LEARN PRACTISE SUCCEED LEARN

PRACTISE SUCCEED LEARN PRACTISE

SUCCEED LEARN PRACTISE SUCCEED

LEARN PR ISE LEARN

PRACTISE SUCCEED LEARN PRACTISE
SUCCEED LEARN PRACTISE SUCCEED

UNITY PUBLIC SCHOOL

CLASS XII PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL

ACCORDING TO CBSE SYLLABUS

SUCCEED LEARN PRACTISE SUCCEED

LEARN PRACTISE SUCCEED LEARN
PRAC SUCCEED LEARN PRACTISE
SUCCEED LEARN PRACTISE SUCCEED
 S.N DATE EXPERIMENT PAGE
O NO
1 OHM’S LAW.
6

2 METRE BRIDGE
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE 10

3 METRE BRIDGE
RESISTORS IN SERIES 14

4 GALVANOMETER 17

SECTION – A

SECTION – B
S.NO DATE EXPERIMENT PAGE

5 CONCAVE MIRROR- focal length

20

6 CONVEX LENS.-focal length

23
.
7 REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE GLASS SLAB-TRAVELLING
MICROSCOPE 26

8 P–N JUNCTION DIODE.

29

2
 ACTIVITIES
SECTION A

1 ASSEMBLING THE COMPONENTS OF THE GIVEN CIRCUIT. 33

2 CORRECTION OF WRONG CIRCUIT. 34

36
3 VARIATION OF POTENTIAL DROP WITH LENGTH OF
WIRE

SECTION B

38
4 COMBINATION OF TWO LENSES

40
5 REFRACTION THROUGH RECTANGULAR GLASS SLAB

6 IDENTIFY THE GIVEN ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS. 42

USE OF LOGARITHMS FOR CALCULATIONS IN PHYSICS

In order to obtain the final result from your observational data, you have often to do
calculations involving multiplications and divisions. Such calculations can be done quickly
and with less chance of a calculation error by using the logarithms.

To find the logarithm of a number you use a "4 - figure table of logarithms". The
logarithm of a number consists of an integral part, called characteristic, and a decimal part
called the mantissa. Whereas the characteristic can be a positive or negative integer or
zero, the mantissa is always positive. If you look at a table of logarithms, it will be seen that
rows of four figures are placed against each of the numbers from 10 to 99. These four
figures form in each case the mantissa of a logarithm; the characteristic has to be supplied
by you.
The characteristic of logarithm of any number between 1 and 10 is zero. For any
number ≥10, it is a positive integer which is less by one than the number of figures to the
left of the decimal point.
For any number < 1 it is a negative integer whose magnitude is one more than the
number of zeros which follow the decimal point. Thus:
Characteristic of 7, 47,300 is (6 figures) is 5
3
 Characteristic of 7,473 is (4 figures) is 3
Characteristic of 74.73 is (2 figures) is 1
Characteristic of 7.473 is (1 figure) is 0
Characteristic of 0.7473 is (figure < 1) is -1 (read as 'one bar')
Characteristic of 0.07473 is (after decimal one zero is present) -2
Characteristic of 0.007473 is (after decimal two zeros are present) is -3

Example 1: Find log 7.4

In the characteristic is 0.
The column opposite the number 74 is mantissa 8692;
Hence log 7.4 = 0.8692

Example 2: Find log 74.7

The characteristic is 1
We find the first two figures 74 at the extreme left. Then move along the horizontal
line to the number in the vertical column headed by the third figure 7 to obtain the mantissa
8733.
Hence log 74.7 = 1.8733.

Example 3: Find log 0.07473.

The number after decimal has one zero. Therefore the Characteristic is -2
This number consists of four figures. To obtain the logarithm of a number consisting of
four figures, it is necessary to use the mean difference columns at the extreme right of the
page.
Mantissa of log 747 = .8733
Mean difference for 4th figure 3 is = 2 this mean difference should be added with the
mantissa.
Mantissa of log 7473 = .8735
∴Hence log 0.07473 = -2 .8735
Antilogarithms
1. The number corresponding to a given logarithm is found by using the table of
Antilogarithms.
2. First we use only the mantissa to find the figures of the required number.
3. Then we locate the decimal point with the help of the characteristic.

Example 4: Find the number whose log is 2.6057.

