Data Collection

Topics Covered
Data collection
• Primary data - methods and techniques of primary data
• Secondary data -methods and techniques
• Interviews
• Surveys and sample surveys
• Census
Sources of Data
 Primary vs. Secondary Data
• Primary data are originated by
a researcher for the specific
purpose of addressing the
problem at hand.
• Secondary data are data which
have already been collected for
purposes other than the problem
at hand. These data can be
located quickly and
inexpensively.
 A Comparison of Primary & Secondary Data

Primary Data Secondary Data

Collection purpose For the problem at hand For other problems

Collection process Very involved Rapid & easy
Collection cost High Relatively low
Collection time Long Short
Secondary Data
 Uses of Secondary Data
• Identify the problem
• Better define the problem
• Develop an approach to the problem
• Formulate an appropriate research design (for
example, by identifying the key variables)
• Answer certain research questions and test some
hypotheses
• Interpret primary data more insightfully
 Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data

• Specifications: Methodology Used to Collect the Data

• Error: Accuracy of the Data
• Currency: When the Data was Collected
• Objective(s): The Purpose for Which the Data was Collected
• Nature: The Content of the Data
• Dependability: Overall, how Dependable is the Data
Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data
Criteria Issues Remarks

Specifications & Data collection method, response rate, Data should be reliable, valid, &
Methodology quality & analysis of data, sampling generalizable to the problem.
technique & size, questionnaire design,
fieldwork. Assess accuracy by comparing
Error & Accuracy Examine errors in approach, data from different sources.
research design, sampling, data
collection & analysis, & reporting. Census data are updated by
Currency syndicated firms.
Time lag between collection & The objective determines the
Objective publication, frequency of updates. relevance of data.
Why were the data collected? Reconfigure the data to increase
Nature their usefulness.
Definition of key variables, units of
measurement, categories used, relationships Data should be obtained from
Dependability examined. an original source.
Expertise, credibility, reputation, &
trustworthiness of the source.
Classification of Secondary Data

Secondary Data

Internal External

Ready to Use Published Computerized Syndicated

Requires Further
Materials Databases Services
Processing
Classification of Published Secondary Sources

Published Secondary
Data

General Business Sources Government

Sources

Guides Directories Indexes Statistical Census Other

Data Data Government
Publications
 Published External Secondary Sources
Guides
• An excellent source of standard or recurring information
• Helpful in identifying other important sources of directories, trade associations, and trade
publications
• One of the first sources a researcher should consult

Directories
• Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect specific data
• Examples: Consultants and Consulting Organizations Directory, Encyclopedia of
Associations, FINDEX: The Directory of Market Research Reports, Studies and Surveys,
and Research Services Directory

Indices
• Helpful in locating information on a particular topic in several different publications
Primary Data
 Primary Data

Primary Data

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Objective To gain a qualitative To quantify the data and generalize

understanding of the underlying the results from the sample to the
reasons and motivations population of interest

Small number of Large number of representative

Sample non-representative cases cases

Unstructured Structured
Data Collection
Non-statistical Statistical
Data Analysis
Develop an initial understanding Recommend a final course of action
Outcome
 Classification of Primary data

Primary data

Direct (Non Indirect

disguised) (Disguised)

Projective
Techniques
Focus Groups Depth Interviews

Association Completion Construction Expressive

Techniques Techniques Techniques Techniques
Characteristics of Focus Groups
Group Size 8-12

Group Composition Homogeneous, respondents,

prescreened

Physical Setting Relaxed, informal atmosphere

Time Duration 1-3 hours

Recording Use of audiocassettes and videotapes

Moderator Observational, interpersonal, and

communication skills of the moderator
Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus Groups

Determine the Objectives and Define the Problem

Specify the Objectives of Qualitative Research

State the Objectives/Questions to be Answered by Focus Groups

Write a Screening Questionnaire

Develop a Moderator’s Outline

Conduct the Focus Group Interviews

Review Tapes and Analyze the Data

Summarize the Findings and Plan Follow-Up Research or Action

 Types of Focus Groups
• Two-way focus group. This allows one target group to listen to and learn
from a related group. For example, a focus group of physicians viewed a
focus group of arthritis patients discussing the treatment they desired.

• Dual-moderator group. A focus group conducted by two moderators: One

moderator is responsible for the smooth flow of the session, and the other
ensures that specific issues are discussed.

• Dueling-moderator group. There are two moderators, but they deliberately

take opposite positions on the issues to be discussed.
 Types of Focus Groups
• Respondent-moderator group. The moderator asks selected participants to
play the role of moderator temporarily to improve group dynamics.

