UNIT – I LOGIC AND PROOFS

PART – A
1. Get the contra positive of the statement “If it is raining then I get wet”
Ans: Let p: it is raining and q: I get wet
Given p → q. Its contra positive is given by  q →  p
That is “If I don‟t get wet then it is not raining”
2. Is it true that the negation of a conditional statement is also a conditional statement?
Ans: No, because  ( p → q) ≡  (  p  q) ≡ p   q
3. Find a counter example,if possible, to these universally quantified statements, whose the universe of
discourse for all variables consists of all integers. [November 2014]
(a)  x  y ( x 2  y
2
 x  y).

(b)  x  y ( xy  x ) .
Ans: (a) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −2 and (b) 𝑥 = 17, 𝑦 = −1
4. Show that the propositions p  q and  p  q are logically equivalent.
Ans:
P q p  pq pq
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
5. Show that p  q  r  p  q  r without using truth tables.
Ans: p  q  r    p   q  r    p   q   r    p  q   r  p  q r
6. Show that   p    p  q is a tautology.
Ans:  p    p  q   p   p  q    p p q  T  q  T
7. Write the truth table for the formula  p  q     p   q  [November 2012]
Ans:
P q p q pq  pq
 p  q    p   q 
T T F F T F T
T F F T F F F
F T T F F F F
F F T T F T T

8. What are the negation of the statements  x ( x 2  x)andx(x

2
2)?
[November 2013]
Ans:
2 2
T h e n e g a t io n o f  x ( x  x ) is   x ( x  x )
2
 x(x  x)
2
 x(x  x)
2 2
T h e n e g a t io n o f  x ( x  2 ) is   x ( x  2 )
2
 x(x  2)
2
 x(x  2)
9. Express in symbolic form, everyone who is healthy can do all kinds of work. [November 2012]
Ans: Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 is healthy and 𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 do all work
Symbolic form  x  P ( x )  Q ( x ) 
10. Write the negation of the statement “If there is a will, then there is a way”.
Ans: Let p: „There is a will‟ and q: „There is a way‟ Given p  q   p  q .
Its negation is given by p   q
So, the negation of the given statement is “There is a will and there is no way”
11. When do you say that two compound propositions are equivalent?
Ans: Two statement formulas A and B are equivalent iff A  B or A  B is a tautology. It is denoted
by the symbol A  B which is read as “A is equivalence to B”
12. Prove that  p  q   p q   p q  [November 2010]
Ans:
 p  q   p  q   q  p    p  q    q  p 

  p   q    p  p   q   q    p  q 
  p   q    p  q 
13. Rewrite the following using quantifiers “Every student in the class studied calculus”.
Ans: Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 is a student and 𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 studied calculus
Symbolic form  x P ( x )  Q ( x ) 
14. Check whether   p  q   r  p is a tautology.
Ans:
 p  q   r    p   p  q   r    p    p  q   r    p   p   q   r   p 
 r   p  p   r   p   q   T  r   p   q   r   p   q 
The given statement is not a tautology
15. Write the statement in symbolic form “Some real numbers are rational”.
Ans: Let 𝑅(𝑥): 𝑥 is a real number and 𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 is rational
Symbolic form:  x  R  x   Q  x   .
16. Show that (p  q) (q  r) and ( p  q )  r are logically equivalent. [November 2014]
Ans:For ( p  q )  ( q  r ) to be false, one of the two implications must be false, which happens exactly
when r is false and at least one of p and q is true, but these are precisely the cases in which p  q is true
and r is false. Which is precisely when ( p  q )  r is false. Since the two propositions are false in
exactly the same situations they are logically equivalent.

17. Define Compound statement formula.

Ans: An expression consisting of simple statement functions (one or more variables) connected by logical
Connectives are called a compound statement.

18. Write the statement in symbolic form “Some integers are not square of any integers”.
Ans: Let 𝐼(𝑥): x is an integer and S(x): x is a square of any integer Symbolic
form:  x  I ( x )   S ( x )  .
19. Define Contradiction.
Ans: A propositional formula which is always false irrespective of the truth values of the individual
variables is a contradiction.
20. Define Universal quantification and Existential quantification.
Ans: The Universal quantification of a predicate formula P(x) is the proposition, denoted by  xP ( x ) that
is true if P (a) is true for all subject a.
The Existential quantification of a predicate formula P(x) is the proposition, denoted by  xP ( x ) that is true
if P(a) is true for some subject a.
PART – B
1(a) What is meant by Tautology? Without using truth table, show that
(( P  Q )   (  P  (  Q   R )))  (  P   Q )  (  P   R ) is a tautology.
Solution: A Statement formula which is true always irrespective of the truth values of the individual
variables is called a tautology.
Consider  (  P  (  Q   R )   (  P   (Q  R )  P  (Q  R )  ( P  Q )  ( P  R ) (1)
Consider (  P   Q )  (  P   R )   ( P  Q )   ( P  R )   (( P  Q )  ( P  R )) (2 )
Using (1) and (2)
(( P  Q )  ( P  Q )  ( P  R ))   (( P  Q )  ( P  R ))
 [( P  Q )  ( P  R )]   [( P  Q )  ( P  R )]  T