(For first 3 digits of mantissa) Antilog .605 = 4027
(For 4th digit of mantissa) Mean diff. for 7 is = 7
The antilog of the mantissa part .6057 is 4034
The characteristic part is 2; hence number of figures must be 3 figures.
Hence, the number whose log is 2.6057 is 403.4

Similarly,
The number whose log is 0.6057 is 4.034
The number whose log is -1 .6057 is 0.4034
The number whose log is -2.6057 is 0.04034

Multiplication
4
 To multiply two or more numbers together, add the logarithms of the numbers; the
sum is the logarithm of the product.

Example 1: Multiply 47.45 × 0.006834 × 1063

number log
47.45 1.6763
0.006834 -3.8347
1063 3.0265
Total of log = 2.5375
The antilog of 2.5375 is 434.8
This is the product of the given multiplication.
Division
Whereas for multiplication we add the logarithms, for division we subtract the
logarithm of the divisor from logarithm of the dividend. Then the difference obtained is
the logarithm of the quotient.

Example 2: Evaluate 0.4891 divided by 256.8

Solution:

number log
0.4891 -1.6894
256.8 2.4096

Total (by subtraction) = -3.2798

(The sign of 2 is changed and added)
The Antilog of -3.2798 is 0.001905
The number is also written as 1.905 X10-3

5
 SECTION A
LHS. OHM’S LAW
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

6
RHS. OHM’S LAW
AIM:

To determine resistance of the given two wires by plotting a graph of potential

difference versus current and hence find the resistivity.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:

A wire of unknown resistance, battery eliminator or a voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat,

plug key, connecting wires.

FORMULA:
Resistance of the wire R = V / I Ω

Where
R is the resistance of given coil of wire
V is the voltmeter reading
I is the ammeter reading
The specific resistance (resistivity) of the given resistance wire,
ρ =πr2R/L

Where,

ρ is the resistivity of the coil of wire(ohm-m)

L is the length of the coil of wire(m)
r is the radius of the wire and(m)
R is the resistance of the coil(ohm)

PROCEDURE:

1. Draw the circuit diagram.

2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make them shiny.
3. Make the connections as per circuit diagram. All connections must be neat and tight. Take

care to connect the ammeter and voltmeter with their correct polarity. (+ve to +ve and -ve

to -ve).
4. Determine the zero error and least count of the ammeter and voltmeter and record them.
5. Adjust the rheostat to pass a low current.
6. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to see whether the ammeter and
voltmeters are showing deflections properly.
7. Adjust the rheostat to get a small deflection in ammeter and voltmeter.
7
8. Record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter.
9. Take at least six sets of readings by adjusting the rheostat gradually.
RHS
10. Plot a graph with V along Y-axis and I along X-axis.
11. The graph will be a straight line which verifies Ohm’s law.
12. Determine the slope of the V-I graph.
13. The reciprocal of the slope gives resistance of the wire.
14. From the mean resistance, the resistivity of the given wire is calculated

RESULT:

Resistance of the given coil of wires. (i) R1 = _______ Ω. (ii)R2= ________ Ω

Resistivity of the given coil of wires. (i) ρ1=________Ω-m (ii) ρ2=________Ω-m

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and the ammeter in series with the
circuit. It should be ensured that current enters at the positive terminal and leaves at
the negative terminal.

2. The key should be inserted only while taking observations, as excessive flow of
current cause’s unnecessary heating of the wire.

3. Zero error in measuring instruments (voltmeter, ammeter) must be noted carefully.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.

2. The length of the resistance wire may not be measured correctly.

3. Parallax errors are possible in measuring voltmeter and ammeter readings

8
LHS.
OBSERVATIONS:

Range of the given ammeter =.................... A.

Least count of the given ammeter =..................... A.
Range of the given voltmeter = .....................V.
Least count of the given voltmeter = .....................V.
Length of the wire l = 100 cm

OBSERVATION TABLE:

TRIAL NO. VOLTMETER AMMETER READING RESISTANCE

READING (V) (A) R = V/I Ω
1 0.2

2 0.4

3 0.6

4 0.8

5 1.0

6 1.2

Mean R =
Mean value of V/I from observations, R =.......... Ω.

