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200-901 DEVASC v1.

1st Edition
Ratnesh K
CCIE x3 #61380
© 2024 by Ratnesh. All rights reserved.
This material is protected under international and domestic copyright laws and treaties.
Any unauthorized reproduction, distribution, or use of this material is prohibited without
the express written consent of Ratnesh. For permissions, contact Ratnesh at +91 8970816983
Python Code:

python

import yaml
# YAML data

yaml_data = '''

book:

title: Harry Potter

author: J.K. Rowling

year: 2005

'''

# Parse YAML

book_dict = yaml.safe_load(yaml_data)

print(book_dict['book']['title'], book_dict['book']['author'], book_dict['book']['

Cisco DNA Center:
NSO (Network Services Orchestrator):
Webex Devices:

Collaboration Endpoints: Cisco Webex Devices include video conferencing

endpoints, room kits, desk devices, and collaboration displays that offer
high-quality audio and video experiences for meetings and collaboration.

Intelligent Features: These devices are equipped with intelligent features such as
facial recognition, voice commands, whiteboarding, content sharing, and integration
with productivity tools like Microsoft Office 365 and Google Workspace.

APIs for Customization: Webex Devices APIs allow developers to customize

device behavior, create interactive applications, integrate with business processes,
and control device functions programmatically.
Based on this documentation, we can construct the cURL command to create
a new user profile:
curl -X POST \
https://api.example.com/users \
-H 'Content-Type: application/json' \
-d '{
"username": "john_doe",
"email": "[email protected]",
"password": "securepassword123"
}'
In this example:

-X POST: Specifies the HTTP method as POST.

-H 'Content-Type: application/json': Sets the Content-Type header to indicate JSON data.
-d '{//.}': Includes the JSON data (request body) containing the user information.

Replace placeholders (https://api.example.com/users, request body) with actual

values from your API documentation and task requirements.

Remember to authenticate if the API requires authentication (e.g., API key,

OAuth tokens) and handle response data as per your application's needs.
Compare data formats (XML, JSON, and YAML)

XML (eXtensible Markup Language), JSON (JavaScript Object Notation), and YAML (YAML Ain't Markup Language)
are all popular data formats used for storing and transmitting structured data. Here's a comparison of these formats:

XML (eXtensible Markup Language):

XML is a markup language that uses tags to define data elements and their structure.
It is hierarchical and allows for nested elements with parent-child relationships.
XML documents are typically more verbose compared to JSON and YAML due to the use of opening and closing tags.
XML supports attributes within elements for providing additional information.
It is widely used in web services (SOAP), configuration files, and data interchange formats.
JSON (JavaScript Object Notation):

JSON is a lightweight data interchange format inspired by JavaScript object syntax.

It uses key-value pairs and supports arrays to represent data structures.
JSON is less verbose compared to XML, making it more readable and easier to parse by machines.
It is commonly used in web APIs, configuration files, and data storage.
YAML (YAML Ain't Markup Language):

YAML is a human-readable data serialization format that focuses on simplicity and readability.
It uses indentation and whitespace for structuring data, making it visually appealing and easy to understand.
YAML supports complex data structures, including lists and dictionaries, similar to JSON.
It is often used in configuration files, automation scripts, and data serialization.
1.2 Describe parsing of common data format (XML, JSON, and YAML) to Python data structures
Python Code:

python

import json

# JSON data
json_data = '{"book": {"title": "Harry Potter", "author": "J.K. Rowling", "year": 2005}}'

# Parse JSON
book_dict = json.loads(json_data)
print(book_dict['book']['title'], book_dict['book']['author'], book_dict['book']['
1.3 Describe the concepts of test-driven development
Test-driven development (TDD) is a software development approach where tests are written before writing the
actual code. This methodology follows a cycle of writing tests, implementing code to pass those tests, and then
refactoring the code as needed. Here's a description of the TDD process along with an example and a simple
network topology analogy:

Concepts of Test-Driven Development (TDD):

Write a Test:

Start by writing a test that defines the desired behavior of the code.
Tests are typically written using testing frameworks like unittest (for Python), JUnit (for Java), or other relevant tools.
The test should fail initially since the code to implement the functionality doesn't exist yet.
Implement Code:
Write the minimum amount of code necessary to pass the test.
The goal is to make the failing test pass without introducing unnecessary complexity.
Run the Test:

Run the test to check if the newly written code passes the test.
If the test fails, refine the code until it passes the test.
Refactor Code:
Refactor the code to improve its structure, readability, and performance while ensuring that all tests still pass.
The code should maintain its functionality and correctness after refactoring.