1(b) Prove the following equivalences by proving the equivalences of the dual
 ((  P  Q )  (  P   Q ))  ( P  Q )  P
Solution: It‟s dual is
 ((  P  Q )  (  P   Q ))  ( P  Q )  P
Consider,
 ((  P  Q )  (  P   Q ))  ( P  Q )  P Reasons
 ((P Q) ( P  Q))(P Q ) (Demorgan‟s law)
 ((Q P) ( Q P))(P Q)
(Commutative law)
(Distributive law)
 ((Q Q) P) (PQ )
(PP T)
 ( T P)(PQ )
( P  T  P)
 P( PQ )
(Absorption law)
 P
2(a) Prove that ( P  Q )  ( R  Q )  ( P  R )  Q .
Solution:
(P  Q)(R  Q) Reasons

 (P Q)(R Q) Since P Q  PQ

 (P R)Q) Distribution law

Demorgan‟s law
 (P  R)Q

since P Q  PQ
 P  R  Q
2(b) Obtain DNF of Q  ( P  R )   (( P  R )  Q ) .
Solution:
Q  ( P  R )   (( P  R )  Q )
 ( Q  ( P  R ))  (  (( P  R )  Q ) ( D e m o rg a n la w )

 ( Q  ( P  R ))  ((  P   R )   Q ) ( D e m o rg a n la w )

 ( Q  (  P   R ))  ( Q   Q )  (( P  R )   P   R )  (( P  R )   Q )

( E x te n d e d d is trib u te d la w )

 (  P  Q   R )  F  ( F  R   R )  ( P   Q  R ) ( N e g a t io n la w )

 (  P  Q   R )  ( P   Q  R ) ( N e g a t io n la w )
3(a) Obtain Pcnf and Pdnf of the formula (  P   Q )  ( P  Q)
Solution:
Let S = (  P   Q )  ( P   Q )
P Q P Q P  Q P  Q S Minterm Maxterm

T T F F F F T P Q
T F F T T T T P  Q
F T T F T T T P Q
F F T T T F F P Q

PCNF: P  Q and PDNF: ( P Q)( P  Q ) (P Q)

3(b) Obtain PDNF of P   P Q  P .

Solution:

P   P Q  P  ~ P  ( P  (~ Q  P ))

~ P  (P ~ Q) ( P  P)
 (~ P  T )  ( P  ~ Q )  ( P  P )
 (~ P  ( Q  ~ Q )  ( P  ~ Q ))  ( P  ( Q  ~ Q ))
 (~ P  Q )  (~ P  ~ Q )  ( P  ~ Q )  ( P  Q )  ( P  ~ Q )
 (~ P  Q )  (~ P  ~ Q )  ( P  ~ Q )  ( P  Q )

4(a) Without constructing the truth table obtain the product-of-sums canonical form of the formula
(  P  R )  ( Q  P ). Hence find the sum-of products canonical form.
Solution:
Let
S  (P  R) (Q  P)
 (  (  P )  R )  (( Q  P )  ( P  Q ))

 (P  R)(Q  P)(P Q )

 [( P  R )  F ]  [(  Q  P )  F ]  [(  P  Q )  F ]
 [( P  R )  ( Q   Q )  [(  Q  P )  ( R   R )]  [(  P  Q )  ( R   R )]
 ( P  R  Q )  ( P  R   Q )  (  Q  P  R )  (  Q  P   R ) 

(P Q  R)(P Q  R )
S  ( P  R  Q )  ( P  R   Q )  ( P   Q   R )  (  P  Q  R )  ( P  Q   R ) (Pcnf)
 S  The remaining maxterms of P,Q and R.
S  (PQR) (  P   Q  R )  (  P   Q   R ).
 ( S )  Apply duality principle to  S
S  (PQ  R) (PQ R) (PQ  R) (PDNF)
4(b) Obtain the PDNF and PCNF of P  (  P  (Q  (  Q  R ))).
Solution:
P  (  P  ( Q  (  Q  R )))

 P(P(Q (Q  R )))

 (P Q  R)

S (PQ  R )

S (PQ  R)(P Q  R)(P Q  R)

 (P Q  R)(PQ  R)(PQ  R)(P Q  R )

  S   ((  P  Q  R )  (  P   Q  R )  (  P   Q   R )

 ( P   Q   R )  (  P  Q   R )  ( P  Q   R )  ( P   Q  R ))

(P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q  R)

 (PQ  R) (PQ  R)(PQ  R)(P Q R)

5(a) Using indirect method of proof, derive p  ~s from the premises p  ( q r), q ~p, s ~r and p.
Solution:
Let ~ ( p  ~s ) be an additional premise.
~( p  ~s )  ~( ~p  ~s )  (p s)

1) p  ( q r) Rule P
2) p Rule P
3) ( q r) Rule T, 1,2
4) p s Rule AP
5) s Rule T,4
6) s ~r Rule P
7) ~r Rule T, 5, 6
8) q Rule T3,7
9) q ~p Rule P
10) ~P Rule T, 8, 9
11) p  ~p Rule T, 2,10
12) F Rule T, 11
5(b) Prove that the premises a  ( b  c ), d  ( b   c ), an d ( a  d ) are inconsistent.
Solution:

{1} a d Rule P
{1} a,d Rule T
{3} a  (b  c ) Rule P
{1,3} b c Rule T
 {1,3} bc Rule T
{6} d  (b   c ) Rule P
{6}  (b   c )   d Rule T
{6} (bc) d Rule T
{1,3,6} d Rule T
{1,3,6} d d Rule T
This is a false value. Hence the set of a premises are inconsistent

6(a) Use the indirect method to prove that the conclusion  z Q ( z ) follows from the premises
 x ( P ( x )  Q ( x )) and  yP ( y)
Solution:
1  z Q ( z ) P(assumed)
2  z  Q (z ) T, (1)
3  y P ( y) P
4 P (a ) ES, (3)
5  Q ( a) US, (2)
6 P ( a)   Q ( a) T, (4),(5)
7  ( P (a)  Q (a)) T, (6)
8  x ( P ( x )  Q (x )) P
9 P (a)  Q (a) US, (8)
10 P (a)  Q (a)   ( P (a)  Q (a)) T,(7),(9) contradiction
Hence the proof.
6(b) Show that R  S can be derived from the premises P  (Q  S ),  R  P & Q
Solution:
R Assumed premises
R P Rule P
R  P Rule T
P Rule T
P  (Q  S ) Rule P
Q  S Rule P
Q Rule P
S Rule T
R  S Rule CP

7(a) Prove that xPxQx, xRx QxxRxPx .

Solution:
Step Derivation Rule
1 xPxQx P
2 xRxQx P
3 RxQx US, (2)
4 Rx P ( assumed)
5 Qx T,(3),(4)
 6 PxQx US, (1)
7 Px T, (5),(6)
8 RxPx CP, (4),(7)
9 xRxPx UG, (9)

Hence the argument is valid

7(b) Show that (  x) (P(x)  Q(x))  (  x) P(x)  (  x) Q(x)
Solution:
1) (  x) (P(x)  Q(x)) Rule P
2) P(a)  Q(a) ES, 1
3) P(a) Rule T, 2
4) Q(a) Rule T, 2
5) (  x) P(x) EG, 3
6) (  x) Q(x) EG, 4
7) (  x) P(x)  (  x) Q(x) Rule T, 5, 6

8(a) Show that the following statements constitute a valid argument.

If there was rain, then traveling was difficult. If they had umbrella, then traveling was not difficult.
They had umbrella. Therefore there was no rain.
Solution:
Let P : There was rain Q : Traveling was difficult R : They had umbrella
Then, the given statements are symbolized as
(1) P  Q (2) R  ~Q (3) R
Conclusion : ~P
1) R Rule P
2) R  ~Q Rule P
3) ~ Q Rule T,1,2
4) P  Q Rule P
5) ~ P Rule T,3,4
Therefore, it is a valid conclusion.

8(b) Show that the following premises are inconsistent.

(1) If Nirmala misses many classes through illness then he fails high school.
(2) If Nirmala fails high school, then he is uneducated.
(3) If Nirmala reads a lot of books then he is not uneducated.
(4) Nirmala misses many classes through illness and reads a lot of books.
 Solution:
E : Nirmala misses many classes
S: Nirmala fails high school
A: Nirmala reads lot of books
H: Nirmala is uneducated
Statement:
(1) E  S
(2) S  H
(3) A  ~ H
(4) E  A
Premises are : E  S , S  H , A ~ H, E  A

1) E  S Rule P
2) S  H Rule P
3) E  H Rule T, 1,2
4) A  ~ H Rule P
5) H  ~A Rule T,4
6) E  ~A Rule T,3,5
7) ~ E  ~ A Rule T,6
8) ~(E  A) Rule T,7
9) E  A Rule P
10) (E  A)  ~ (E  A) Rule T,8,9
Which is nothing but false
Therefore given set of premises are inconsistent

9(a) Show that the hypotheses,”It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday,” ” We will
go swimming only if it is sunny,” “If we do not go swimming then we will take a canoe trip,” and “If
we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset “lead to the conclusion “we will be home by
sunset”.
Solution:
p – It is sunny this afternoon.
q- It is colder than yesterday
r- we will go swimming
s- we will take a canoe trip
t- we will be home by sunset
The given premises are  p  q , r  p ,  r  s & s  t
Step Reason
p  q Hypothesis
p step 1
r  p Hypothesis
r moduus tollens step 2 &3
 r  s Hypothesis
s modus ponens step 4 &5
s  t Hypothesis
t modus ponens step 6&7

9(b) Prove that 2 is irrational by giving a proof using contradiction.

