PHYSICS SOLUTION

SEM-1 (REV-2019’C’ Scheme DEC-2022)

Q1. Attempt any five [15 M]

a. Draw the following planes in a cubic unit cell (121), (100), (011).
Solution:
a. (1 2 1): Taking reciprocal: (1,½,1)
b. (1 0 0): Taking reciprocal: (1,∞,∞)
c. (0 1 1): Taking reciprocal: (∞,1,1)

b. The diameter of 5th dark ring in Newton's ring experiment was

found to be 0.42 cm. Determine the diameter of 10th dark ring in the
same set up.
Solution:
Given: Diameter of 5th dark ring = 0.42 cm
To find: Diameter of 10th dark ring =?
Formula: Dn2 =4nRλ
Calculations:
𝐷52 4(5)Rλ
∴ 2 =
𝐷10 4(10)Rλ
∴ 2(𝐷52 )= 2
𝐷10
∴ 𝐷10 = √2 (𝐷5 ) = √2 (0.42)
∴ 𝐷10 = 0.594 cm

∴ Diameter of the 10th dark ring = 0.594 cm

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c. An electron is bound in a one-dimensional potential well of width
2 A° but of infinite height. Find its energy values in the ground state
and in first excited state.

Solution:

Using equation for energy of the electron in one-dimensional potential

well which is given by:

𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸=
8𝑚𝑎2
For ground state n=1 and E0 ,

12 (6.63 × 10−34 )2
𝐸0 =
8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (2 × 10−10 )2

∴ E0= 1.5 × 10-18 J

∴ E0= 9.43 eV

Similarly, for first excited state, n=2 and E=E1 ,

22 (6.63 × 10−34 )2
𝐸1 =
8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (2 × 10−10 )2

∴ E1= 6 × 10-18 J

∴ E1= 37.5 eV

For Second excited state, n=3 and E=E2 ,

32 (6.63 × 10−34 )2
𝐸2 =
8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (2 × 10−10 )2

∴ E2= 1.35 × 10-17 J

∴ E2= 84.375 eV

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d. Define superconductivity and explain the terms critical
temperature and critical magnetic field.

Solution:
a. Superconductivity: When normal metals are cooled their resistivity
decreases with temperature. In some materials, at a lower
temperature resistivity suddenly drops to zero, they are called
superconductors.
Superconductivity is thus a phenomenon of sudden disappearance
of electrical resistance (zero resistance) and expulsion of magnetic
flux occurring in certain materials when they are cooled below a
characteristic low temperature.

b. Critical Temperature: When a superconducting material is cooled

below a certain temperature, its resistance suddenly drops to zero
and it goes into the superconducting state from the normal state.
The temperature at which a material transforms into a
superconducting state is called Critical temperature ‘Tc’ for that
material.
Different materials have different critical temperatures. The
transition is reversible. When the temperature of the material is
increased above the critical temperature, it passes into the normal
state. For elementary solids (in extremely pure form), critical
temperature (Tc) is found to be very low (e.g. Tungsten = 0.015°K,
Zinc= 0.85°K), whereas, for alloys or compounds, its relatively high
(e.g. NbTi= 10°K)

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 c. Critical Field: A material in its superconducting state, behaves like
a diamagnetic material when placed in a weak magnetic field. But
if the field strength is increased, the material may lose
superconductivity even below critical temperature (Tc) .
The critical field (Hc) for a superconducting material is the
minimum field value at which normal resistivity is regained by the
material and it loses its superconducting state.
Hc = H0[1-T/Tc)2]

e. Find the resistivity of intrinsic germanium at 300 K. Given density

of carriers is 2.5 x 1019 /m3, mobility of electrons is 0.39 m²/volt-sec
and mobility of holes is 0.19 m²/volt-sec.
Solution:
Given:
Mobility of electrons= µe = 0.39 m2/volt-sec
Mobility of holes= µh = 0.19 m2/volt-sec
Density of carriers= ni = 2.5 × 1019 /m3
To find: Resistivity of intrinsic Germanium=ρ=?
Formula: 1. σint= ni(µe+ µh).e
1
ρ=
σ

Calculations: σint= ni(µe+ µh).e

∴ σint= 2.5*1019*1.6*10-19*(0.39+0.19) = 2.32 (ohm.m)-1
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 1 1
∴ ρ= =
σ 2.32

∴ ρ = 0.431 ohm.m

f. What are matter Waves? State three properties of matter waves.