CALCULATIONS:

9
 METRE BRIDGE- RESISTANCE
LHS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATION TABLE :1

Trial Resistance Balancing (100-l) cm Unknown Mean

No from the Length on the resistance Resistance
resistance box side of X (ohm)
(R ohm)
1 2

2 3
X=
3 4

CALCULATIONS:

10
RHS METRE BRIDGE- RESISTANCE
AIM
To find the resistance of the given wire using the metre bridge

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Metre Bridge, Battery, Galvanometer, Resistance box (0.1 to 10 ohm) Jockey, key,
coils of resistance wire, Screw gauge, Connecting wires.

FORMULA:
When the unknown resistance is in the left gap,The unknown resistance

X is the unknown resistance (ohm)

R is the resistance in the resistance box(ohm)

L is the balancing length on the left side(m)

(100-l) is the balancing length on the right side(m)

PROCEDURE:

1. First draw the circuit diagram and arrange the metre bridge apparatus.
2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance say X is to be determined in gap G 1. Take
care of that no part of the wire forms a loop and minimum portion of the wire is used for
connection.
3. Connect a resistance box of low range in gap G2.
4. Make all other connections as in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2Ω) from the resistance box.
6. Insert the key in plug key to complete the battery circuit.
7. Touch the jockey gently first at left and then at right end of the bridge wire.
8. Note the deflections in the galvanometer.
9. If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite directions, the connections are correct.
10. If the deflection is in one side only then there is some fault in the circuit, so the
connections need to be checked.
11.Allow the jockey to gently move or slide over the wire between A and C from left to right
till galvanometer gives a null deflection (galvanometer reads the value 0)
12. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point B.
13. Note position of point B and measure the distance from the end A to the point B. It is
taken as the balancing length l1 (AB) also note the length CB (100-l).
14. Repeat the experiment with different values of known resistance R.
15. Unknown resistance can be determined using the formula
16. A mean value of the unknown resistance calculated will be considered as the value of
unknown resistance.

11
CALCULATIONS:

RHS
RESULT:

The unknown resistance of the given resistance wire, X = ............ Ω

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
3. The plug in the key (K1) should be inserted only at the time of taking observations.
4. Null points should be in the middle of the wire (30 cm to 70 cm).

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. Effect of end resistances due to copper strips, connecting screws, may affect the
measurement.
3. The length L of the wire should not include the lengths below the terminals
4. The resistances of end pieces/metal strips may not be negligible. The error
introduced by it can be reduced by interchanging the known and unknown
resistances in gaps G1 and G2.
5. The null point must be obtained by tapping the jockey on the wire.

12
LHS. 3. METRE BRIDGE
RESISTORS IN SERIES

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Resistance Unknown
Balancing
Unknown from the resistance Mean
Length on (100-l )
resistance resistance Resistance
the side of cm
coil box (ohm)
X l cm
(R ohm)

X1 only X=
1

X2 only 2

3 X=
2

X1 and X2
in series 2 X=
s

13
 METRE BRIDGE
RESISTORS IN SERIES
RHS

AIM

To find the resistance of the given resistors and hence to verify the law of
combination of resistors in series.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Metre bridge, Battery (Leclanche cell), Galvanometer, Resistance box (0.1 to 10 ohm),
Jockey, key , Two coils of resistance wires, Screw gauge, Metre scale A set square,
Connecting wires.

FORMULA:

When the unknown resistance is in the left gap,

1. The unknown resistance

When the two resistors X1 and X2 are connected in series, then the effective resistance of
the two resistors in series is

Where
X1 and X2 is the unknown resistances
R is the resistance in the resistance box
l is the balancing length on the left side
(100-l) is the balancing length on the right side
Xs the effective resistance in series and

PROCEDURE:
1. First draw the circuit diagram and arrange the metre bridge apparatus.
2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance say X is to be determined in gap G 1.
3. Connect a resistance box of low range in gap G2.
4. Make all other connections as in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2Ω) from the resistance box.
6. Insert the key in plug key to complete the battery circuit.
7. Touch the jockey gently first at left and then at right end of the bridge wire.
8. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. I
9. If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite directions, the connections are
correct.
10. If the deflection is in one side only then there is some fault in the circuit, so the
connections need to be checked.
14
11.Allow the jockey to gently move or slide over the wire between A and C from left to right
till galvanometer gives a null deflection(galvanometer reads the value 0)
12. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point B.
13. Note position of point B and measure the distance from the end A to the point B.It is
taken as the balancing length l1 (AB) also note the length CB (100-l).
14. Repeat the experiment with different values of known resistance R for the coils
of resistance X1, X2, and when they are in series a.
15. In Each case the unknown resistance can be determined using the formula
16. A mean value of the unknown resistance calculated will be considered as the value of
unknown resistance.