Repeat the Cycle:

Repeat the process by writing additional tests for new functionalities or edge cases.
Ensure that all tests continue to pass with each iteration.

Let's consider an example of developing a simple Factorial application using TDD in Python:
1.4 Compare software development methods (agile, lean, and waterfall)
1.4 Compare software development methods (agile, lean, and waterfall)

Waterfall Methodology:

Sequential Process: Waterfall follows a linear and sequential approach, where each
phase of the project must be completed before moving to the next phase.

Documentation-Driven: Emphasizes extensive documentation at each phase, including

requirements, design, implementation, testing, and deployment.

Rigid Structure: Changes are difficult to accommodate once a phase is completed,

leading to less flexibility in adapting to evolving requirements.

Suitability: Well-suited for projects with stable and well-understood

requirements, where changes are unlikely to occur frequently.
Agile Methodology:

Iterative and Incremental: Agile emphasizes iterative development and incremental

delivery of software in short cycles known as sprints.

Flexibility: Embraces change and welcomes customer feedback, allowing for continuous
improvement and adaptation to changing requirements.

Collaborative Approach: Encourages collaboration between cross-functional teams,

including developers, testers, and stakeholders, throughout the project.

Key Practices: Scrum, Kanban, and Extreme Programming (XP) are popular frameworks
under Agile, each with its own set of practices and principles.

Suitability: Ideal for projects with dynamic and evolving requirements, where
frequent feedback and rapid delivery are essential.
Lean Methodology:

Elimination of Waste: Focuses on minimizing waste, such as unnecessary processes,

delays, defects, and overproduction, to improve efficiency and value delivery.

Value Stream Mapping: Identifies and optimizes the value stream, from customer
request to product delivery, to streamline processes and eliminate bottlenecks.

Continuous Improvement: Emphasizes continuous improvement through Kaizen

(continuous improvement) practices and Lean tools like Just-In-Time (JIT) and Kanban.

Customer Value: Places a strong emphasis on delivering value to customers by

understanding their needs and optimizing processes to meet those needs efficiently.

Suitability: Well-suited for projects focused on efficiency, value delivery, and

Modularity and Reusability:

Readability and Maintainability:

Encapsulation and Abstraction:

Scalability and Extensibility:

Modularity and Reusability:

Methods/Functions: 🔧 Breaking code into smaller functions allows for

code reuse and reduces redundancy.

Classes: 📦 Classes encapsulate data and behavior, promoting reusability

by creating multiple instances with shared methods.

Modules: 🧩 Modules organize related functionalities, enabling code

reuse across different parts of the program.

Readability and Maintainability:

Methods/Functions: 📖 Well-named functions enhance code readability and

ease of maintenance.

Classes: 📚 Classes provide a structured way to organize code, improving

readability and making maintenance easier.

Modules: 🗂️ Modules improve code organization, making it easier to

locate and manage related code.
Encapsulation and Abstraction:

Classes: 🛡️ Classes support encapsulation, hiding implementation details, and

promoting abstraction.

Modules: 🧰 Modules encapsulate functionalities, providing abstraction and hiding

implementation details.

Scalability and Extensibility:

Methods/Functions: 🚀 Modular functions allow for scalable codebases and easy

extension of functionality.

Classes: 🌱 Object-oriented programming with classes enables scalable and

extensible code.

Modules: 🌐 Modular organization using modules facilitates scalability and

extensibility of the codebase.
1.6 Identify the advantages of common design patterns (MVC and Observer)

MVC (Model-View-Controller) Pattern:

Model (Data and Business Logic): 📊 Think of the model as the central database
or data store in your topology. It stores all the data and business logic of
your system, similar to how a centralized server stores and manages information.

View (User Interface): 🖥️ The view represents the user interface or frontend
of your application. It's like the end devices (computers, smartphones) that
users interact with to access data and services from the central database (model).

Controller (User Input Handling): 🎮 Controllers are like routers or switches

in your topology that manage the flow of data between the users (view) and the
central database (model). They handle user inputs (such as clicks or commands)
and update the model or view accordingly.
MVC (Model-View-Controller) Pattern:

Separation of Concerns: MVC separates the application into three components -

Model (data and business logic), View (user interface), and Controller
(handles user input). This separation of concerns makes the codebase more
modular and easier to manage.

Code Reusability: The modular structure of MVC promotes code reusability.

For example, the same model or controller logic can be used with different
views, enhancing code reuse.

Scalability: MVC facilitates scalability by allowing developers to add or

modify components independently. This modularity makes it easier to scale and
maintain large applications.