Solution:
Matter waves also known as de-Broglie wave describe the relationship
between momentum and wavelength.
Properties of matter waves:
1. Matter waves are neither mechanical nor electromagnetic waves,
they are hypothetical waves.
2. Matter waves travel faster than light because these waves
depends on the velocity of the particles generating them.
3. Matter waves with different de Broglie wavelengths travel with
different velocities.
4. Matter waves depends on the momentum, kinetic energy,
accelerating potential for the matter particle as shown in the
following formulae:
ℎ ℎ ℎ
λ= = =
p √2𝑚𝐸 √2𝑚𝑞𝑉

g. Explain the formation of colours in thin film.

Solution:

When a thin film is exposed to white light from an extended source e.g.,
the sun, it shows beautiful colours in the reflected system.

1. Light is reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the thin film
and the reflected rays interfere.
2. The path difference between the interfering rays depends on the
thickness of the film(t) and the angle of refraction(r) and hence on
the inclination of the incident ray, along with its wavelength.

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 3. The white light consists of continuous range of wavelengths. At a
particular point on the film and for a particular position of the eye (t
and r remaining constant) those wavelengths of the incident light
satisfying the above condition for the constructive interference i.e.
maxima will be seen in reflected light.
4. The colours will vary with t and r (i.e. position of eye w.r.t. the film).
Therefore if the same point of the film is observed with an eye in
different positions or different points of the film are observed with
the eye in the same position, a different set of colours is observed
every time.

Q2 a) State Hall Effect. Obtain an expression for Hall voltage.

Calculate the mobility of charge carriers in a doped Si, whose
conductivity is 100 per ohm meter and Hall coefficient is 3.6 x 10*
m°/C. [8mks]

Solution:

a) State hall effect. Obtain an expression for Hall Voltage.

If a current carrying conductor or semiconductor is placed in a

transverse magnetic field, a potential difference is developed across the
specimen in a direction perpendicular to both the current and magnetic
field. The phenomenon is called HALL EFFECT.

As shown consider a rectangular plate of a p-type semiconductor of

width 'w' and thickness 'd' placed along x-axis. When a potential
difference is applied along its length 'a' current 'I' starts flowing through it
in x direction.

As the holes are the majority carriers in this case the current is given by:
I = nhAevd --------------------------------------------------(1)

Where, nh = density of holes,

A= w*d = cross sectional area of the specimen,

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vd = drift velocity of the holes.

The current density is,

𝐼
𝐽= = 𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝑣𝑑 --------------------------------------------------(2)
𝐴

The magnetic field is applied transversely to the crystal surface in z

direction. Hence the holes experience a magnetic force

𝐹𝑚 = 𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐵 --------------------------------------------------(3)

In a downward direction. As a result of this the holes are accumulated on

the bottom surface of the specimen.
Due to this a corresponding equivalent negative charge is left on the top
surface.

The separation of charge set up a transverse electric field across the

specimen given by,
𝑣𝐻
𝐸𝐻 = --------------------------------------------------(4)
𝑑

Where 𝑣ℎ is called the HALL VOLTAGE and the 𝐸ℎ HALL FIELD.

In equilibrium condition the force due to the magnetic field B and the
forcedue to the electric field 𝐸ℎ acting on the charges are balanced. So
the equation (3),

𝑒𝐸𝐻 = 𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐵

𝐸𝐻 = 𝑣𝑑 𝐵 --------------------------------------------------(5)

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Using equation (4) in the equation (5),

𝑉𝐻 = 𝑣𝑑 𝐵𝑑 --------------------------------------------------(6)

From equation (1) and (2), the drift velocity of holes is found as,
1 1
𝑣𝑑 = = --------------------------------------------------(7)
𝑒𝑛ℎ 𝐴 𝑒𝑛ℎ

Hence the hall voltage can be written as,

𝐼𝐵𝑑 𝐽𝑥 𝐵𝑑
𝑉𝐻 = =
𝑒𝑛ℎ 𝐴 𝑒𝑛ℎ

b) Calculate the mobility of charge carriers in a doped Si, whose

conductivity is 100 per ohm meter and Hall coefficient is 3.6 x 10-4 m3/C.