RESULT:

The unknown resistance of the given coils of wire,

X 1 = ............ Ω. X 2=________ Ω

The resistance in series =…………… Ω

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.

2.Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
3.The plug in the key (K1) should be inserted only at the time of taking observations.
4.Null points should be in the middle of the wire (30 cm to 70 cm).

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.

2.Effect of end resistances due to copper strips, connecting screws, may affect the
Measurement.
3.The length L of the wire should not include the lengths below the terminals
4.The resistances of end pieces/metal strips may not be negligible. The error
Introduced by it can be reduced by interchanging the known and unknown
Resistances in gaps G1 and G2.
5.The null point must be obtained by tapping the jockey on the wire.

15
 LHS 4. Galvanometer
Figure of merit of a galvanometer
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method.

OBSERVATION TABLE : 1

Galvanometer
Shunt Half
Resistance Deflection in the resistance
Resistance deflection
No. R galvanometer,
S
( )
( )
( )

Use the above recorded values and fill up the second tabular column to calculate the figure
of merit of the Galvanometer.

16
RHS

4. GALVANOMETER
FIGURE OF MERIT OF A GALVANOMETER

AIM:

To determine the resistance of the given galvanometer by half deflection method and
to find its figure of merit

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
A galvanometer, a battery or battery eliminator, two resistance boxes, two one-way
keys, connecting wires.

FORMULA:
1. The resistance of the given galvanometer

2. The figure of merit of a galvanometer is

Where,
E - emf of the cell(V)
R - Resistance from the resistance box(ohm)
G - galvanometer resistance for current I(ohm)
θ - galvanometer deflection for current I(div)
k – figure of merit of a galvanometer.(A/div)

PROCEDURE:
1. Arrange the components on a table and connect them as per the circuit diagram.
2. Make sure that plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.
3. Take out a high resistance from the resistance box 1 and insert the key k 1.
4. Adjust the resistance from this resistance box to get maximum galvanometer deflection.
5. Note the deflection and record it as θ in the tubular column.
6. Insert the key k2 also, without changing the value on the resistance box.
7. Now, adjust the resistance from the low resistance box such that galvanometer shows
deflection which is exactly half of the previous reading.
8. Record the value of low resistance box.
9. We can repeat the experiment by changing the value of high resistance R and adjusting
low resistance S.
10.The resistance of the given galvanometer can be calculated each time by using
The relation G= RS/(R-S).

17
Calculate the value of G in each case and record it in the tabular column. The mean of these
calculated values will give the resistance of the given galvanometer
11.The figure of merit of the galvanometer by using the equation,Calculate the value of k in
each case and record it in the tabular column.The mean of these calculated values will give
the figure of merit of the given Galvanometer.
RESULT:

1. The resistance of the given galvanometer, G=--------- Ω

2.The figure of merit of the given galvanometer, k =---------- Amp /div.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.

2.The emf of the battery should be constant.
3. The plug in the key (K1) should be inserted only at the time of taking observations.
4.Proper high resistance should be introduced.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1.The connections may be loose.
2.The plugs of the resistance box may not be tightly fixed.
3.Exact deflections and its half deflections are not possible
4.The emf of the battery is not constant.

18
 LHS

Emf of the cell E =

OBSERVATION TABLE: 2

Figure of Merit,
Resistance Deflection
Trial
R
No.
( ) (div.)
( Amp/div )

Mean K =
CALCULATIONS:

19
 SECTION - B
LHS

1. CONCAVE MIRROR
RAY DIAGRAM:

U – V METHOD:

TRIAL U V
NO cm cm
cm
1 2f-4

2 2f-2

3 2f

4 2f+2

5 2f+4

20
CALCULATIONS: Mean, f = ………. Cm

5. FOCAL LENGTH OF THE CONCAVE MIRROR

AIM: To determine the focal length of a concave mirror by U – V method .

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Concave mirror, Stand, Screen, Illuminated wire gauze, meter scale

FORMULA:
The focal length of the mirror

Where,
U is the object distance(cm) and V is the image distance(cm)

PROCEDURE:
BY DISTANT OBJECT METHOD:
1. Fix the given concave mirror on the stand and place it on a table, facing towards a distant
object.
2. Arrange the screen on the table so that the image of the distant object is obtained on it.
3. Measure the distance between mirror and screen using a metre scale. It can be taken as
the focal length (f) of the mirror. Repeat the experiment three times and find the mean
value.