Maintainability: Due to the clear separation of concerns, MVC applications

are easier to maintain. Changes in one component (e.g., updating the business
logic in the model) do not require extensive modifications in other components.

Parallel Development: MVC enables parallel development as different teams or

developers can work on different components simultaneously without affecting each
other's work significantly.
Observer Pattern:

Loose Coupling: The Observer pattern promotes loose coupling between objects.
Subjects (publishers) and Observers (subscribers) are decoupled, allowing changes
in one object to notify and update multiple dependent objects without directly
depending on them.

Flexibility: The Observer pattern provides flexibility by allowing multiple

observers to subscribe to a subject. This flexibility makes it easy to add or
remove observers without modifying the subject or other observers.

Event-Driven Architecture: The Observer pattern is commonly used in

event-driven architectures. It allows objects to react to changes or
events in a decoupled manner, improving responsiveness and extensibility.

Maintainability: By decoupling subjects and observers, the Observer

pattern enhances code maintainability. Changes in the subject or observer
logic can be made independently, reducing the risk of unintended side effects.

Customizability: Observers can be customized to handle specific events

or notifications. This customization adds flexibility and allows for
tailored responses to different events.
1.7 Explain the advantages of version control

History Tracking: 🕰️ Version control systems track changes over time,

providing a historical record of modifications.

Collaboration: 👥 VCS facilitates team collaboration by allowing multiple

developers to work on the same project simultaneously.

Branching and Merging: 🌿 VCS supports branching for parallel development

and seamless merging of changes.

Code Integrity: 🛡️ Ensures code integrity, backup, and recovery mechanisms

in case of errors or system failures.

Code Review: 🔍 Facilitates code review processes, improving code quality

and adherence to standards.

Rollback and Revert: ⏪ Allows for rollback and revert operations, undoing
changes that introduce errors.

Parallel Development: 🚀 Supports parallel development workflows, reducing

bottlenecks and improving productivity.

Documentation: 📄 Serves as documentation for project history, fostering

transparency and communication
1.8 Utilize common version control operations with Git

1.8.a Clone
1.8.b Add/remove
1.8.c Commit
1.8.d Push / pull
1.8.e Branch
1.8.f Merge and handling conflicts
1.8.g diff
Clone (1.8.a):
To clone a repository, use the git clone command followed by the repository URL:

git clone https://github.com/username/repository.git

This command downloads a copy of the repository to your local machine.

Add/Remove (1.8.b):

To add files to the staging area for commit, use git add followed by the
file names or . to add all changes:

git add filename.txt

git add .

To remove files from the staging area, use git rm followed by the file names:

git rm filename.txt
Commit (1.8.c):

To commit changes to the repository, use git commit with

the -m flag for a commit message:

git commit -m "Commit message here"

Push/Pull (1.8.d):

To push local commits to the remote repository, use git push:

git push origin main

To pull changes from the remote repository, use git pull:

git pull origin main

Branch (1.8.e):

To create a new branch, use git branch followed by the branch name:

git branch new-branch

To switch to a different branch, use git checkout followed by

the branch name:

git checkout branch-name

Merge and Handling Conflicts (1.8.f):

To merge branches, first switch to the target branch

(git checkout target-branch) and then use git merge:

git merge source-branch

If there are conflicts during merge, resolve them manually in the

conflicted files, add the changes (git add), and commit
the merge (git commit).
Diff (1.8.g):

To view the differences between files, use git diff followed by

optional parameters like file names or commit hashes:

git diff
git diff filename.txt
git diff commit-hash-1 commit-hash-2

These Git commands cover essential version control operations for

managing code changes, branches, merges, and collaboration in a
Git repository.
2.0 Understanding and Using APIs 20%
2.1 Construct a REST API request to accomplish a task given
API documentation

2.2 Describe common usage patterns related to webhooks

2.3 Identify the constraints when consuming APIs

2.4 Explain common HTTP response codes associated with REST APIs

2.5 Troubleshoot a problem given the HTTP response code, request

and API documentation

2.6 Identify the parts of an HTTP response (response code,

headers, body)

2.7 Utilize common API authentication mechanisms: basic,

custom token, and API keys

2.8 Compare common API styles (REST, RPC, synchronous,

and asynchronous)

2.9 Construct a Python script that calls a REST API using

the requests library
2.1 Construct a REST API request to accomplish a task given API documentation

To construct a REST API request based on API documentation,

you'll typically follow these steps:

Read API Documentation:

Identify the Task:

Construct the Request:

Send the Request:

Use a tool or programming language (e.g., cURL, Postman,

Python requests library) to send the constructed API request.
Read API Documentation:

Understand the API endpoints, methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE), request
headers,parameters, and response format specified in the API documentation.

