two CTs in the voltage balance differential relay are simply connected at any
side of the element to be protected that is alternator winding which is shown in the
above figure. This type of relay simply compares two voltages either in phase or
magnitude or in both & it trips the relay circuit if the difference exceeds a fixed set
value.

The CT’s primary windings have similar current ratios which are connected with
the pilot wire in series. These wires are connected always by simply connecting
two circuit ends as shown in the above figure & CTs secondary winding is
connected to the operating coil of the relay.

Voltage Balance Type

In the above relay circuit, the flow of current in both the main windings of CTs
will be the same at normal operating conditions. So when the flow of current is the
same, then the voltage within the secondary winding will be the same. So, there is
no flow of current in the operating coil of a relay.

Similarly in the faulty conditions, a phasor difference will exist within the primary
coil’s currents. Thus, there is a difference in voltage at the second winding. Now a
phasor difference will exist in the secondary coil’s voltage which is fed to the
operating coil of the relay and it is connected with the secondary winding in series.
Because of this, the flow of current will be there throughout the operating coil of
the relay.

Percentage Differential Relay

The schematic diagram of the percentage differential relay is shown below which
is also known as a biased beam relay.
The schematic arrangement of the percentage or biased differential relay is shown
below. This circuit includes mainly two coils like restraining & an operating coil.
Here, the operating coil is simply connected to the restraining coil’s center point.

Here, the operating coil generates the operating torque so that the relay operates
whereas the restraining coil generates a bias force or restraining torque which is
quite reverse to the operating torque.
This relay operates with the differential current which is flowing throughout the
protected region. Whenever there is no fault within the protected region or there is
a fault outside of the protected region then restraining torque will be higher as
compared to the operating torque. So this will make the trip circuit open & thus
relay will be inoperative.
 Percentage Differential Relay

However, if there is a fault within the protected region then the operating torque
will be higher as compared to the restraining torque. Because of this, the beam
simply closes the trip circuit so which initiates a trip signal through the relay to the
CB or circuit breaker.

In the above equivalent circuit, the differential current within the operating coil is
i2 – i1 whereas the restraining coil is i1 + i2/2 because of the middle connection of
the operating coil.

So the ratio of i2 – i1 (differential operating current) to the (i1 + i2)/2 (restraining

current) has a fixed percentage always. Therefore, this relay is known as
a percentage differential relay. To operate this relay, the differential current
should be higher as compared to this fixed percentage.

Q 7 (b) Explain the arcing phenomenon in circuit breaker. Define the

terms restriking voltage and recovery voltage with a suitable diagram.

Anser :-
The phenomena of Arc During opening of current carrying contacts in a circuit breaker the
medium in between opening contacts become highly ionized through which the interrupting
current gets low resistive path and continues to flow through this path even after the contacts are
physically separated. During the flowing of current from one contact to other the path becomes
so heated that it glows in the form of an arc. Arc in circuit breaker Whenever, the contacts of
circuit breaker open while carrying load there is an arc in the medium between the separating
contacts of the circuit breaker. As long as this arc is sustained in between the contacts, the
current through the circuit breaker will not be interrupted totally. For total interruption of current,
the arc needs to be quenched as quickly as possible. The main designing criteria of a circuit
breaker is to provide appropriate technology of arc quenching in circuit breaker to fulfill quick
and safe current interruption. So before going through different arc quenching techniques
employed in circuit breaker, it is first necessary to understand the phenomena of arc in circuit
breaker.The arc produced in a circuit breaker is a type of electric discharge that provides a path
for current flow even though the contacts are separated. This causes damage to the equipment
which are to be protected.Also, if the arc is not extinguished it may result in an explosion. Hence
the circuit breaker must extinguish the arc generated at the time of fault current interruption. The
following terms are used during the analysis of circuit breaker,

Arc Voltage :

Arc voltage is the voltage that is responsible for maintaining the arc between the contacts of the
circuit breaker. At the time of circuit breaker contacts opening, an arc is struck between the
contacts due to ionization of medium surrounding the contacts. A small potential difference
exists between the contacts and it is responsible for maintaining the arc. This voltage is called the
Arc Voltage.

Restriking Voltage :

Whenever arc interruption occurs at zero current instant, the voltage across the circuit breaker
gap will suddenly rise from zero to a very high value. This high voltage will be transient in
nature.

The transient voltage that appears across the circuit breaker contacts immediately after the arc
extinction or at current zero during the arcing period is called Restriking Voltage.

This voltage is so named because the arc can restrike only during the existence period of this
transient voltage. If the arc does not restrike during this transient period, it will not restrike later.
This restriking voltage is also known as Transient Recovery Voltage.
Recovery Voltage :

It is defined as the voltage appearing across the circuit breaker contacts after the final arc
extinction and after all the transients die out (or disappears). The frequency of recovery voltage
is the same as the supply frequency.

Consider a circuit breaker whose contacts are opened, then the fault current drops to zero. At
zero current instant, no ions are present in the gap between the contacts. At this condition, the
dielectric strength of the medium (air or oil) between the contacts will be high, which is strong
enough to avoid the breakdown by the restriking voltage. As a result the final arc extinction takes
place and circuit current is interrupted.

As soon as the current is interrupted after the final arc extinction, the voltage appears across the
circuit breaker contacts, which has a transient part. Therefore, the voltage appearing across the
circuit breaker contacts after all transient oscillations die out or disappear is known as recovery
voltage. This voltage is of normal frequency RMS voltage which is approximately equal to the
system voltage.