Solution:

Let P: 2 is irrational.
Assume ~P is true, then 2 is rational, which leads to a contradiction.
a
By our assumption is 2  , where a and b have no common factors ---------------(1)
b
2
 2 a  2b
2
 a
2
 a2 is even.  a = 2c
2
b
2b
2
4c
2
 b
2
 2c
2
 b
2
is even  b is even as well.
 a and b have common factor 2 (since a and b are even)
But it contradicts (1)
This is a contradiction.
Hence ~P is false.
Thus P: 2 is irrational is true.
10(a) Let p, q, r be the following statements:
p: I will study discrete mathematics
q: I will watch T.V.
r: I am in a good mood.
Write the following statements in terms of p, q, r and logical connectives.
(1) If I do not study and I watch T.V., then I am in good mood.
(2) If I am in good mood, then I will study or I will watch T.V.
(3) If I am not in good mood, then I will not watch T.V. or I will study.
(4) I will watch T.V. and I will not study if and only if I am in good mood.
Solution:
(1) (  p  q )  r
(2)r  (p q)
(3) r  (q p)
(4)(qp)  r
10(b) Give a direct proof of the statement.”The square of an odd integer is an odd integer”.
Solution:
Given: The square of an odd integer is an odd integer”.
P: n is an odd integer.
Q:n2 is an odd integer
Hypothesis: Assume that P is true
Analysis : n=2k+1 where k is some integer.
n2=(2k+1)2=2(2k2+2k)+1
Conclusion: n2 is not divisible by 2.Therefore n2 is an odd integer.
P  Q is true.
 UNIT II COMBINATORICS
PART – A
1. State pigeon hole principle.
Ans: If (n+1) pigeons occupies n holes then at least one hole has more than 1 pigeon.
2. State the generalized pigeon hole principle.
m 1
Ans: If m pigeons occupies n holes (m>n), then at least one hole has more than 1 pigeons.
 
 n 
3. Show that, among 100 people, at least 9 of them were born in the same month.
Ans: Here no.of pigeon =m= no. of people =100
No. of holes = n= no. of month =12
1001
Then by generalized pigeon hole principle, 19 were born in the same month.
 
 12 
4. In how many ways can 6 persons occupy 3 vacant seats?
Ans: Total no of ways = 6 c3 = 20 ways.
5. How many permutations of the letters in ABCDEFGH contain the string ABC .
Ans: Because the letters ABC must occur as block, we can find the answer by finding no of permutation of
six objects, namely the block ABC and individual letters D,E,F,G and H . Therefore, there are 6! =720
permutations of the letters in ABCDEFGH which contains the string ABC.
6. How many different bit strings are there of length 7?
Ans: By product rule, 27=128 ways
7. How many ways are there to form a committee, if the committee consists of 3 educationalists and 4
socialist, if there are 9 educationalists and 11 socialist?
Ans: The 3 educationalist can be chosen from 9 educationalists in 9 c3 ways.
The 4 socialist can be chosen from 11 socialist in 11C 4 ways.
By product rule, the no of ways to select, the committee is = 9C 3.11C4 = 27720 ways.
8. There are 5 questions in a question paper in how many ways can a boy solve one or more questions?
Ans: The boy can dispose of each question in two ways .He may either solve it or leave it.
Thus the no. of ways of disposing all the questions= 2 5 .
But this includes the case in which he has left all the questions unsolved.
The total no of ways of solving the paper = 2 5  1 = 31.
9. If the sequence a n 3 .2 n , n  1 , then find the corresponding recurrence relation.
n
2 an
Ans: For n ≥ 1 an  3 . 2
n
, a n  1  3 .2
n1
 3.  a n 1   2 a n 1  an
2 2
a
n
 2a
n 1
, for n≥1, with a0  3.

10. If seven colours are used to paint 50 bicycles, then show that at least 8 bicycles will be the same
colour.
Ans: Here, No. of Pigeon = 𝑚 = No. of bicycle=50
No. of Holes = 𝑛 = No. of colours = 7
 5 0  1 
By generalized pigeon hole principle, we have  1  8
7 
 
11. Find the recurrence relation whose solution is S ( k )  5 .2 k
5
S(k 
k k1 k k
Ans: Given S ( k )  5 .2  1)  5 .2 = .2 2 S ( k  1)  5 .2  S (k)
2
2 S ( k  1)  S ( k )  0 , w ith S ( 0 )  5 is the required recurrence relation.
12. Find the associated homogeneous solution for na  3a  2n.
n 1

Ans: Its associated homogeneous equation is na  3 a n 1  0

Its characteristic equation is r-3 =0  r =3

n
Now, the solution of associated homogeneous equation is a  A .3
n

13. Solve S ( k )  7 S ( k  1)  1 0 S ( k  2 )  0
Ans: The associated homogeneous relation is S ( k )  7 S ( k  1)  1 0 S ( k  2 )  0

r  7 r  1 0  0  ( r  2 )( r  5 )  0  r =2,5
2
Its characteristic equation is
The solution of associated homogeneous equation is k S  A .2 k  B .5 k
14. Define Generating function.
Ans: The generating function for the sequence„s‟ with terms a0 , a , .........a
1
…,of
n
real numbers is the