Identify the Task:

Determine the specific task or action you want to perform using the API
(e.g., create a new resource, retrieve data, update an existing record).

Construct the Request:

Choose the appropriate HTTP method (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE) based on the
task and API endpoint.

Set the request headers (e.g., Content-Type, Authorization) as specified

in the documentation.
Include any required parameters or data in the request body or
URL query parameters.

Format the request URL with the API endpoint and any additional parameters.
Send the Request:
Use a tool or programming language (e.g., cURL, Postman, Python requests library)
to send the constructed API request.
Here's an example of constructing a REST API request using cURL:
Let's assume we have an API endpoint to create a new user profile
with the following documentation:

Endpoint: https://api.example.com/users
Method: POST
Headers: Content-Type: application/json
Request Body (JSON format):

{
"username": "john_doe",
"email": "[email protected]",
"password": "securepassword123"
}
2.2 Describe common usage patterns related to webhooks

A webhook is a way for an application to provide real-time data to

other applications or services through HTTP callbacks. In the context
of network management, webhooks can be used to trigger actions or
receive notifications about network events. Below is a description
of a webhook system with a topology diagram:

Webhook System Overview:

In this example, we'll consider a network management system that uses

webhooks to automate network configuration changes based on specific events.

Topology Diagram:
Description:

Webhook Receiver: This is a server or service capable of

receiving HTTP POST requests from external sources.
It's configured to handle incoming webhook
payloads and trigger actions based on the data received.

Network Management System (NMS): This represents the central

management system responsible for monitoring and controlling
network devices. The NMS includes software components like
controllers, monitoring tools, and automation scripts.

Network Device: This could be any device in the network,

such as a router, switch, firewall, or server, that is
being managed by the NMS.
Workflow:

Event Occurs on Network Device: A network event, such as a

link failure, high traffic threshold, or configuration change request,
occurs on a network device.

NMS Detects Event: The NMS detects the event through monitoring
mechanisms or receives a request for a configuration change
from an external source.

NMS Generates Webhook Payload: The NMS creates a payload containing

relevant data about the event or configuration change request.
This payload is formatted according to the webhook receiver's
specifications.

NMS Sends Webhook POST Request: The NMS sends an HTTP POST request
to the webhook receiver's endpoint, passing the webhook payload in
the request body.
Webhook Receiver Processes Payload: The webhook receiver
receives the POST request, processes the payload, and triggers
the corresponding action or workflow based on the data received.

Action Triggered: Depending on the webhook payload content, the

webhook receiver may initiate actions such as updating device
configurations, sending notifications to administrators, logging
events, or triggering automation scripts.

Feedback Loop: The action taken by the webhook receiver may

generate feedback or responses that are sent back to the NMS
or other systems for further processing or logging.
Benefits of Webhooks in Network Management:

🔄 Real-time event handling and automation.

🔗 Simplified integration with external systems and services.
🤖 Reduced manual intervention for routine tasks.
🚀 Improved responsiveness to network events and anomalies.

🤝 Enhanced coordination and communication between network

components and management systems.
2.3 Identify the constraints when consuming APIs
1⃣ Rate Limits: 🕒 Exceeding rate limits can lead to ⏳ throttling or blocks.

2⃣ Authentication: 🔑 Valid authentication credentials are required.

3⃣ Authorization: 🚫 Access may be restricted based on user roles or permissions.

4⃣ Data Format: 📝 Specific data formats (e.g., JSON, XML) must be used.

5⃣ Error Handling: ❌ Proper error handling is crucial for graceful failure.

6⃣ Endpoint Changes: 🔄 APIs may evolve, necessitating adaptation.

7⃣ Versioning: 🔄 Versioning ensures backward compatibility.

8⃣ Security: 🔒 APIs implement security measures to protect data.

9⃣ Documentation: 📚 Comprehensive documentation is essential.

🔟 Throttling and Quotas: ⚠️ Throttling and usage quotas must be respected.

2.3 Identify the constraints when consuming APIs

Rate Limits: Many APIs impose rate limits to prevent

1 abuse and ensure fair usage. Exceeding these limits can
result in throttling or temporary blocks on API access.

Authentication: APIs often require authentication credentials

2 such as API keys, tokens, or OAuth tokens. Failure to provide
valid authentication can lead to access denial.

Authorization: Even with valid authentication, APIs may enforce

3
authorization rules to restrict access to certain endpoints or
functionalities based on user roles or permissions.
Data Format: APIs may have specific data formats (e.g., JSON, XML)
4 for request payloads and response data. Incorrectly formatted
requests or responses can lead to errors or data misinterpretation.