BY U-V METHOD:
1. Using the focal length obtained by distant object method set the values of u(distance
between mirror and object) ranging from 2f-4 to 2f +4.
2. Place the mirror in front of illuminated wire gauze. It acts as the object.
3. Now, fix the mirror at the distance u (which is obtained as 2f-4) from the wire gauze.
4. Place the screen on the table facing the mirror in such a way that the reflected image lies
on the screen.
5. Adjust the position of the screen to get the clear image of the wire gauze.
6. Keeping the distance between object and mirror fixed, adjust the position of screen in
order to get the clear image of the object.
7. Measure the distance between mirror and wire gauze, as well as mirror and screen.
21
 Take these values as u and v respectively.
8. Record the values of u and v in a tabular column.
9. Repeat the experiment for different values of u (up to 2f+4) and in each time,
measure v and record it in the tabular column
10. Calculate the focal length of the given concave mirror by using the relation,

11. Calculate the mean of all focal lengths to get the correct focal length of the given
concave mirror
RESULT:
The focal length of the given concave mirror By u-v method ,f =.………×10-2 m

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Concave mirror should be fixed vertically on the lens stand.
2. Measurements should be made without parallax error.
3. Clear image should be obtained before taking measurements.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Concave mirror may not be fixed vertically.
2. Parallax errors are possible in the measurements.
3. Lack of clarity in the image may lead to error in the measurement of u and v.

22
 LHS 6. FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS
RAY DIAGRAM:

U – V GRAPH

U – V METHOD:

TRIAL U V
NO cm cm
cm
1 2f-4

2 2f-2

3 2f

4 2f+2

5 2f+4

Mean, f = ………. Cm

23
RHS 6. CONVEX LENS
AIM:
To determine the focal length of a convex lens by U – V method and Verify the result by
drawing U – V graph

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Convex lens, Stand, Screen, Illuminated wire gauze, Meter scale

FORMULA:
The focal length of the convex lens

Where,
U is the object distance(cm) and V is the image distance(cm)

From u-v graph,

OB =….....….cm
OC = ...……..cm

= ........... cm
PROCEDURE:

BY DISTANT OBJECT METHOD:

1. Fix the given convex lens on the stand and place it on a table, facing towards a distant
object.
2. Arrange the screen on the table so that the image of the distant object is obtained on it.
3. Measure the distance between lens and screen using a metre scale
It can be taken as the focal length (f) of the convex lens. Repeat the experiment three
Times and find the mean value.

BY U-V METHOD:
1. Using the focal length obtained by distant object method set the values of u
(distance between convex lens and object) ranging from 2f-4 to 2f +4.
2. Place the convex lens in front of illuminated wire gauze. The wire gauze acts as the object.
3. Now, fix the convex lens at the distance u (which is obtained as 2f-4) from the wire gauze.
4. Place the screen on the table on the other side of the lens in such a way that the image
24
 lies on the screen.
5. Adjust the position of the screen to get the clear image of the wire gauze.
6. Keeping the distance between object and les fixed, adjust the position of screen in order
to get the clear image of the object.
7. Measure the distance between lens and screen. Take the value as v.
8. Record the values of u and v in a tabular column.
9. Repeat the experiment for different values of u (up to 2f+4) and in each time, measure v
and record it in the tabular column
10. Calculate the focal length of the given convex lens by using the relation,

11. Calculate the mean of all focal lengths to get the correct focal length of the given
Convex lens.

RESULT:
The focal length of the given convex lens f
1. By u-v method = ……..×10-2 m
2. From u-v graph = .……..×10-2 m

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Convex lens should be fixed vertically on the lens stand.
2. Measurements should be made without parallax error.
3. Clear image should be obtained before taking measurements.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Convex lens may not be fixed vertically.
2. Parallax errors are possible in the measurements.
3. Lack of clarity in the image may lead to error in the measurement of u and v.