Given:

Conductivity= σ = 100 per ohm meter

Hall coefficient = 𝑅𝐻 = 3.6 x 10-4 m3/C.

To find: Mobility of charge carriers = ?

Formula: µ= σ𝑅𝐻

Calculations:
From the formula,

µ = 100 x 3.6 x 10-4

= 0.036
µ = 3.6 x 10-2 m2V-1s-1 is the mobility of the charge carriers.

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Q2. b) Obtain an expression for Optical Path Difference in a thin
film of uniform thickness observed in reflected light. Hence obtain
conditions for maxima and minima. [7mks]

Solution:

• Consider a ray AB of monochromatic light of wavelength A from an

extended source incident at B, on the upper surface of a parallel
sided thin film of thickness t and refractive index u as shown in
figure,
• Let the angle of incidence be i
• At B, the beam is partly reflected along BR1 and partly refracted at
an angle r along BC.
• At C, it is again partly reflected along CD and partly refracted along
CT1. Similar partial reflections and refractions occur at points D, E,
etc.
• Thus we get a set of parallel reflected rays BR1 ,DR2, etc. and a
set of parallel transmitted rays CT1,ET2, etc.
• For a thin film, the waves travelling along BR1 and DR2 in the
reflected system will overlap.
• These waves originate from the same incident wave AB and are
hence coherent.
• Hence they will interfere constructively or destructively according
to if the path difference between them is an integral multiple of λ or
an odd multiple of λ/2.

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 • To find the path difference between BR1 and DR2, draw DM
perpendicular to BR1. The paths travelled by the beams beyond
DM are equal. Hence the optical path difference (optical path
difference is obtained by multiplying geometrical path difference by
its refractive index) between them is
Δ = Path BCD in film - Path BM in air
= µ (BC + CD) – BM
𝑡
From figure, we have, BC = CD =
cos 𝑟

2µ𝑡
µ (BC+CD) =
cos 𝑟

and BM = BD.sin i = 2B N’ sin i

= 2 B N’ sin i
sin 𝑟
∴ BM = 2t . sin i
cos 𝑟

2µ𝑡 sin 𝑖
= . sin2 r (∵ = µ)
cos 𝑟 sin 𝑟

∴ The optical path difference between the rays is

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 2µ𝑡 2µ𝑡
Δ= − . sin2 𝑟
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟

2µ𝑡
= (1 − sin2 𝑟)
cos 𝑟

Or Δ = 2 µ 𝑡 cos 𝑟

• The film is optically denser than the surrounding air medium.

Hence the ray BR1, originating by reflection at the denser medium
suffers a phase change of n or a path change of λ/2 due to
reflection at B. (No such change of phase occurs for ray DR2, as it
is a result of reflection at C)
• Hence the effective path difference between BR1 and DR2 is
λ
2 µ 𝑡 cos 𝑟 +
2
• Condition for maxima and minima in reflected light

(i) The two rays will interfere constructively if the path difference
between them is an integral multiple of λ i.e.
λ
2µ 𝑡 cos 𝑟 + = nλ
2
λ λ
2µ 𝑡 cos 𝑟 + = (2n − 1) , where n=1,2,3,4,….(for maxima)
2 2
λ λ
Or 2µ 𝑡 cos 𝑟 + = (2n − 1) when n= 0,1,2,3…..
2 2
When this condition is satisfied the film will appear bright in the
reflected system.