Error Handling: APIs define error codes and messages

5 to communicate issues encountered during API calls.
Proper handling of errors is essential to gracefully
manage failures and provide meaningful feedback to users.

Endpoint Changes: APIs may evolve over time, leading to

6 changes in endpoints, request parameters, or response
structures. Consuming applications should adapt to these
changes to maintain compatibility.

Versioning: APIs may introduce versioning to manage

7
backward compatibility. Consumers should be aware of
API versioning and use the appropriate version to ensure
compatibility with their integration.
Security: APIs may have security measures such as encryption,
8 HTTPS protocols, and input validation to protect data integrity
and prevent security breaches. Failure to adhere to security
practices can expose sensitive information or lead to vulnerabilities.

Documentation: Comprehensive API documentation is crucial for

9 understanding endpoints, request formats, response structures,
and usage guidelines. Inadequate or outdated documentation can
hinder API consumption and integration efforts.

Throttling and Quotas: APIs may enforce throttling mechanisms

or usage quotas to limit the number of requests or amount of
10
data that can be processed within a specific timeframe.
Adhering to these limits is necessary to avoid service disruptions
or denial of service.
2.4 Explain common HTTP response codes associated with REST APIs
HTTP response codes associated with REST APIs, explained with a Cisco
network device example, presented in a topology format:
200 OK (✅) //- 201 Created (🆕)
| |
400 Bad Request (❌)
|
401 Unauthorized (🔐)
|
403 Forbidden (🚫) //- 404 Not Found (❓)
|
405 Method Not Allowed (🛑) //- 500 Internal Server Error (🚨)

This topology format visually represents the relationship between the HTTP
response codes and their meanings in the context of Cisco network device
interactions via REST APIs, using emojis for each status code.
200 OK: This response code indicates that the request was successful.
1⃣ For example, when retrieving information about a Cisco device, a 200
OK response means that the device information was successfully retrieved.

201 Created: This code signifies that a new resource has been successfully
2⃣ created. For instance, when adding a new VLAN configuration to a Cisco switch
via API, a 201 Created response would confirm that the VLAN was successfully created.

400 Bad Request: This code indicates that the request was malformed or had
3⃣ invalid syntax. If you send an API request to configure an invalid VLAN ID
on a Cisco switch, you might receive a 400 Bad Request response.

401 Unauthorized: This response code indicates that authentication is

required or authentication credentials are invalid. For example, if you
4⃣ attempt to access privileged configuration data on a Cisco router without
proper authentication, you would receive a 401 Unauthorized response.
403 Forbidden: This code signifies that the server understood the request
but refuses to authorize it. For instance, if a user attempts to delete a
5⃣ critical network configuration on a Cisco device without sufficient permissions,
a 403 Forbidden response would be returned.

404 Not Found: This code indicates that the requested resource was not found on the server.
6⃣ For example, if you try to access a non-existent endpoint for retrieving interface
information on a Cisco device, you would receive a 404 Not Found response.

405 Method Not Allowed: This code indicates that the HTTP method used in the request is
not supported for the requested resource. For instance, if you attempt to use a POST request
7⃣ to retrieve information instead of a GET request on a Cisco device API endpoint, a 405 Method
Not Allowed response would be returned.

500 Internal Server Error: This code indicates that there was an unexpected error on the
8⃣ server while processing the request. For example, if there is a configuration issue or a
software bug on a Cisco device's API server, a 500 Internal Server Error response would be
returned
2.5 Troubleshoot a problem given the HTTP response code, request and API documentation

1. Identify HTTP Response Code:

- Determine the specific HTTP response code received (e.g., 400 Bad Request,
404 Not Found, 500 Internal Server Error).

2. Review Request Details:

- Examine the request method (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE), headers, body
(if applicable), and endpoint URL that resulted in the response code.

3. Consult API Documentation:

- Refer to the API documentation to understand the expected format,
required parameters, authentication methods, and possible response codes.

4. Check for Misconfigurations:

- Verify that the request is correctly formatted according to the API
documentation, including headers, parameters, and authentication tokens.
5. Analyze Response Details:
- Review the response body, headers, and any error
messages or additional information provided by the API response.

6. Consider Network and Server Issues:

- Investigate external factors such as network connectivity issues,
server downtime,or maintenance activities that may impact API functionality.

7. Implement Debugging Techniques:

- Use debugging tools, logging, API request/response capture, and
error tracking to gather more information and troubleshoot effectively.