25
RHS
7.REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE GLASS SLAB-TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

AIM

To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling Microscope.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A travelling microscope, a glass slab, lycopodium powder/chalk dust

FORMULA:
The refractive index of the glass slab is given by

n = R3-R1
R3-R2
Where R1 is the reading without glass slab
R2is the reading with the glass slab
R3 is the reading with lycopodium powder
R3-R1 is the real depth and
R3-R2is the apparent depth

PROCEDURE

1. Find the least count of the microscope scale, being used.

2. Put a mark on a sheet of paper.
3.Place the paper on the horizontal platform of the microscope. Adjust the microscope in
such a way that its lens system is vertically Above the mark.
4.Focus the microscope on the mark and record the reading R1 Using Main Scale
Reading (MSR) and Vernier Scale Reading (VSR) of its coinciding division as shown .
5.Next, place the glass slab over the mark on the sheet of paper.
6.Move the microscope upward until mark on the paper, seen through the slab is sharp
and clear. Take the reading R2 With the Main scale and coinciding division of the vernier
scale.
7.Spread a little lycopodium powder/chalk dust over the top surface of the glass slab.
8.Raise the lens system of the microscope and focus the Microscope to see some of their
particles clearly and record Reading R3.
9.Invert the slab and repeat steps 3 to 8
10.The distance between this apparent bottom And the top surface of the slab gives the
apparent thickness of the Slab. In case of normal observation, it can be shown that the
refractive Index of glass with respect to the medium, air is,
n = real thickness
26
 apparent thickness
RESULTS:

The refractive index of glass of the slab= _____ (No unit)

PRECAUTIONS

In microscope parallax should be properly removed.

The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid back-lash error.

The layer of lycopodium powder should be thin.

After focussing the microscope for the first reading, don’t change its focus for subsequent
readings.

SOURCES OF ERROR

Improper calibration of scale of microscope.

Microscope may not be in perfectly vertical position.

The lycopodium layer on glass slab may be thick.

LHS

OBSERVATIONS

27
Least Count (LC) of the travelling microscope:

20 Main Scale Divisions (MSD) = 1 cm

∴ 1 MSD = 1/20cm

50 Vernier Scale Divisions (VSD) = 49 MSD

∴ 1 VSD =49/50 MSD

Least Count of the microscope = 1 MSD – 1 VSD = 0.001cm

RHS 8. P–N JUNCTION DIODE.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORWARD V-I CHARACTERISTICS:

REVERSE V-I CHARACTERISTICS

28
GRAPH:

RHS. 8. P–N JUNCTION DIODE.

AIM:
To draw the V – I characteristic curves of a p-n junction diode in Forward bias and in
reverse bias.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

A p-n junction diode apparatus.

PROCEDURE:
Forward V-I Characteristics:
1. Connections are made as per the connection diagram.
2. Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the rheostat (control knob) to minimum.
3. Now, gently rotate the control knob to provide a positive bias voltage.
4. Note the voltmeter and milli ammeter readings.
5. Repeat the process by increasing the forward current in equal steps by changing the
rheostat slider.

29
6. It can be noted that, initially the current increase very slowly. For a certain value of
voltage, it shows a sharp increase. The corresponding voltage represents the knee voltage
of that diode.
7. Plot a graph with forward voltage along X axis and forward current along Y axis.
The graph shows the forward V-I characteristics of the given p-n junction diode.

Reverse V-I Characteristics :

1. Make the circuit diagram as shown in the figure.
2. Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the rheostat (control knob) to maximum.
3. Move the sliding contact of the rheostat to provide a reverse bias voltage. Note the
voltmeter and micro ammeter readings.
4. Note the voltmeter and micro ammeter readings.
5. Repeat the process by changing the reverse voltage in equal steps.
6. The current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly when the reverse voltage
becomes a certain value. This voltage is known as the reverse breakdown voltage.
7. Plot a graph with reverse voltage along X axis and reverse current along Y axis.
The graph shows the reverse V-I characteristics of the given p-n junction diode.

