IoT

What is IoT?
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects or “things” embedded with electronics,
software, sensor and network connectivity, which enables these objects to collect and exchange
data.
IoT allows objects to be sensed and controlled remotely across existing network infrastructure,
creating opportunities for more direct integration between the physical world and computer based
systems, and resulting in improved efficiency, accuracy and economic benefit.
“Things: in the IoT sense, can refer to a wide variety of devices such as heart monitoring implants,
biochip transponders on farm animals, electric clams in coastal waters, automobiles with built-in
sensors, DNA analysis devices for environmental/food/pathogen monitoring or field operation
devices that assist fire fighters in search and rescue operations.
These devices collect useful data with the help of various existing technologies and then
autonomously flow the data between other devices.

History of IoT
The concept of the Internet of Things first became popular in 1999, through the Auto-ID Center at
MIT and related market analysis publications
Radio frequency identification (RFID) was seen as a prerequisite for the IoT at that point. If all objects
and people in daily life were equipped with identifiers, computers could manage and inventory them.
Besides using RFID, the tagging of things may be achieved through such technologies as near field
communication, barcodes, QR codes, Bluetooth, and digital watermarking.

How IoT Works?

Internet of Things is not the result of a single novel technology; instead, several complementary
technical developments provide capabilities that taken together help to bridge the gap between the
virtual and physical world.

These capabilities include:

 Communication and cooperation
 Addressability
 Identification
 Sensing
 Actuation
 Embedded information processing
 Localization
 User interfaces

RFID – to identify and track the data of things

Sensor – to collect and process the data to detect the changes the physical status of things
Smart Tech – to enhance the power of the networking by developing processing capabilities to
different part of the network
Nano Tech – to make the smaller and smaller things have the ability to connect and interact.

The Structure of IoT

The IoT can be viewed as a gigantic network consisting of networks of devices and computers
connected through a series of intermediate technologies where numerous technologies like RFIDs,
wireless connections may act as enablers of this connectivity.
 Tagging Things: Real-time item traceability and addressability by RFIDs
 Feeling Things: Sensors act as primary devices to collect data from the environment
  Shrinking Things: miniaturization and Nanotechnology has provoked the ability of smaller
things to interact and connect within the “things” or “small devices”
 Thinking Things: Embedded intelligence in devices through sensors has formed the network
connection to the Internet. It can make the “things” realizing the intelligent control

IoT as a Network of Networks:

These networks connected with added security, analytics, and management capabilities. This will
allow IoT to become even more powerful in what it can help people achieve.

Unlock the Massive potential of IoT

 Improved Performance
 Reduced Costs
 Create Innovative Services
 New Revenue Stream

Few Applications of IoT

 Building and Home automation
 Manufacturing
 Medical and Healthcare systems
 Media
 Environmental monitoring
 Infrastructure management
 Energy management
 Transportation
 Better quality of life for elderly

To Diverse Applications
Home (consumer)
Light bulbs
Security
Pet feeding
Irrigation Controller
Smoke Alarm
Refrigerator
Infotainment
Washer / Dryer
Stove
Energy Monitoring

Transport (mobility)
Traffic routing
Telematics
Package Monitoring
Smart Parking
Insurance Adjustments
Supply Chain
Shipping
Public Transport
Airlines
Trains
Health (body)
Patient Care
Elderly Monitoring
Remote Diagnostic
Equipment Monitoring
Hospital Hygiene
Bio Wearables
Food Sensors

Building (infrastructure)
HVAC
Security
Lighting
Electrical
Transit
Emergency Alerts
Structural Integrity
Occupancy
Energy Credits

Cities (industry)
Electrical Distribution
Maintenance
Surveillance
Signage
Utilities / Smart Grid
Emergency Services
Waste Management

Sensors in even the holy cow!

In the world of IoT, even the cows will be connected and monitored. Sensors are implanted in the
ears of cattle. This allows farmers to monitor cows health and track their movements, ensuring a
healthier, more plentiful supply of milk and meat for people to consume. On average, each cow
generates about 200 MB of information per year.

Of course, we know nothing remains static, especially when it comes to the Internet. Initiatives and
advances, such as Ciscos Planetary Skin, GE’s Industrial Internet, HP’s central nervous system for the
earth (CeNSE), and smart dust, have the potential to add millions even billions of sensors to the
Internet.