8. Testing and Validation:

- After making adjustments based on analysis, retest the API
request to confirm that the issue has been resolved and the
expected response code is received.
Start

IdentifyHTTPResponseCode

ReviewRequestDetails

ConsultAPIDocumentation

CheckForMisconfigurations

AnalyzeResponseDetails

ConsiderNetworkAndServerIssues

ImplementDebuggingTechniques

TestingAndValidation

End
2.6 Identify the parts of an HTTP response (response code, headers, body)

An HTTP response typically consists of three main parts: the

response code, headers, and body. Here's a brief explanation
of each part:
Response Code:
The response code is a three-digit numerical code that indicates the
status of the HTTP request. It provides information about whether
the request was successful, encountered an error, or requires further action.

Examples of response codes include:

200 OK: The request was successful.

404 Not Found: The requested resource was not found on the server.
500 Internal Server Error: The server encountered an unexpected
condition that prevented it from fulfilling the request.
Headers:

HTTP headers provide additional information about the response,

such as metadata, content type, caching directives, cookies,
and authentication tokens.

Common headers include:

Content-Type: Specifies the type of content in the response body

(e.g., text/html, application/json).

Cache-Control: Directives for caching behavior (e.g., max-age, no-cache).

Set-Cookie: Sets cookies in the client's browser for session management.

Authorization: Contains authentication credentials for secure access to

resources.
Body:

The response body contains the actual content

returned by the server in response to the request.
The content can be in various formats, such as HTML,
JSON, XML, plain text, or binary data.

For example, in an API response, the body may

contain data objects, error messages, or file
attachments, depending on the nature of the
request and the API endpoint.
Lab 1: Successful Request

Request: GET /api/users/123

1
Response Code: 200 OK
Headers:
Content-Type: application/json
Cache-Control: max-age=3600 2
Set-Cookie: sessionid=abc123
Body:
{
"id": 123,
3
"name": "John Doe",
"email": "[email protected]"

}
Lab 2: Error Handling

Request: POST /api/users

1
Response Code: 400 Bad Request
Headers:
Content-Type: application/json 2

Body:
{
"error": "Invalid request body", 3

"details": "Missing required field: email"

}
2.7 Utilize common API authentication mechanisms: basic, custom token, and API keys

Basic Authentication:
Request:

GET /api/resource HTTP/1.1

Host: example.com
Authorization: Basic base64encoded(username:password)

In this example, the Authorization header includes the credentials encoded

in Base64 format (base64encoded(username:password)),
where username:password is the user's credentials.
Custom Token Authentication:

Request:

GET /api/resource HTTP/1.1

Host: example.com
Authorization: Bearer custom_token

In this case, the Authorization header contains a custom token

(Bearer custom_token) generated by the API provider for
authentication purposes.
API Keys:

Request:

GET /api/resource HTTP/1.1

Host: example.com
x-api-key: your_api_key

Here, the API key is included in a custom header (x-api-key: your_api_key) as part
of the request to authenticate the API consumer.

These authentication mechanisms provide different levels of security and access

control to API resources based on the credentials or tokens provided in the HTTP headers.
2.8 Compare common API styles (REST, RPC, synchronous, and asynchronous)

Communication Style:

Synchronous APIs follow a request-response pattern where the client waits for the
server to process and respond to each request before continuing.
Asynchronous APIs allow the client to send requests without waiting for immediate
responses, enabling non-blocking operations.
Latency:
Synchronous APIs typically have lower latency since the client waits for immediate responses.
Asynchronous APIs may have higher latency as the client doesn't wait for immediate responses
and processes responses asynchronously.
REST (Representational State Transfer):
Uses standard HTTP methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE).
Statelessness, uniform interface, cacheability principles.
Resource-based architecture with URLs.
Supports JSON, XML data formats.
Commonly used for web services and cloud APIs.

RPC (Remote Procedure Call):

Executes procedures/functions on a remote server.
Abstracts communication details.
Client-server model with synchronous communication.
Used in distributed systems and microservices.
Synchronous APIs:
Requires client to wait for server response.
Immediate response needed.
Follows request-response pattern.
Suitable for real-time interactions.