(ii) The two rays will interfere destructively if the path difference
λ
between them is an odd multiple of i.e.
2

λ λ
2µ 𝑡 cos 𝑟 + = (2n + 1)
2 2
λ
Or 2µ 𝑡 cos 𝑟 + = nλ (for minima) …. where n=0,1,2,3,….
2

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Q3a) Explain with neat diagram the effect of doping and
temperature on the fermi level in N type extrinsic semiconductor.
What is the probability of an electron being thermally excited to the
conduction band in Si at 20° C. The band gap energy is 1.12 eV.
[8mrks]
Solution:

a) Explain with neat diagram the effect of doping and temperature on

the fermi level in N type extrinsic semiconductor.

Effect of temperature on N-Type semiconductors:

• At low temperature: only few donor atoms get ionised and hence the
Fermi level lies midway between the bottom of conduction band and
donor level.
• At moderate temperature: all donor atoms get ionised, so the Fermi
level moves towards the centre of forbidden gap.
• At high temperature: the concentration of electrons transferred from
valence to conduction band is higher than that from the donor
atoms. Hence Fermi level shifts to the middle of the forbidden gap.

Effect of doping on N-Type semiconductors:

In an N-type semiconductor as the doping concentration increases
more electrons get added to the donor levels. Due to increase in the

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 concentration of electrons Fermi level in N-type (EFn) rises indicating
this increase.

b) What is the probability of an electron being thermally excited to the

conduction band in Si at 20°C. The band gap energy is 1.12 eV.
Solution:
Given:
T= 20°C = 20 + 273.15= 293.15 K
Eg= 1.12eV
Also, K(Boltzmann constant)=1.38 x 10-23 J/K
1.38 x 10−23
K(in eV) = = 86.25 x 10-6 eV
1.6 x 10−19
To find: f(Ec) = ?
1
Formula: 𝑓(𝐸𝑐 ) =
1+exp [(𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑉 )/𝐾𝑇]
Calculations:
For intrinsic semiconductor,
1.12
Ec – Ev = Eg /2 = = 0.56 eV
2
𝐸𝑐 – 𝐸𝑣 0.56
= = 22.15
𝐾𝑇 86.25 x 10−6 x 293.15
1
𝑓(𝐸𝑐 ) = 22.15
= 2.4x10−10
1+𝑒
−10
∴ 𝑓(𝐸𝑐 ) = 2.4x10

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Q3. b) Show that the energy of an electron in a one-dimensional deep
potential well of infinite height varies as the square of the natural
numbers. [7mrks]

Solution:

• Suppose a particle of mass m is free to move in x-direction only in

the region from x=0 to x=a
• Outside this region the potential energy V is taken to be infinite, and
within this region it is zero. A particle does not lose energy when it
collides with walls, hence its energy remains constant.
• Outside the box V= ∞ and particle cannot have infinite energy,
therefore it cannot exist outside the box.
∴ Schrodinger’s Equation is written as,

𝑑 2 Ψ 8𝜋 2 𝑚
+ (𝐸 − ∞)Ψ = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

The above equation may be simplified as,

𝑑2Ψ
2
+ 𝐾 2Ψ = 0
𝑑𝑥
Where,
2
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸 2
2𝑚𝐸
𝐾 = 𝑜𝑟 𝐾 =
ℎ2 ℎ2
Solution of the simplified equation is written as,

Ψ = A cosKx + B sinKx

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When x=0 at Ψ = 0, we get,

0 = A cos 0+ B sin 0 ……(since cos 0 =1)

∴A=0

When x = a, Ψ = 0,

∴0 = A cos Ka+ B sin Ka

But A = 0

∴ B sin Ka = 0

Here B need not be zero,

∴ sin Ka = 0 only when

√2𝑚𝐸
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑎 = 𝑛𝜋 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … . )
ℎ
n= quantum number
𝑛𝜋
Ψ𝑛 = 𝐵 sin ( ) 𝑥
𝑎
Which represents the permitted solutions. In the above equations, n=0 is
not acceptable because for n=0, Ψ = 0, means the electron is not present
inside the box which is not true.
As
8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸 𝑛𝜋
𝐾2 = and 𝐾 =
ℎ2 𝑎

(𝑛𝜋)2 8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸
∴ =
𝑎2 ℎ2

𝑛2 ℎ 2
∴ E𝑛 =
8𝑚𝑎2

∴ E𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2

This shows that the energy of the particle can have only certain values
which are Eigen values.