As cows, water pipes, people, and even shoes, trees and animals become connected to IoT, the world
has the potential to become a better place

With a trillion sensors embedded in the environment all connected by computing systems, software,
and services it will be possible to hear the heartbeat of the Earth, impacting human interaction with
the globe as profoundly as the Internet has revolutionized communication
Internet of Things is the next stage of the information revolution and referenced the inter-
connectivity of everything from urban transport to medical devices to household appliances.

Integration with the Internet implies that devices will use an IP address space of IPv4 (which allows
for 4.3 billion unique addresses) objects in the IoT will have to use IPv6 to accommodate the
extremely large address space required

Objects in the IoT will not only be devices with sensory capabilities, but also provide actuation
capabilities (e.g., bulbs or locks controlled over the Internet)

On the other hand, IoT systems could also be responsible for performing actions, not just sensing
things. Intelligent shopping, systems for example could monitor specific users purchasing habits in a
store by tracking their specific mobile phones. These users could then be provided with special offers
on their favorite products, or even location of items that they need, which their fridge has
automatically conveyed to the phone

Additional examples of sensing and actuating are reflected in applications that deal with heat,
electricity and energy management, as well as cruise assisting transportation systems. Other
applications that the Internet of Things can provide is enabling extended home security features and
home automation.

Through Controlled Computing

The flagship product, MiindWave is a headset that can log into your computer using just your
thoughts. Researchers recently used the EEG headset to develop a toy car that can be driven forward
with thought
neroSky’s smart sensors can also track your heat rate and other bodily metrics and can be embedded
in the next generation of wearable devices.

Technological Challenges of IoT

At present IoT is faced with many challenges, such as:
 Scalability
 Technological Standardization
 Interoperability
 Discovery
 Software complexity
 Data volumes and interpretation
 Power Suply
 Interaction and short range communication
 Wireless communication
 Fault tolerance

Criticisms and controversies of IoT

Scholars and social observers and pessimists have doubts about the promises of the ubiquitous
computing revolution, in the areas as:
 Privacy
 Security
 Autonomy and Control
 Social Control
 Political Manipulation
 Design
  Environmental impact
 Influences human moral decision making

Module 2
IoT Architecture

What is IoT Architecture?

 An IoT architecture comprises four crucial stages. They are the following:
1. Sensors and actuators
2. Internet gateways
3. Edge IT data processing
4. Datacenter and cloud

Three layer architecture

1. Application layer (cloud/servers)
2. Network layer (gateway, routers, Bluetooth
3. Perception layer (sensors)

Perception layer
 Temperature sensors: this type of sensor is used in almost any industry. They help control the
temperature of water in household heating systems. Also, they are used in refrigerators,
computers and vehicles
 Humidity sensors: they are widely used in HVAC systems. Besides, humidity sensors are
crucial for industrial premises. Its vital to maintain the required humidity level to produce
certain quality products.
 Pressure sensors: with the help of this type of sensor, people can measure the flow of air or
liquids. They are used in tech development
 Level sensors: they can be found in almost any car, refrigerator, or household. Level sensors
gauge the number of liquids in tanks or gas in the air
 Infrared sensors: this type of sensor can detect motion. Infrared sensors are mainly used for
security purposes. Also, they help lower the usage of electricity

Widespread Security Threats

 Eavesdropping: a lot of IoT devices help people to communicate with each other. A wireless
doorbell camera or a smart speaker is the most popular. However, if a device is vulnerable,
there is a high chance that a hacker will attack it to access peoples personal conversations
 Node capture: this type of attack aims to steal the data stored on IoT devices. To achieve the
goal, attackers gain access to a crucial node that helps access the memory of a device.
 Timing attack: it is a complicated type of attack that needs attackers to analyze the time
required by IoT devices to respond. If devices have low computing power and take a lot of
time to respond hackers can find vulnerabilities to utilize
 Man-in-The-Middle (MiTM) Attack: it is a severe attack on IoT reference architecture because
it allows hackers to manipulate devices in real-time. When this type of attack is conducted, a
hacker intercepts requests between a sender and receiver and updates them
 Storage Attack: most IoT systems store the data collected from the devices sensors. The data
is stored on hard drives in devices or clouds. Hackers frequently attack storage to download
the gathered data
 Exploit Attack: it is a type of attack that needs scammers to analyze particular IoT
communication models. After doing it they find loopholes and utilize them for unauthorized
access to IoT systems
  Cross-site scripting: most websites that help interact with IoT devices are secure.
Nevertheless, some of them have loopholes that hackers utilize. To access users sensitive
data or get control over IoT devices, they insert a piece of code and run it as site
administrators
 malicious code attack: all applications are vulnerable to malicious code attacks. therefore,
computer viruses spread all over the internet can easily harm particular IoT devices or even
ruin a complicated IoT model