= anx .
n
n
infinite sum . G(x) = G(s,x) = a0  a x  .........  a x  .....
1 n
n0

15. Find the generating function for the sequence “S” with terms 1,2,3,4……..

1
 ( n  1) x
2
= (1  x ) 
n 2
Ans: G ( x )  G(s,x)  =1  2 x  3 x  .......... 2
.
n0 (1  x )
16. How many permutations of (a, b, c, d, e, f, g) end with a? [November 2014]
Ans: 6! 1!=720
17. Find the number of arrangements of the letters in MAPPANASSRR.
1 1! 3991680
Ans: Number of arrangements  
3 !2 !2 ! 48
18. In how many ways can letters of the word “INDIA” be arranged?
Ans: The word contains 5 letters of which 2 are I‟s.
5!
The number of words possible =  60 .
2!
19. How many students must be in a class to guarantee that atleast two students receive the same score
on the final exam if the exam is graded on a scale from 0 to 100 points.
Ans: There are 101 possible scores as 0, 1, 2, …,100. By Pigeon hole principle, we have among 102
students there must be atleast two students with the same score. The class should contain minimum 102
students.
20 Show that among any group of five (not necessarily consecutive) integers, there are two with same
remainder when divided by 4.
Ans: Take any group of five integers. When these are divided by 4 each have some remainder.
Since there are five integers and four possible remainders when an integer is divided by 4, the
pigeonhole principle implies that given five integers, atleast two have the same remainder.
 PART – B
1(a) n
n (n1)(2n1)
Using Mathematical induction prove that  i
2

i 1
6

Solution:
n ( n  1) ( 2 n  1)
Let P(n) : 12 + 22 + …..+ n2 =
6

1 (1  1) ( 2 .1  1)
(1) Basic Step: P(1) : 12 = is true
6

k ( k  1) ( 2 k  1)
(2) Assume P(k) : 12 + 22 + …..+k2 = is true, where k is any integer.
6

k ( k  1) ( 2 k  1)
(3) P(k + 1) = 12 + 22 + …..+k2 + (k + 1)2 =  ( k  1)
2

( k  1) [ ( k  1)  1] [( 2 ( k  1)  1]
=
6

Therefore P(k + 1) is true.

n ( n  1) ( 2 n  1)
n

Hence,  i 2  is true for all n.

i 1 6
1(b)
Use mathematical Induction to prove that 3n  7n  2   is divisible by 8, for n 1.
Solution:

Let Pn : 3n  7n  2  is divisible by 8.
(i) Basic Step: P1 : 3  7  2 8 is divisible by 8, is true.
1 1

(ii) Assume Pk  : 3  7  2 is divisible by 8 is true (1)

k k

(iii) Induction Step: Pk 1 is true

Pk 1  3k+1  7k+1  2
 33k 7 7k  2
 3.3k  37k  47k  6  4
   
 3 3k  7k  2  4 7k 1
 47k 1 is divisible by 8 and by (1) 33k  7k  2 is divisible by 8.

Pk 1  33k  7k  2 47k 1 is divisible by 8 is true.

2(a) Prove by mathematical induction that 6  7
n2 2n1
is divisible by 43 for each positive integer n.
Solution:
S(1): Inductive step: for 𝑛 = 1,
1 2 21
6  7 =559, which is divisible by 43
So S(1) is true.
Assume S(k) is true (i.e) 6 k  2  7 2 k  1  4 3 m for some integer m.
 To prove S(k+1) is true.Now
k3 2k 3 k3 2k1 2
6 7  6 7 .7
k2 2k1 2k1
6(6 7 )  4 3 .7
2k1
 6 .4 3 m  4 3 .7
2k1
 43(6m7 )
Which is divisible by 43.
So S(k+1) is true. By Mathematical Induction , S(n) is true for all integer n.
2(b) Using mathematical induction ,prove that 2  2 2  2 3  .........  2 n  2 n  1  2
Let p (n) = 2  2 2  2 3  .........  2 n .
Assume p (1): 21  21  1  2 is true.
Assume p(k) : 2  2 2  2 3  .........  2 k  2 k  1  2 is true
Claim p(k+1) is true.
P(k+1) : 2  2 2  2 3  ...  2 k  2 k  1 = 2 k  1  2  2 k  1 = 2 .2 k  1  2 = 2 k  2  2
P(k+1) is true.
Hence it is true for all n.
3(a) Suppose there are six boys and five girls,
(1) In how many ways can they sit in a row.
(2) In how many ways can they sit in a row, if the boys and girls each sit together.
(3) In how many ways can they sit in a row, if the girls are to sit together and the boy don‟t sit
together.
(4) How many seating arrangements are there with no two girls sitting together.
Solution:
1. There are 6 + 5 = 11 persons and they can sit in 11P 11 ways.
11P11 = 11! ways
2. The boys among themselves can sit in 6! ways and girls among themselves can sit in 5! ways.They can
be considered as 2 units and can be permuted in 2! ways.