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Q4.a) Explain Bragg's spectrometer for the investigation of crystal
structure with the help of a neat diagram. [5 mrks]
Solution :-

• Based upon Bragg's law an instrument called as Bragg's

spectrometer was designed. This is a modified form of ordinary
spectrometer to suit the use of x-rays.
• Schematic diagram of a bragg’s spectrometer.

• A monochromatic x-ray beam obtained from x-ray tube is made to

pass through slits S1 and S2 which are made up of lead. The fine
beam is then made to fall on the crystal C fixed on a crystal mount
exactly at the centre of circular turn table.
• The x-rays reflected are collected by ionization chamber. Since
ionization chamber is sturdy, the turn table is rotated till we get a
sharp increase in the intensity.
• The sudden increase in the intensity of x-ray suggests that Bragg's
law is satisfied at the given angle 𝜃 of the incident beam.
• The peak in ionisation current which represents the intensity occurs
more than once as 𝜃 is varied because Bragg's law states
nλ = 2dsin 𝜃 i.e. for * n = 1 ,2,3,..... we have θ1, θ2, θ3,…..
• If the intensity (or ionization current) is plotted against glancing
angle then we get the graph as shown in figure.
• Using graph shown above we find the angles θ1, θ2,…. where the
peak occurs.

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 • Determination of crystal structure (for cubic crystals)
Here the crystal face used for reflecting the x-rays can be so cut that
it remains parallel to one set of planes, then to another and so on
when placed at the centre of the turn table on Bragg's spectrometer
with x-rays of known λ incident upon it. For a given plane used as
reflecting surface, find the corresponding d using
nλ = 2d sin 𝜃 (take n=1)
Similarly, find value of d for other planes as well.
For cubic structure we select three planes viz. (100), (110), (111).
As λ is same throughout the experiment, we get,
λ = 2d100 sin θ1
λ = 2d110 sin θ2
λ = 2d111 sin θ3
1 1 1
∴ d100 : d110 : d111 = ∶ ∶
sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 sin 𝜃3
Where θ1, θ2 and θ3 are obtained from the graph. Intensity → θ i.e.
where the peak occurs. The reason for selection of planes (100),
(110) and (111) is that these are the planes rich enough in terms of
atoms.
Studies have found out the ratios of d100 , d110 and d111 for SC, BCC
and FCC are as follows,

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 1 1
SC 1 ∶ ∶
√2 √3
2 1
BCC 1 ∶ ∶
√2 √3
1 2
FCC 1 ∶ ∶
√2 √3
Experimentally obtained values of θ1, θ2 and θ3 will provide us d100,
d110 and d111. By comparing their ratio with above equations, one can
determine crystal structure.

b) Derive one dimensional Schrödinger's time dependent equation

for matter waves. [5 mrks]

Solution:-

• Based on de Broglie's idea of matter waves, Schrödinger developed

a mathematical theory which plays the same role as Newton's laws
in classical mechanics.
• Using de Broglie's hypothesis for a particle of mass m, moving with
a velocity v, associated with it is wave of wavelength.
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
• The wave equation for a de-broglie wave can be written as
𝜔
𝜓 = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑡 …(1)
Where, A = amplitude
Ω = Angular frequency
• For a one dimensional case, the classical wave equation has the
following form
𝑑2y 1 𝑑2y
= …(2)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2
• Where, y is the displacement and v is the velocity of the wave. The
solution is,
𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑖(𝑘𝑥− 𝜔𝑡) …(3)
Where ω = 2πv

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 • By analogy we can write the wave equation for de-Broglie wave for
the motion of a free particle as
𝑑2Ψ 1 𝑑2Ψ
= ...(4)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2
Where, ω = vk
v = phase velocity
• The solution of the above equation is,
𝑖(𝐸𝑡− 𝑝𝑥)
Ψ (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒 − ℎ …(5)
• There we have replaced u and k of Equation (1.10.3) with E and p
using Einstein and de-broglie relations.
• Differentiating w.r.t t,
∂Ψ ∂ 𝑖(𝐸𝑡− 𝑝𝑥)
= [𝐴 𝑒 − ℎ ]
∂t ∂t