LHS
OBSERVATIONS
Forward V-I Characteristics: Reverse V-I Characteristics:

30
 Forward bias Forward Reverse bias Reverse
Sl. No. voltage, current, Sl. No. voltage, current,
Vf (V) If (m A) Vr (V) Ir (µA)

1 0 1 0

2 0.2 2 2

3 0.4 3 4

4 0.6 4 4.5

5 0.8 5 4.6

6 1.0 6 4.7

7 1.2 7 4.8

8 1.4 8 4.9

9 1.6 9 5.0

10 1.8 10 5.1

11 2.0 11 5.2

12 2.2 12 5.3

13 2.4 13 5.4

14 2.6 14 5.5

15 2.8 15 5.6

Calculations:
For the forward characteristics of the given p-n junction diode, a graph is plotted
with forward voltage along X axis and forward current along Y axis. The forward current
shows a sudden increase at certain forward voltage, which is known as the knee voltage.
For the reverse characteristics of the given p-n junction diode, a graph is plotted with
reverse voltage along X axis and reverse current along Y axis. I t is noted that at a certain
reverse voltage, the reverse current reaches its maximum level. Further increase in voltage
does not increase this current. It is the reverse saturation current. However, with further
increase in reverse voltage, the current shows a rapid rise at a certain value. It is known as
the reverse breakdown voltage.

31
RESULT:
1. The forward and reverse characteristics of the given p-n junction diode is drawn.
2. The forward knee voltage=
3. The reverse breakdown voltage =
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown voltage should not be applied.
3. Reverse bias voltage beyond breakdown voltage should not be applied.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The p-n junction diode apparatus may be faulty.
2. The internal connections may be loose

ACTIVITIES
1. ASSEMBLING THE COMPONENTS OF THE GIVEN CIRCUIT.
AIM:
To assemble the components of the given electrical circuit to verify ohm’s law

APPARATUS:
Electrical components like resistor, battery, ammeter, voltmeter, plug key, rheostat,
connecting wires.
32
PROCEDURE:
1. Draw the circuit diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make them shiny.
3.Make the connections as per circuit diagram. All connections must be neat and
tight.
4.Take care to connect the ammeter and voltmeter with their correct polarity. (+ve
to +ve and -ve to -ve).

CONCLUSION:

Assembly of all components in all the electrical circuits are complete.

Precaution:

1. All components are connected in series with each other.

2. Ammeter is always in series and voltmeter is always connected in parallel.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1.Red terminals of ammeter and voltmeter, marked positive should be connected in
the Circuit towards the positive terminal of the battery and their black terminals, marked
2.Negative should be connected towards the negative terminal of the battery.

LHS
DIAGRAM:
Ohm’s law

33
 Trial No Faults in the circuits

RHS 2. CORRECTION OF WRONG CIRCUIT

AIM:
To draw the correct diagram of the given open circuit. Mark the components that are
not connected in proper order, and draw the corrected circuit diagram.

APPARATUS:
Battery eliminator, ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat, resistance box, one way key and
connecting wires.

DIAGRAM:
Draw the wrong and the corrected circuit diagram.

PROCEDURE:
1. Draw given wrong circuit diagram comprising of various circuit components.
2. In the circuit encircle the components that are connected wrongly.
3. The correct circuit diagram is drawn.

CONCLUSION:
The faults in the given circuit were corrected and the correct circuit diagram was drawn.

PRECAUTIONS:

1.Voltmeter and ammeter of suitable range should be chosen.

2.Ammeter should always be connected in series and voltmeter should always be connected
34
in parallel with proper polarities.
3.Rheostat should be connected carefully selecting the correct terminals only.

RHS
Potential Drop With Length of a Wire For a
Steady Current
Aim:
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.

Apparatus:
Potentiometer, A fully charged 4.5 V battery or battery eliminator, a low resistance
rheostat, a voltmeter of range (0-3.0 V), an ammeter (0-3) A, a one way key, a jockey, a set
square, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper

Procedure
Draw a circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections as in figure.
Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting copper wires with a sand paper.
Connect the positive pole of the battery (eliminator) (a battery of constant e.m.f.) to the zero
end (P) of the potentiometer and the negative pole through a one-way key, an ammeter and
a low resistance rheostat to the other end (Q) of the potentiometer.
Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the end P of the potentiometer and the
negative terminal to the jockey.
Touch the end of the jockey to the end Q of the potentiometer.
Close the key and set the rheostat such that the voltmeter gives full scale deflection (3 V).

35
Touch the jockey at end P at 0 (zero) cm. The voltmeter will give zero deflection.Touch the
jockey at marks separated by 50 cm length of wire. Note the voltmeter reading in each case

Result
The potential drop per unit length of wire is

lHS

36
RHS SECTION B
4.COMBINATION OF LENSES

Aim
To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two lenses from the
given set of lenses.