Network layer
 Ethernet: it is a secure way to connect IoT devices using a wire. It makes the connection
reliable and secure. However, good wire management is required to connect many IoT
components using Ethernet
 WiFi: a wireless network is one of the most convenient ways to connect IoT devices. It erases
the need to use wires, which works well in small premises. However wifi routers have limited
signal ranges, making it hard to connect all components of IoTT in large premises using wifi
 NFC (Near Field Communication): NFC is a technology that ensures fast and hassle free data
transfer between two IoT devices. It is rarely used because it needs two devices to be placed
in 3 inches or less. Moreover, the data transfer speed is low
 Bluetooth: this technology helps transfer data, consuming low amounts of power. Therefore,
its widely used by IoT devices powered y batteries. Unfortunately, on average, Bluetooth has
a short range that makes 30 feet
The most popular protocols used in the second layer of the three layers of IoT architecture are the
following:
 DDs (Data Distribution Service)
 AMQP (Advanced Message Queuing Protocol)
 CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)
 MQTT (Message Queue Telemetry Transport)

Application Layer
 The application layer manages all application process based on information obtained from
middleware layer. This application involves sending emails, activating alarm, security system,
turn on or off a device, smartwatch, smart agriculture, etc

Four layer architecture

1. Application layer
 Authentication/key agreement
 Privacy protection
2. Support layer
 Secure Cloud Computing/Computing
 Anti-Virus
3. Network Layer
 Identity Authentication
 Encryption Mechanism
4. Perception Layer
 Encryption and key agreement
 Sensor data protection

Five Layer Architecture

1. Business Layer (Business models)
2. Application Layer (Cloud/Servers)
3. Processing Layer (Storing, Analyzing and processing the data
 4. Transport Layer ( Gateways, Routers, Bluetooth)
5. Perception Layer (Sensors

7 IoT Architecture Layer

1. Application layer
2. Business layer
3. Processing layer
4. Transport layer
5. Perception layer
6. Edge layer
7. Security layer
Module 3
The IoT is heterogeneous, meaning the there are all sorts of different smart devices, protocols, and
applications involved in a typical IoT system. Different projects and use cases might require different
kinds of devices and protocols
For example, an IoT network meant to collect weather data over a wide area needs a bunch of
different types of sensors, and lots of them. With that many sensors, the devices need to be
lightweight and low-power, otherwise the energy required to transmit data would be enormous. In
such an instance, low-power is the main priority, over, say, security or speed of transmission.
IoT primarily exploits standard protocols and networking technologies. However, the major enabling
technologies and protocols of IoT are RFID, NFC, low-energy Bluetooth, low-energy wireless, low-
energy radio protocols, LTE-A and WiFI-Direct. These technologies support the specific networking
functionality needed in an IoT system in contrast to a standard uniform network of common systems.
One of the best frameworks for how you can understand IoT layers is the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model, which defines seven different layers In a top down architecture. Top-
down just means that the layer are defined starting from what the typical person uses to interact
with an IoT system, like a smartphone app or website, and going down all the way to, for example,
the ethernet cables that work in the background to transmit data.

Here are the layer:

The application layer, which encompasses the mobile web applications through which you might
interact with the devices in an IoT system.

The presentation layer, which encrypts and transforms data collected by IoT devices so that the
application layer can present the information in a readable format

The session layer, which acts as a kind of scheduler for incoming and outgoing data. Whenever two
devices need to communicate within an IoT system, the system needs to schedule that
communication by opening a session

The transport layer, which is like a fleet of trucks in a shipping company, except that this layer
transport packets of data instead of shipping containers.