∂Ψ ∂ 𝑖(𝐸𝑡− 𝑝𝑥) −𝑖𝐸

= [𝐴 𝑒 − ℎ . ]
∂t ∂t ℎ

∂Ψ −i
= 𝐸 Ψ …(6)
∂t h

• Similarly taking double differentiation of equation (5) w.r.t x,

∂2 Ψ −p2
= Ψ …(7)
∂x2 h2
• In classical mevhanics we have energy of a free particle described
as
p2
𝐸 =
2m
• Let there be a field where particle is present. Depending on its
position in the field, the particle will possess certain potential energy
V.
∴ Total energy of a particle is given as,
p2
𝐸 = +𝑉
2m
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Or,
p2
= 𝐸 − 𝑉…(8)
2m

p2
∴ Ψ = 𝐸Ψ − 𝑉Ψ …(9)
2m

But from equation (6),

−ℎ ∂Ψ
𝐸Ψ = +
i ∂t
And from equation (7),

2
∂2 Ψ
2
p Ψ = h
∂x 2
∴ Equation (9) becomes,
−h2 ∂2 Ψ −ℎ ∂Ψ
= − 𝑣Ψλ
2m ∂x2 i ∂t

−h2 ∂2 Ψ ∂Ψ
∴ + 𝑣Ψ = 𝑖ℎ …(10)
2m ∂x2 ∂t

Equation (10) is the one-dimensional time-dependent schrodinger

equation.
c) White light is incident on a soap film at an angle sin-1 (4/5) and the
reflected light is observed with a spectroscope. It is found that two
consecutive dark bands correspond to wavelength 6100 A° and
6000A°. If the refractive index of the film is 4/3, calculate its
thickness. [5 mrks]
Solution:-

We have the condition for dark band in reflected system,

2µt cos r = nλ

If n and (n+1) are the orders of consecutive dark bamds for wavelength λ1
and λ2 respectively, then,
2µt cos r = nλ1 and

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2µt cos r = (n+1) λ2 …(1)

∴ 2µt cos r = nλ1=(n+1)λ1

nλ1=(n+1)λ1
𝜆2
∴n=
𝜆1− 𝜆2

Put the value of n in equation (1), we have,

𝜆1 𝜆2
∴ 2µt cos r =
𝜆1− 𝜆2

𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆1 𝜆2
t= = …(2)
𝜆1− 𝜆2 2µ cos r sin 𝑖 2
(𝜆1− 𝜆2 )2µ √1−( )
𝜇

Given :
µ= 4/3,

sin i = 4/5
sin 𝑖
as µ= and cos r = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
sin 𝑟

4/5 2 16 4
∴ cos r = √1 − ( ) = √ =
4/3 25 5

Given :
λ1 = 6100 A° = 6.1 * 10-5 cm,

λ2 = 6000 A° = 6.0 * 10-5 cm,

µ= 4/3

Put all these values in equation (2),

6.1∗ 10−5 ∗ 6.0∗ 10−5
t= 4 4
(6.1−6)∗ 10−5 2∗ ∗
3 5

∴ t = 0.0017 cm

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Q5. a) Find the de Broglie wavelength of (i) an electron accelerated
through a potential difference of 182 Volts and (ii) 1 Kg object moving
with a speed of 1 m/s. Comparing the results, explain why is the
wave nature of matter not apparent in daily observations?
[5 mrks]
Solution:

(i) m= 6.68*10-27(mass of an α-article)

V= 182 volts
Charge q = 2e
ℎ 6.63∗10−34
∴λ= =
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉 √2×6.68×10−27 ×2×1.6×10−19 ×200

∴ λ = 7.17 × 10-13 m
(ii) m = 1 Kg
v= 1 m/s
ℎ 6.63∗10−34
∴λ= =
𝑚𝑣 1×1
∴ λ = 6.62 × 10-34 m
This wavelength is too small to have any practical significance
which is due to extremely small value of Plank’s constant (h)
and the significant momentum of macroscopic objects.

b). Derive an expression for interplanar spacing in a cubic unit cell?