Apparatus
A set of thin convex lenses, one of these is of given focal length (say 15 cm), (we have to
select a second lens such that the combination gives a single lens of focal length fc = 10 cm),
lens holder with stand, a white painted vertical wooden board with broad stand, half metre
scale.

Procedure

Keep the white painted vertical wooden board to serve as a screen.

The convex lens (known focal length f1 = 15 cm), fixed into a holder stand is put on the left
of the screen. There are sunlight illuminated green trees at large distance on the left of the
lens.
The lens is moved towards and away from the screen till a sharp, inverted image of
Trees is formed on the screen.
Distance between central lines of the screen and holder stand is measured by a half
Metre scale.
The distance gives the focal length of the convex lens about 15 cm.
Replace first lens by second convex lens of required power and repeat the steps from 2 to 5.
This gives the focal length of second convex lens.
Now bring both lenses in contact and repeat the steps from 2 to 5. This gives the
Combined focal length.
Determine the focal length with other given lens. Determine the focal length of about six of
the convex lenses.
RESULT

Measured value of focal length of lens combination =…cm

Power of the combination of lenses=__________D

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Thickness of the lenses may cause an error.

2.The peripheral region of the lenses are not in contact.
3.Spherical aberration of the lenses may cause an error in locating
4.The position of the sharp image, i.e., the exact focal length.

37
LHS

OBSERVATION

P=P1 +P2=

38
RHS
5.REFRACTION THROUGH THE RECTANGULAR GLASS SLAB

Aim
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different
angles of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, and angle of
emergence, and interpret the result
Materials Required
A drawing board
4-6 all pins
White sheet of paper
Rectangular glass slab
A protractor
A scale
A pencil
Thumb pins
Procedure
Fix a white sheet on the soft drawing board using thumb pins.
Place the glass slab at the centre of the white paper and draw its outline boundary using a
sharp pencil.
Let ABCD be the rectangular figure obtained by drawing.
Mark a point E on AB and draw a perpendicular EN and label it as a normal ray.
Draw one angle of 30° with the help of protractor with EN. Fix pins at P and Q at 4-5 cm on
the ray that is obtained by the angle.
Place the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.
To fix R and S, see through the glass slab from side CD, such that when seen through the
glass slab, all the pins P, Q, R, and S should lie in a straight line.
Draw small circles around the pins P, Q, R and S and remove the pins.
Remove the glass slab.
Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F. Draw a perpendicular N’M’ to CD at
point F.
Using a pencil, join the points E and F.
Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e, the incident angle, refracted angle, and
emergent angle.
The lateral displacement is obtained by extending the ray PQ in a dotted line which is
parallel to ray FRS.
Measure the lateral displacement.
Repeat the same procedure for angles 45° and 60°.

39
LHS

Conclusion
The angle of incidence and the angle of emergence are almost equal.
As the light is traveling from rarer to denser optical medium, the angle of refraction will be
lesser than the angle of incidence.
For different angles of incidence, the lateral displacement will remain the same.
The light will bend towards the normal when it travels from an optically rarer medium to an
optically denser medium

40
RHS
6. IDENTIFY THE GIVEN ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS.
AIM:
To identify a diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC (integrated circuit), a resistor and a
capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS:
A mixed collection of such items as a diode, transistor, capacitor, resistor and IC.

THEORY:
1. Resistor, capacitor and diode are two terminal devices.
2. A transistor has three terminals.
3. An IC has a minimum of eight legs. Most of the IC packages have flat back.
One can easily segregate an IC out of a mixture of the above mentioned components.
4. A transistor being a three terminal device can be identified by just looking at the various
components.
5. For identifying the two terminal devices, the following characteristics of the components
may be utilized.

RESISTOR: When connected in a dc circuit, it shows a constant current.

CAPACITOR: When connected in a dc circuit, a multimeter set at R shows initially a full
scale current which decays to zero very quickly.
DIODE: Only a diode shows unidirectional flow of current i.e., when connected such
that the terminal end marked P or + is at the higher potential i.e. the diode is
forward biased, it conducts. On reversing the directions, the diode becomes
reversed biased and it does not conduct.
CONCLUSION:
The components were identified correctly from the given collection.

41
OBSERVATION:
LHS

Sl No Electronic component. Terminals

1 Diode 2

2 Capacitor 2

3 Resistor 2

4 Transistor 3

5 IC More than 3

6 LED 2

42
43