Thus the required seating arrangement can be done in = 2! x 6! x 5! ways

= 172800 ways
3. The boys can sit in 6! Ways and girls in 5! ways.
Since girls have to sit together they are considered as one unit. Among the 6 boys either 0 or 1 or 2 or 3
or 4 or 5 or 6 have to sit to the left of the girls units. Of these seven ways 0 and 6 cases have to be omitted
as the boys do not sit together.Thus the required number of arrangements = 5 x 6! x 5! = 432000 ways.
4. The boys can sit in 6 ! ways. There are seven places where the girls can be placed. Thus the total
arrangements are 7P5 x 6! Ways = 1814400 ways.
3(b) A bit is either 0 or 1 . A byte is a sequence of 8 bits. Find the number of bytes.Among these how many
are (i) Starting with 11 and ending with 00 (ii) Starting with 11 but not ending with 00.
Solution:
(1) Consider a byte starting with 11 and ending with 00.Now the remaining 4 places can be filled with
either 0 or 1 which can be done in 24.Hence there are 16 bytes starting with 00 and ending with11.
(2) Consider a byte starting with 11 and not ended with 00 Now there are 3 bytes which is not ended with
00(ended with 01,10 and 11).Now the remaining 4 places can be filled with either 0 or 1 which can be done
in 24ways.Hence there are 3×16=48 bytes starting with 00 but not ending with11
4. How many positive integers 'n ' can be formed using the digits 3,4,4,5,5,6,7 if 'n ' has to exceed
50,00,000 ?
Solution:
Consider a 7digit number p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 , p7 , in order to be a number ≥ 5000000 , p1 is filled with
 either 5 or 6 or 7 (mutually exclusive)
6!
Case(1): p 1 is filled with 5 and remaining 6 position are filled with 3, 4, 4(repeated),5,6,7 in =  3 60
2!
Case(2): p
1
is filled with 6 and remaining 6 positions are filled with 3,4,4 (repeated) 5,5 (repeated), 7 in
6!
=  1 80
2!2!
Case(3) p
1
is filled with 7 and remaining 6 position are filled with 3,4,4(repeated),5,5 (repeated), 6 in
6!
=  1 80
2!2!
All above 3 cases are mutually exclusive in total 360+180+180=720 ways.
5. Prove that in any group of six people there must be atleast three mutual friends or three mutual
enemies.
Proof:
Let the six people be A, B, C, D, E and F. Fix A. The remaining five people can accommodate into two
groups namely
(1) Friends of A and (2) Enemies of A
5 1
Now by generalized Pigeon hole principle, at least one of the group must contain  1  3 people.
 
 2 
Let the friend of A contain 3 people.(Let it be B, C, D)
Case(1) If any two of these three people (B, C, D) are friends, then these two together with A form three
mutual friends.
Case(2) If no two of these three people are friends, then these three people (B, C, D) are mutual enemies.
In either case, we get the required conclusion.
If the group of enemies of A contains three people, by the above similar argument, we get the required
conclusion.
6(a) In A survey of 100 students, it was found that 30 studied Mathematics, 54 studied Statistics, 25
studied Operations Research, 1 studied all the three subjects, 20 studied Mathematics and Statistics,
3 studied Mathematics and Operation Research and 15 studied Statistics and Operation Research.
Find how many students studied none of these subjects and how many students studied only
Mathematics?
Solution.
n(A) = 30; n(B) = 54;n(C) = 25;
n(AB) = 20; n(AC) = 3; n(BC) = 15;
n(ABC)=1
n(ABC) = n(A)+n(B)+n(C) – n(AB) – n(BC) – n(AC) + n(ABC) = 72
None of the subjects = 28.
Only mathematics = 8.
6(b) A total of 1232 students have taken a course in Spanish, 879 have taken a course in French, and 114
have taken a course in Russian. Further, 103 have taken courses in both Spanish and Russian, 23
have taken courses in both Spanish and French and 14 have taken courses in both French and
Russian. If 2092 students have taken atleast one of Spanish, French and Russian, how many students
have taken a course in all three languages?
Solution: S-Spanish,F-French, R-Russian
|S|=1232 |F|=879 |R|=114 |S∩R|=103 |S∩F|=23 |F∩R|=14
|S∪F∪R|=2092
|S∪F∪R=|S|+|F|+|R|-|S∩F|- |S∩R|-|F∩R|+|S∩F∩R|
 |S∩F∩R|=7
7(a) Find all the solution of the recurrence relation an = 5an–1 – 6 an–2 + 7n
Solution:
Given non-homogeneous equation can be written as an – 5an–1 + 6 an–2 – 7n = 0
Now, its associated homogeneous equation is an – 5an–1 + 6 an–2 = 0
Its characteristic equation is r2 – 5r + 6 = 0
Roots are r = 2,3
(h ) n n
Solution is a n  c1 2  c 2 3
To find particular solution
Since F(n) = 7n, then the solution is of the form C.7n, where C is a constant.
Therefore, the equation an = 5an–1 – 6 an–2 + 7n becomes C7n = 5C7n–1–6C7n–2+7n ……(1)
Dividing the both sides of (1) by 7n–2.
n n 1 n2 n
C .7 5C7 6C7 7 49
(1)      C 
n2 n2 n2 n2
7 7 7 7 20
 (p) 49 n
Hence the particular solution is a  7
 
n
20 
n n 49  n 
Therefore, a  c (2)  c (3)  7
 
n 1 2
 20 
7(b) Find the number of integers between 1 and 250 that are not divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 &7.
Sol: Let A, B, C,D are the set of integers between 1 and 250 that are divisible by 2, 3, 5, 7 respectively.
250 250
 | A | [ ]  125 , | B | [ ]  83
2 3
250 250
| C | [ ]  50 , | D | [ ]  35
5 7
 250   250   250 
| A  B |       41
  
 LCM ( 2 ,3 )   2  3   6 
 250   250   250 
| A  C |      25
   
 LCM ( 2 ,5 )   2 5  10 
 250   250   250 
| A  D |     
    17
 LCM ( 2 ,7 )   2  7   14 
 250   250   250 
| B  C |      16
   