Asynchronous APIs:
Client can continue execution without waiting.
Delayed response possible.
Used for long-running tasks, batch processing.
Implemented with callbacks, promises.
2.9 Construct a Python script that calls a REST API using the requests library
import requests
# Example API call to get network devices
import json
devices_endpoint = f"{dnac_url}/network-device"
devices_response = requests.get(devices_endpoint,
# DNAC API endpoint and credentials headers={'X-auth-token': auth_token}, verify=False)
dnac_url = "https://your_dnac_server/api/v1"
# Print the response
username = "your_username"
if devices_response.status_code == 200:
password = "your_password"
devices_data = devices_response.json()

# Define headers for authentication and content type

print(json.dumps(devices_data, indent=4))

headers = { else:

'Content-Type': 'application/json', print("Error fetching devices:", devices_response.text)

'Accept': 'application/json'
}

# Authenticate and get token

auth_endpoint = f"{dnac_url}/auth/token"
auth_response = requests.post(auth_endpoint,
auth=(username, password), headers=headers, verify=False)
auth_token = auth_response.json()["Token"]
3.0 Cisco Platforms and Development - 15%

3.1 Construct a Python script that uses a Cisco SDK given SDK documentation
3.2 Describe the capabilities of Cisco network management platforms and
APIs (Meraki, Cisco DNA Center, ACI, Cisco SD-WAN, and NSO)

3.3 Describe the capabilities of Cisco compute management platforms and

APIs (UCS Manager and Intersight)

3.4 Describe the capabilities of Cisco collaboration platforms and APIs

(Webex, Webex devices, Cisco Unified Communication Manager including
AXL and UDS interfaces)

3.5 Describe the capabilities of Cisco security platforms and APIs

(XDR, Firepower, Umbrella, Secure Endpoint, ISE, and Secure Malware Analytics)

3.6 Describe the device level APIs and dynamic interfaces for IOS XE and NX-OS
3.7 Identify the appropriate DevNet resource for a given scenario (Sandbox,
Code Exchange, support, forums, Learning Labs, and API documentation)

3.8 Apply concepts of model driven programmability (YANG, RESTCONF,

and NETCONF) in a Cisco environment

3.9 Construct code to perform a specific operation based on a set of requirements

and given API reference documentation such as these:

3.9.a Obtain a list of network devices by using Meraki, Cisco DNA Center,
ACI, Cisco SD-WAN, or NSO

3.9.b Manage spaces, participants, and messages in Webex

3.9.c Obtain a list of clients/hosts seen on a network using Meraki
or Cisco DNA Center
3.1 Construct a Python script that uses a Cisco SDK given SDK documentation

https://dnacentersdk.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api/api.html

pip install dnacentersdk

#Construct a Python script that uses a Cisco SDK given SDK documentation
import requests
from dnacentersdk import DNACenterAPI
# Instantiate the DNACenterAPI class with appropriate credentials and URL

#dnac = DNACenterAPI(username="your_username",
password="your_password", base_url="https://your_dnac_server")

dnac = DNACenterAPI(username="devnetuser", password="Cisco123!",

base_url="https://sandboxdnac.cisco.com", verify= False)

# Example: Get network devices

devices = dnac.devices.get_device_list()
for device in devices['response']:
print(device['hostname'], device['managementIpAddress'])
3.2 Describe the capabilities of Cisco network management platforms and APIs
(Meraki, Cisco DNA Center, ACI, Cisco SD-WAN, and NSO)

Meraki:

Meraki Dashboard API allows programmable access to the Meraki cloud infrastructure,
enabling automation and monitoring of Meraki devices such as switches, routers, and access points.

Capabilities include device provisioning, configuration management, monitoring network

performance, and collecting analytics data.

Cisco DNA Center:

DNA Center APIs provide comprehensive programmability for Cisco's intent-based

networking solution.

Capabilities include network device management, automation of network

provisioning and policies, assurance for network health and performance,
and integration with third-party applications.
ACI (Application Centric Infrastructure):

ACI Toolkit and APIC (Application Policy Infrastructure Controller) APIs

offer programmable access to Cisco's ACI fabric for data center networking.

Capabilities include policy-driven automation, network virtualization,

application-aware network provisioning, and integration with cloud
services and orchestration platforms.

Cisco SD-WAN:

vManage API and SD-WAN SDK provide programmable access to Cisco's

SD-WAN solution, allowing automation and orchestration of SD-WAN policies
and configurations.

Capabilities include centralized management of SD-WAN devices,

application-aware routing, traffic optimization, security policies enforcement,
and monitoring network performance.
NSO (Network Services Orchestrator):

NSO APIs enable automation and orchestration of network services and

configurations across heterogeneous network environments.

Capabilities include service provisioning, configuration management, policy

enforcement, network resource optimization, and integration with third-party
systems and cloud platforms.
Meraki API:
ACI (Application Centric Infrastructure):
Cisco SD-WAN (vManage API):
3.3 Describe the capabilities of Cisco compute management platforms and APIs
(UCS Manager and Intersight)
UCS Manager:

Server Management: UCS Manager provides centralized management for Cisco

Unified Computing System (UCS) servers, including blade servers and rack servers.