[5 mrks]

Solution:

• It is clear that parallel planes have same Miller indices.

• At the same time spacing between such parallel planes is an
important parameter.
• It is denoted by dhkl i.e. the interplanar spacing between planes with
same Miller indices (hkl).

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 • In the Figure , we have plane ABC with Miller indices (hkl). Other
plane with same Miller indices is assumed to pass through point 'O'
(which is not shown in the diagram). The perpendicular spacing
between these two planes is ON = d.

• Let ON make an angle α’ with x-axis, β’ with y-axis and ϒ’ with z-

axis.
𝑂𝑁 𝑑
∴ cos 𝛼 ′ = =
𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐴
𝑂𝑁 𝑑
cos 𝛽 ′ = =
𝑂𝐵 𝑂
𝑂𝑁 𝑑
cos ϒ′ = =
𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐶
𝑎
But OA =
ℎ
𝑎
OB =
𝑘
𝑎
OC =
𝑙
𝑑 𝑑ℎ
∴ cos 𝛼 ′ = =
𝑎/ℎ 𝑎
𝑑 𝑑𝑘
cos 𝛽 ′ = =
𝑎/𝑘 𝑎
𝑑 𝑑𝑙
cos ϒ′ = =
𝑎/𝑙 𝑎
Using relation of space geometry,
cos2 𝛼 ′ + cos2 𝛽 ′ + cos2 ϒ′ = 1
𝑑ℎ 2 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑙
( ) + ( )2 + ( )2 = 1
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

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 𝑑2 2 2 2
(ℎ +𝑘 +𝑙 ) = 1
ℎ2

𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 +𝑘 2 +𝑙 2
This is the expression for interplanar spacing in terms of lattice
constant a and miller indices (hkl)

c) Explain the principle and working of Supercapacitors? [5 mrks]

Solution:

A supercapacitor is a capacitor which has very high capacitance (of the

order of Farads) as compared to a normal capacitor (of the order of 10 -6
Farads).It is capable of charging and storing energy at a higher density
than normal capacitor. It is also capable of discharging to use stored
energy to do work faster than the normal battery.
Construction:

A normal capacitor has two plates which are called as its electrodes.
Capacitance is directly proportional to the area of plates 'A' and inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates 'd'. A porous substance
used to coat the metallic plates of a supercapacitor due to this the plates
of a supercapacitor have a much larger effective surface area 'A'. The
larger surface area of electrodes which soaked in electrolyte eventually
increases the storage capacity for charge. To top this up the space
between them 'd' gets effectively reduced to accommodate the unique
insulating separator. Opposite charges get deposited on either side of the
separator, thus creating a double layer of charge as shown in Figure 1.
Hence, such capacitors are also called as double layer supercapacitor
which is the most commonly used supercapacitor. In this way a
Supercapacitor achieves a much higher value of capacitance than any
regular capacitor.

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Working:
A supercapacitor can be charged and discharged unlimited number of
times. When the supercapacitor is not charged, charges in the electrolyte
are distributed randomly. In order to charge a supercapacitor, it is
connected to a voltage source. While charging positive charges are
attracted to the negative terminal and negative charges attracted to the
positive terminal as shown in Figure 2. When all the charges are deposited
on the electrodes the supercapacitor is said to be fully charged as shown
in Figure 1. Once charged the supercapacitor can be connected to a load
for discharging as shown in Figure 3.

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Q6.a) Explain principle, construction and working of Light Emitting
Diode? [5 mrks]
Solution:

LED or Light Emitting Diode is a two terminal device which emits light
when supplied with electric potential. The circuit symbol of LED is shown
in Figure 1 is just like the ordinary diode with additional two arrows pointing
outward indicating emission of light as its main function. The real LED
component looks like Figure 2 where the longer leg indicated the anode
and the flat spot on the top capsule marks the cathode side.

An LED is a PN junction diode which functions only in forward bias mode.