• Client-participant groups. Client personnel are identified and made part of

the discussion group.

• Mini groups. These groups consist of a moderator and only 4 or 5

respondents.

• Tele-session groups. Focus group sessions by phone using the conference

call technique.

• Online Focus groups. Focus groups conducted online over the Internet.
 Advantages of Focus Groups

1. Synergism
2. Snowballing
3. Stimulation
4. Security
5. Spontaneity
6. Serendipity
7. Specialization
8. Scientific scrutiny
9. Structure
10. Speed
 Disadvantages of Focus Groups

1. Misuse
2. Misjudge
3. Moderation
4. Messy
5. Misrepresentation
 Depth Interview Techniques: Laddering

In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from

product characteristics to user characteristics. This
technique allows the researcher to tap into the
consumer's network of meanings.

Wide body aircrafts (product characteristic)

I can get more work done

I accomplish more

I feel good about myself (user characteristic)

Advertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flying
our airline. “You're The Boss.”
 Depth Interview Techniques:
Hidden Issue Questioning

In hidden issue questioning, the focus is not on socially shared values but
rather on personal “sore spots;” not on general lifestyles but on deeply felt
personal concerns.

fantasies, work lives, and social lives

historic, elite, “masculine-camaraderie,” competitive activities

Advertising theme: communicate aggressiveness, high status, and

competitive heritage of the airline.
Primary Data collection
Survey methods
 A Classification of Survey Methods

Survey
Methods

Telephone Personal Mail Electronic

In-Home Mall Intercept Computer-Assisted

E-mail Internet
Personal Interviewing

Traditional Computer-Assisted
Mail Interview Mail
Telephone Telephone Interviewing
Panel
 A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods

Mall-Interce
Criteria Phone/ In-Home pt Interviews Mail Mail
CATI Interviews CAPI Surveys Panels E-Mail Internet
Primary Data collection
Observation methods
 Structured versus Unstructured
Observation

• For structured observation, the researcher specifies in

detail what is to be observed and how the
measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor
performing inventory analysis in a store.

• In unstructured observation, the observer monitors all

aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the
problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing with
new toys.
 Observation Methods
Disguised versus Undisguised Observation

• In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware that they are

being observed. Disguise may be accomplished by using one-way
mirrors, hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices.
Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.

• In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware that they are

under observation.
 Observation Methods
Natural versus Contrived Observation

• Natural observation involves observing behavior as it takes places in the

environment. For example, one could observe the behavior of
respondents eating fast food in Burger King.

• In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is observed in an

artificial environment, such as a test kitchen.
 A Classification of Observation Methods

Classifying
Observation
Methods

Observation Methods

Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace

Observation Observation Analysis Analysis
 Observation Methods
Personal Observation

• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.

• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the
phenomenon being observed but merely records what takes
place.
• For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and
observe traffic flows in a department store.
 Observation Methods
Mechanical Observation

Do not require respondents' direct participation.

– the AC Nielsen audimeter
– turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving a building.
– On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
– Optical scanners in supermarkets
Do require respondent involvement.
– eye-tracking monitors
– pupilometers
– psychogalvanometers
– voice pitch analyzers
– devices measuring response latency
 Observation Methods
Audit

• The researcher collects data by examining physical records or

performing inventory analysis.
• Data are collected personally by the researcher.
• The data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects.
 Observation Methods
Content Analysis

• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest

content of a communication.
• The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals or objects),
themes (propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of
the message), or topics (subject of the message).
• Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed and the
communication is broken down according to prescribed rules.
 Observation Methods
Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past
behavior.

• The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement rate was used to determine
the relative popularity of exhibits.
• The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the readership of various
advertisements in a magazine.
• The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used to estimate share of listening
audience of various radio stations.
• The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the affluence of customers.
• The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine people's favorite magazines.
• Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine browsing and usage behavior by using
cookies.
 A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods

Criteria Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace

Observation Observation Analysis Analysis Analysis

Degree of structure Low Low to high High High Medium

Degree of disguise Medium Low to high Low High High
Ability to observe High Low to high High Medium Low
in natural setting
Observation bias High Low Low Medium Medium
Analysis Bias High Low to Low Low Medium
Medium
General remarks Most Can be Expensive Limited to Method of
flexible intrusive commu- last resort
nications
 Relative Advantages of Observation
• They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of
intended or preferred behavior.
• There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer
and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.
• Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration,
observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
 Relative Disadvantages of Observation

• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is known
about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.
• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult to
observe certain forms of behavior.
• In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing
people without their knowledge or consent.

It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than as

being in competition with them.