The network layer, which is like the post office for data, coordinating where and when the system
transfers data. Routers are the primary part of the network layer that tell data packets how to get to
their destinations.

The data link layer, which corrects errors due to abnormalities or damaged hardware at the physical
layer and links different devices so they can transfer data through the network layer

The physical layer, which is made up of ethernet cables, cell towers, etc.

5 layer architecture
Business
Application
Transport
Physical
Network

One of the purposes behind organizing all these components into layers is to zero in on the different
functions of the various protocols. For example, application protocols, which are included in all of the
above models, are what transform/ present the data in such a way that a typical user can understand
it.
Application protocols can include:
1. Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP)
2. Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT)
3. Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
4. Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP)
5. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
In an ideal world, any protocol in this application layer should be able to communicate with any
other protocol.
Network layer protocols, which allow devices in an IoT network to communicate with each other, can
include:
 Bluetooth
 Ethernet
 Wi-fi
 Zigbee
 Thread
 Cellular network (4G or %G)
In an ideal IoT system, any of these protocols should be compatible with any other protocols in this
layer.

What protocols do IoT-qualified devices use?

In essence, IoT protocols and standards are broadly classified into two separate categories. These
are:
1. IoT data protocols (Presentation/Application Layers)
2. Network protocols for IoT (Datalink/Physical Layers)

IoT Data Protocols

IoT data protocols are used to connect low-power IoT devices. They provide communication with
hardware on the user side without the need for any internet connection. The connectivity in IoT data
protocols and standards is through a wired or cellular network. Some examples of IoT data protocols
are:

Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP)

XMPP is a fairly flexible data transfer protocol that is the basis for some instant messaging
technologies, including Messenger and Google Hangouts. XMPP is an open protocol, freely
available, and easy to use. That’s why many use the protocol for machine-to-machine
(M@M) communication between IoT devices, or for communication between a device and
the main server.
XMPP gives devices an ID that’s similar to an email address. Then the devices can
communicate reliably and securely with each other. Experts can tailor XMPP to different use
cases and for transferring both unstructured data or structured data like a fully formatted
text message.

MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport)

MQTT is a lightweight IoT data Protocol. It features a publisher-subscriber messaging model
and allows for simple data flow between different devices. MQTT main selling point is its
architecture. Its genetic make-up is basic and lightweight and, therefore, its able to provide
low power consumption for devices. It also works on top of a TCP/IP protocol.
IoT data protocols were designed to tackle unreliable communication networks. This became
a need in the IoT world due to the increasing number of small, cheap, and lower-power
objects that have appeared in the network over the past few years.
Despite MQTT wide adoption most notably as an IoT standard with industrial applications it
doesn’t support a defined data representation and device management structure mode. As a
result, the implementation of data and device management capabilities is entirely platform
or vendor specific. Plus, the protocol has no built in security measures, so security has to be
managed at a device and/or application level.

CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)

A CoAP is an application layer protocol. Its designed to address the needs of HTTP-based IoT
systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the world wide web.
While the existing structure of the internet is freely available and usable by any IoT device,
its often too heavy and power-consuming for IoT applications. This has led many within the
IoT community to dismiss HTTP as a protocol not suitable for IoT.
However, CoAP has addressed this limitation by translating the HTTP model into usage in
restrictive devices and network environments. It has incredibly low overheads, is easy to
employ, and has the ability to enable multicast support.
Therefore, CoAP is deal for use in devices with resource limitations, such as IoT
microcontrollers or WSN nodes. Its traditionally used in applications involving smart energy
and building automation.

AMQP (Advanced Message Queuing Protocol)

An AMQP is an open standard application layer protocol used for transactional messages
between servers.

The main functions of this IoT protocol are as follows:

 Receiving and placing messages in queues
 Storing messages
 Setting up a relationship between these components
With its high level of security and reliability, AMQP is most commonly employed in settings
that require server-based analytical environments, such as the banking industry. However, its
not widely used elsewhere. Due to its heaviness AMQP is not suitable for IoT sensor devices
with limited memory. As a result use still quite limited within the world of the IoT.