Principle of LED:
When LED is forward biased the electrons in the n-region cross the
junction and recombine with the holes in the p- region releasing energy in
the form of light.
Construction:

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 1. The most common method of constructing an LED is to stack two
semiconducting layers on the substrate.
2. Indirect band gap semiconductors like silicon and germanium are
used to make ordinary diodes whereas direct band gap materials
like gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP), gallium
arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) etc are used in LEDS.
3. The active region is the depletion region created between the p-type
and n-type semiconductors as shown in Figure 2.
4. The positive terminal (anode) is connected on top of the p region,
while the negative terminal (cathode) is connected below the n
region via metal contacts.
5. Light emerges from the active region when recombination takes
place. Since recombination takes place when the electrons move
into the holes, the p-layer containing holes is kept above the n-layer
containing electrons.
6. Light thus emitted by an LED is spread in all directions. In order to
prevent spreading, the structure is placed inside a small reflective
hemispherical cup made from a transparent plastic of epoxy resin.
7. The unique shape of the cup helps focus all light in one direction
(the top) through reflection because of its unique shape. This makes
the device more efficient.

Working of a LED:

1. When a forward bias is applied to the LED, the energy levels of the
p and n region become aligned thus allowing the electrons and holes
to cross the energy gap as shown in 3.
2. This happens because the electrons are repulsed by the battery,
which causes them to move from the conduction band into the
valence band to recombine with the holes.
3. During this process, as the conduction band has a higher energy
than valence band, the electrons move from a higher energy level,
to a lower energy level to attain stability.

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 4. This causes them to emit some energy in the form of light. This is
caused by the process of recombination.
5. This is how the energy emitted from LEDs is in the form of light.

This represents IV characteristics of an LED through a spectrum of

light. As the wavelength of light decreases, the values of forward
voltage increase for the same amount of current.

b). State Meissner's effect. Show that superconductors exhibit

perfect diamagnetism. [5 mrks]
Solution:

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 • A superconducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the
magnetic flux out of its body when cooled below the critical
temperature and exhibits perfect diamagnetism. This effect is called
'Meissner effect .
• Refer Fig.(a), where a specimen is subjected to a magnetic field.
The specimen is in normal state. We find that magnetic field
penetrates the specimen.
• Refer Fig.(b). now the specimen is cooled below its Tc the
superconductor expels field lines from its body. This is Meissner
effect.
• Refer Fig.(c), when the field is switched off magnetic field will not be
trapped by the superconductor cooled below Tc

• As specimen expels the magnetic flux, it is exhibition of perfect

diamagnetism, susceptibility is found out to be 1. Let's see it
mathematically.
• For normal state, magnetic induction inside the specimen is given
by,
B = µ0(H+M)
Where, µ0 = absolute permeability
H = external field applied
M = magnetization produced within specimen
At T < TC , B=0 I.e. superconducting state
∴ µ0(H+M) = 0
Susceptibility, X = M/H = -1

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 • It is diamagnetism which brings strong repulsion to external
magnets. This has given us levitation effect and MAGLEV trains.

c). We wish to coat a flat slab of glass with refractive index 1.5 with
a thinnest possible film of transparent material so that light of
wavelength 600 nm incident normally is not reflected. We have two
materials to choose from M1(µ= 1.21) and M2 (µ =1.6). Which one
would be appropriate? What will be the minimum thickness of
coating? [5 mrks]

Solution:

Given:

Wavelength (λ) = 600 nm

Refractive index of glass = µ =1.5

Refractive index of Material 1 = µ1 = 1.21

Refractive index of Material 1 = µ2 =1.6

To find: Minimum thickness of coating

𝜆
Formula: tmin =
4µ

Calculation:

For material 1,
𝜆 600∗ 10−9
tmin = = = 1.24 × 10-7 = 124 nm
4µ1 4(1.21)

For material 2,
𝜆 600∗ 10−9
tmin = = = 9.38 × 10−8 = 93 nm
4µ2 4(1.6)

The appropriate would be material 1 with minimum thickness of 124 nm.

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