 LCM ( 3 ,5 )   5 3  15 
 250  250   2 5 0 
| B  D |          11
 L C M (7, 3)  7 3   2 1 
 250  250   2 5 0 
| C  D |          7
 L C M ( 5, 7 )  5 7   3 5 
 250   250 
| A  B  C |       8
 LCM ( 2 ,3 ,5 )   2  3  5 
 250   250 
| A  B  D |     5
 
 LCM ( 2 ,3 ,7 )   2  3  7 
 250   250 
| A  C  D |       3
 LCM ( 2 ,5 ,7 )   2  5  7 
 250   250 
| B  C  D |     2
 
 LCM ( 3 ,5 ,7 )  3  5  7 
 250   250 
| A  B  C  D |    1
 
 LCM ( 2 ,3 ,5 ,7 )   2  3  5  7 
| A B  C  D || A| |B | |C | |D | | A B || A C || A D ||B  C|

|B  D | |C  D | | A B C | | A B  D | | A C  D|

 |B  C  D || A B C  D |
=125+83+50+35-41-25-17-16-11-7+8+5+3+2-1=193
The number of integers between 1 and 250 that is divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 and 7=193
Therefore not divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 and 7=250-193=57.
8(a) Solve the recurrence relation an  2 (a
n 1
 a
n2
) where 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐 and a
0
 1, a
1
 2

a  2(a  a )
n n 1 n2

a  2a  2a  0
n n 1 n2

The characteristic equation is given by

  2  2 0
2

2  4  4 (2) 2 i2
     1 i
2 2
   1  i ,1  i
n n
 Solution is a n  A (1  i )  B (1  i )
Where A and B are arbitrary constants
Now, we have
z  x  iy
 r [cos   i sin  ]

1  y 
  tan  
 x 
By Demoivre‟s theorem we have,
n     n
(1  i )  [ 2  cos  i sin ]
 4 4 
n  n n  
 [ 2 ]  cos  i sin 
 4 4 
n n  n n  
and (1  i )  [ 2 ]  cos  i sin 
 4 4 
Now,
n  n n  n  n n  
a n  A [[ 2 ]  c o s  i s in  ]  B [[ 2 ]  c o s  i s in ]
 4 4   4 4 
n  n n  
[ 2 ]  ( A  B ) c os  i ( A  B ) s in 
 4 4 

n  n n  
an [ 2 ]  C 1 c os  C 2 s in  ] (1)
 4 4 
Is the required solution. Let C =𝐴
1
+ 𝐵, C =𝑖(𝐴−𝐵)
2

Since 𝑎0 = 1, 𝑎1 = 2
 (1)  a  ( 2 )[ C cos 0  C sin 0 ]  0
0 1 2

 1 C
1

1   
a 1  [ 2 ]  C 1 cos  C 2 sin  ]
 4 4 
 1 1 
2  2  C1  C 2sin  ]
 2 2 
 2 C C
1 2

 C 1
2

n  n n  
 an  [ 2 ]  cos  sin  ]
 4 4 

8(b) Solve the recurrence relation of the Fibonacci sequence of numbers f  f  f ,n  2

n n 1 n2

with initial conditions f1  1, f 2  1 .

Sol: The sequence of Fibonacci numbers satisfies the recurrence relation
f  f
n n 1
 f
n2
..... (1) and satisfies the initial conditions f1  1, f 2  1 .
(1)  f  f  f  0 ...( 2 )
n n 1 n2
𝑛
Let 𝑓𝑛= 𝑟 be a solution of the given equation.
The characteristic equation is 𝑟2 − 𝑟 − 1 = 0
1 1 4
r 
2
1 5 1 5
Let r1  , r 2 
2 2
 By theorem
n n
1 5   1  5 
fn  1    2  ...( 3 )
   
 2   2 
1 5   1  5 
f 1 f        1
1 1 1 
2  2  2 
   
(1  5 )  (1  5 )  2 ...( 4 )
1 2

2 2
1 5   1  5 
f  1 f        1
2 2 1
2  2  2 
   
2 2
(1  5) (1  5)
 1  2
1
4 4
 (1  5)   (1  5)   4
2 2
...( 5 )
1 2
 ( 4 )  (1  5 ) 

5 )   (1  5) 
2
(1  5) (1   2 (1  5) ...( 6 )
1 2

( 6 )  ( 5 )   (1  5 )[1  5 1 5] 2  2 5 4

1

 (1  5)[2 5] 2 2 5

1

 1 (1  5 ) [  2 5 ]   2 (1  5)
1
 1 
5
1
4 )  (1  5)  (1  5 ) 2  2
5
1
 1  (1  5 ) 2  2
5
1
(1  5 ) 2  2  1
5
1
 1 
5
5 1
(1  5 ) 2 
5
1
 2 
5
n n
1 1  5   1  1  5 
( 3 )  fn      
5  2 
 5  2 


9(a) Solve the recurrence relation a n  6a  11 a  6a with a  2,a  5 and a  15

n 1 n2 n3 0 1 2

[November 2014]
Solution:
The unique Solution to this recurrence relation and the given initial condition is the sequence { a
n
} with
n n
a 1 2  2 .3
n