DDS (Data Distribution Service)

DDS is another scalable IoT protocols that enables high-quality communication in IoT. Similar
to the MQTT, DDS also works to a publisher subscriber model.
It can be deployed in multiple settings, from the cloud to very small devices. This makes it
perfect for real-time and embedded systems. Moreover, unlike MQTT, the DDS protocol
allows for interoperable data exchange that is independent of the hardware and the
software platform. In fact, DDS is considered the first open international middleware IoT
standard.
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
The HTTP protocol is not preferred as an IoT standard because of its cost, battery life, huge
power consumption, and weight issues.
That being said, it is still used within some industries. For example, manufacturing and 3-D
printing rely on the HTTP protocol due to the large amounts of data it can publish. It enables
PC connection to 3-D printers in the network and printing of three dimensional objects.
WebSocket
WebSocket was initially developed back in 2011 as part of the HTML5 initiative. WebSocket
allows messages to be sent between the client and the server via a single TCP connection.
Like CoAP, WebSocket has a standard connectivity protocols that helps simplify many of the
complexities and difficulties involved in the management of connections and bi-directional
communication on the internet.
WebSocket can be applied to an IoT network where data is communicated continuously
across multiple devices. Therefore, you’ll find it used most commonly in places that act as a
clients or servers. This includes runtime environments or libraries.

Network Protocols for IoT

IoT network protocols are used to connect devices over a network. These sets of protocols
are typically used over the internet. Here are some examples of various IoT network
protocols.

Lightweight M2M (LWM2M)

Many IoT systems rely on resource-constrained devices and sensors, devices that use very
little power. The problem is that any communication between these devices or from the
devices to a central server must also be extremely lightweight and require little energy.
Gathering meteorological data is one use case that requires hundreds or thousands of
sensors over a wide area. Imagine the impact on the environment if all of those devices
needed a lot of energy to function and transfer data. Instead, experts rely on lightweight
communication protocols to reduce the energy consumption of such systems.
One of the network protocols that greatly facilities lightweight communication is the
Lightweight M2M (LWM2M) protocol. LWM2M provides remote, long distance connectivity
between devices in an IoT system. The protocol primarily transfer data in small, efficient
packages.

Cellular
Cellular networks are another method for connecting IoT devices. Most IoT systems rely on
the 4G cellular protocol, though 5G has some applications as well. Cellular networks
generally take more power than most of the protocols mentioned above, but perhaps more
importantly, a cellular connection requires you to pay for a sim card. When you need a lot
devices over wide area, the cost can quickly become prohibitive.
Still, cellular networks are very low-latency and can support high speeds for data transfer. 4G
in particular was a huge step above 3G, since 4G is ten times faster. When you use your
smartphones data to control or interact with some IoT devices remotely, you’re typically
using 4G or 5G. An example would be wen you use your cell data to view the feed from your
smart security cameras when youre away from home.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the most well known IoT protocol on this list. However, its still worth explaining how
the most popular IoT protocol works.
In order to create a Wi-Fi network, you need a device that can send wireless signals. These
include:
 Telephones
 Computers
 Routers
Wi-Fi provides an internet connection to nearby devices within a specific range. Another way
to use Wi-Fi is to create Wi-Fi hotspot. Mobile phones or computers may share a wireless or
wired internet connection with other devices by broadcasting a signal
Wi-Fi user radio waves the broadcast information on specific frequencies such as 2.4 GHz or
5GHz channels. Furthermore, both of these frequency ranges have a number of channels
through which different wireless devices can work. This prevents the overflowing of wireless
networks.
A range of 100 meters is common for a Wi-Fi connection. That being said, the most common
is limited to 10 to 35 meters. The main impacts on the range and speed of a Wi-Fi
connection are the environment and whether it provides internal or external coverage.

Bluetooth
Compared to other IoT network protocols listed here, Bluetooth tends to frequency hop and
has a generally shorter range. However, it’s gained a huge user base due to its integration
into modern mobile devices—smartphones and tablets, to name a couple—as well as
wearable technology, such as wireless headphones. Since many different devices and
systems can use bluetooth, it’s great for promoting interoperability, enabling communication
between vastly different systems and applications.
Standard Bluetooth technology uses radio waves in the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band and is
sent in the form of packets to one of 79 channels. However, the latest Bluetooth 4.0
standard has 40 channels and a bandwidth of 2Mhz. This guarantees a maximum data
transfer of up to 3 Mb/s. This new technology is known as Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) and
can be the foundation for IoT applications that require significant flexibility, scalability, and
low power consumption.
BLE wasn’t originally a Bluetooth technology. Nokia developed the concept, which soon
gained the notice of the Bluetooth Special Interest Group. Since then, Bluetooth fully
adopted BLE as an important communication protocol.
But because of the low range of Bluetooth, it’s not ideal for all use cases. Additionally, since
any Bluetooth-enabled device is discoverable to any other bluetooth enabled device for
pairing, BLE doesn’t have a built-in security feature to prevent unauthorized connections.
You would need to add security measures at the application layer.