9(b) A factory makes custom sports cars at an interesting rate. In the first month only one car is made, in
the second month two cars are made and so on, with n cars made in the nth month.
(1) Set up recurrence relation for the number of cars produced in the first n months by this factory.
(2) How many cars are produced in the first year?
Solution:
(i) a n  n  a n  1 , a o  0 ( a 1  1, a 2  2  a 1 , e tc )
(ii) By recursively a  78
12

10(a) Solve 𝑺(𝒏 + 𝟏) − 𝟐𝑺(𝒏) = 𝟒𝒏, with 𝑺(𝟎) = 𝟏 and 𝒏 ≥ 𝟏

Solution: Given 𝑎𝑛+1− 2𝑎𝑛− 4𝑛 =0
Multiply by x n , and sum over all n  0 to  .
   
n n n n

a
n0
n1x  2 a
n0
n x  4 n0
x  0

13x
G ( x ) 
(1  2 x )(1  4 x )
1 1
By Applying Partial fractions we get A , B 
2 2
 
1 n n 1 n n
G ( x) 
2
2 x 
2
4 x
n0 n0

henceweget
n 1 n 1
an  2  2 ( 4)
10(b) Find the generating function of Fibonacci sequence.
Solution
Fibonacci sequence : fn  f n  1  f n  2 , n  2 with f o  0, f 1
1

Multiply by z , and sum over all n  2 .

n

  
n n n

 f nz   f n1z   f n2z
n2 n2 n2
2
G ( z )  f 0  f z1  z ( G ( z )  f 0)  z ( G ( z ))

n

G(z) 
n0
fnz

Where ( i.e ) G ( z )  z G ( z )  z 2 G ( z )  f0  f 1z  z f 0
z
G ( z )  2

1 z  z

01.
UNIT III GRAPH THEORY

02.

03.

04.
 a  b 1 and a  c 1
 a  ba c
Hence b = c.
7(a) Show that in a distributive lattice and complemented lattice a  b  a * b   0  a   b  1  b   a 
Proof:
a  b  a * b   0  a   b  1  b   a 
Claim 1: a  b  a * b   0
Since a  b  a  b  b , a * b  a
Now a * b   (( a * b ) * b )  ( a * b * b )  a * 0  0
Claim 2: a * b   0  a   b  1
We have a * b   0
Taking complement on both sides, we have
 a * b     0   ab1

Claim 3: a   b  1  b   a 
a   b  1   a   b  * b   1 * b    a  * b     b * b    b    a  * b    0  b 

a  * b   b   b   a 
Claim 4: b   a   a  b
We have b   a  taking complement we get b   a   a  b
7(b) In a Boolean algebra prove that  a  b  '  a ' b '
Proof:
( a  b )  ( a   b )  { ( a  b )  a }  { ( a  b )  b }
 { ( a  a )  ( b  a )}  { ( a  b )  ( b  b )}
 {1  ( b  a )}  { ( a  b )  1}
 b  b 
 1
( a  b )  ( a   b )  { ( a  b )  a }  { ( a  b )  b }
 { a  a   b }  { a  b  b }
 { 0  b }  { a  0}
 0
Hence proved.
8(a) In any Boolean algebra, show that ab   a b  0 if and only if a = b
Proof:
Let a = b
Now ab   a b  aa   a a  0  0  0
Conversely let ab   a b  0
Now
a b   a b  0  a b    a b  a b

and a  a .1  a ( b  b )  a b  a b   a b  a b   a  a   b  1 .b  b
8(b)
Simplify ( i )  a * b    a  b  ( ii )  a  * b  * c    a * b  * c    a * b  * c  
Solution:
(i)  a * b    a  b    a  b    a * b 
   
  a  b   a  *  a  b   b   a  * b 
   

(ii )  a * b * c    a * b * c    a * b * c    ( a   a ) * (b  * c )  b  * c
9(a) In a Boolean algebra prove that ( i ) a *  a  b   a ( ii ) a   a * b   a for all a , b  B
Proof:
( i ) a *  a  b   ( a  0 ) *  a  b 

a(0*b )
a  (b*0)a  0a
Similarly by duality we have a   a * b   a
9(b) Show that in any Boolean algebra,  a  b    b  c    c  a     a   b   b   c   c   a 
Proof:
 a  b    b  c    c  a     a  b   0   b  c   0   c  a   0 
  a  b   cc    b  c   a a    c  a   b b  
  a  b   c  .  a  b   c   .  b  c   a  .  b  c   a   .  c  a   b  .  c  a   b  
  a   b   cc   b   c  a a    c   a  b b  
  ab0  bc0  ca 0 

  a   b   b   c   c   a 
10(a) Show that in any Boolean algebra, a b  b c  c a  a b  b c  c a .
Solution:
Let (B, +, 0, 1) be any Boolean algebra and a, b, c  B.
a b  b c  c a  a b .1  b c .1  c a .1

 ab(c c)bc(a  a)ca(bb )

 a b c  a b c  ab c  ab c  a bc  a bc

 ( a b c  a bc )  ( ab c  a b c )  ( ab c  a bc )

(a  a)bc(bb)ac(c c)ab

1. bc 1.ac1. ab

 ab  bc c a

 ab bc ca  ab  bc c a

10(b) Apply Demorgan‟s theorem to the following expression
(i) x  y (x y) ( ii ) ( a  b  c )d