Zigbee
ZigBee-based networks are similar to Bluetooth networks in the sense that ZigBee already
has a significant user base in the world of IoT.
However, its specifications slightly eclipse the more universally used Bluetooth. ZigBee has
lower power consumption, low data-range, high security, and has a longer range of
communication. (ZigBee can reach 200 meters, while Bluetooth maxes out at 100 meters.)
Zigbee is a relatively simple protocol, and is often implemented in devices with small
requirements, such as microcontrollers and sensors. Furthermore, it easily scales to
thousands of nodes. No surprise that many suppliers are offering devices that support
ZigBee’s open standard self-assembly and self-healing grid topology model.

Thread
Thread is a new IoT protocol based on Zigbee and is a method for providing radio-based
internet access to low-powered devices within a relatively small area. Thread is similar very
to Zigbee or Wi-Fi, but it is highly power efficient. Also, a Thread network is self-healing,
meaning certain devices in the network can act as routers to take the place of a broken or
failing router.
Thread can connect up to 250 devices, with up to 32 of those devices being active routers in
the network. The newly developed Matter protocol, which operates at the application level
to support interoperability (compatibility) between different IoT devices and protocols,
often runs on top of Thread

Z-Wave
Z-Wave is an increasingly-popular IoT protocol. It’s a wireless, radio frequency cased
communication technology that’s primarily used for IoT home applications. It operates on
the 800 to 900MHz radio frequency, while Zigbee operates on 2.4GHz, which is also a major
frequency for Wi-Fi.
By operating in its own range, Z-Wave rarely suffers from any significant interference
problems. However, the frequency that Z-Wave devices operate on is location-dependent, so
make sure you buy the right one for your country.
Z-Wave is an impressive IoT protocol. However, like ZigBee, it’s best used within the home
and not within the business world.
LoRaWAN (Long Range WAN)
LoRaWAN is a media access control (MAC) IoT protocol. LoRaWAN allows low-powered
devices to communicate directly with internet-connected applications over a long-range
wireless connection. Moreover, it has the capability to be mapped to both the 2nd and 3rd
layer of the OSI model. LoRaWAN is implemented on top of LoRa or FSK modulation for
industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) radio bands.

NFC and RFID

RFID (radio-frequency identification) and NFC (near-field communication) provide simple,
lowenergy, and versatile options for identity and access tokens, connection bootstrapping,
and payments.

RFID technology employs 2-way radio transmitter-receivers to identify and track tags
associated with objects.

NFC consists of communication protocols for electronic devices, typically a mobile device
and a standard device.

Low-Energy Bluetooth
This technology supports the low-power, long-use need of IoT function while exploiting a
standard technology with native support across systems.
Low-Energy Wireless
This technology replaces the most power hungry aspect of an IoT system. Though sensors
and other elements can power down over long periods, communication links (i.e., wireless)
must remain in listening mode. Low-energy wireless not only reduces consumption, but also
extends the life of the device through less use.

Radio Protocols
ZigBee, Z-Wave, and Thread are radio protocols for creating low-rate private area networks.
These technologies are low-power, but offer high throughput unlike many similar options.
This increases the power of small local device networks without the typical costs.

LTE-A
LTE-A, or LTE Advanced, delivers an important upgrade to LTE technology by increasing not
only its coverage, but also reducing its latency and raising its throughput. It gives IoT a
tremendous power through expanding its range, with its most significant applications being
vehicle, UAV, and similar communication.

WiFi-Direct
WiFi-Direct eliminates the need for an access point. It allows P2P (peer-to-peer) connections
with the speed of WiFi, but with lower latency. WiFi-Direct eliminates an element of a
network that often bogs it down, and it does not compromise on speed or throughput.