Hardware Management: It allows administrators to configure and monitor server

hardware components such as CPUs, memory, storage, and network adapters.
Service Profile Templates: UCS Manager uses service profile templates to automate
server provisioning, allowing for rapid deployment and scaling of server resources.
Policy-Based Management: Administrators can define policies for server configurations,
firmware updates, power management, and security settings, ensuring consistency and
compliance across the data center.
Integration with Virtualization Platforms: UCS Manager integrates with virtualization
platforms such as VMware vSphere and Microsoft Hyper-V, enabling unified management
of physical and virtual environments.

RESTful API: UCS Manager provides a RESTful API for programmatically managing
servers, allowing automation and orchestration of server operations and configurations.
Intersight:

Cloud-Based Management: Intersight is a cloud-based management platform

for Cisco UCS servers and HyperFlex hyperconverged infrastructure.
Unified Management: It offers centralized management of physical and virtual
resources, including servers, storage, and networking, across on-premises and
cloud environments.
Policy-Driven Automation: Intersight uses policy-based automation to simplify and
streamline infrastructure operations, reducing manual tasks and improving agility.
AI and Analytics: It incorporates artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML)
capabilities for proactive monitoring, predictive analytics, and intelligent insights into
infrastructure performance and health.
Integration with DevOps Tools: Intersight integrates with DevOps tools and workflows,
enabling infrastructure as code (IaC), continuous integration/continuous deployment
(CI/CD), and automation of IT operations.
RESTful API and SDK: Intersight provides a RESTful API and software development
kit (SDK) for developers to build custom automation scripts, integrate with third-party
systems, and extend the platform's functionality.
UCS Manager API Example:
Intersight API Example:
3.4 Describe the capabilities of Cisco collaboration platforms and APIs
(Webex, Webex devices, Cisco Unified Communication Manager including
AXL and UDS interfaces)
Cisco offers a range of collaboration platforms and APIs that
enable organizations to enhance communication and collaboration capabilities.
Here are the capabilities of some key Cisco collaboration platforms and APIs:
Webex:
Unified Communication: Webex provides a unified communication platform that
includes messaging, video conferencing, voice calls, file sharing, and online meetings.
Collaboration Tools: It offers a suite of collaboration tools such as Webex Teams
(formerly Cisco Spark) for team messaging and collaboration, Webex Meetings for
virtual meetings, and Webex Calling for cloud-based voice services.

APIs for Integration: Webex provides APIs for integrating with third-party
applications and services, allowing developers to build custom workflows,
automate tasks, and enhance user experiences.

Developer Resources: Cisco offers developer resources, documentation, SDKs, and

sample code to facilitate the development of applications that leverage Webex APIs.
Cisco Unified Communication Manager (CUCM) with AXL and UDS interfaces:

Call Control: CUCM is a call control and telephony management solution that provides
call routing, signaling, call handling, and media processing for IP telephony, video conferencing,
and collaboration services.

AXL (Administrative XML Layer) API: AXL API enables administrative tasks such as user
management, device configuration, dial plan configuration, and call control operations through
XML-based requests and responses.

UDS (User Data Services) API: UDS API allows access to user data and profile information
stored in CUCM, facilitating integration with directory services, CRM systems, and identity
management platforms.

These collaboration platforms and APIs empower organizations to create seamless

communication experiences, streamline workflows, improve productivity, and enhance
collaboration across teams and locations.
Python script using REST APIs for Cisco collaboration platforms:
In this script:

The send_message function sends a message to a specified room in Webex

Teams using the access token for authentication.

The create_room function creates a new room in Webex Teams and

returns the room ID.

Example usage demonstrates creating a new room and sending a

message in that room.

Note: Replace YOUR_ACCESS_TOKEN_HERE with your actual Webex

Teams access token.
3.5 Describe the capabilities of Cisco security platforms and APIs (XDR, Firepower,
Umbrella, Secure Endpoint, ISE, and Secure Malware Analytics)
Cisco offers a range of security platforms and APIs that provide comprehensive
security solutions to protect against cyber threats and ensure the integrity of
network infrastructure. Here are the capabilities of some key Cisco security
platforms and APIs:

Cisco Secure Endpoint:

Endpoint Protection: Secure Endpoint (formerly known as Cisco AMP for Endpoints)
provides advanced endpoint protection capabilities, including malware detection and
prevention, endpoint detection and response (EDR), and sandboxing for threat analysis.

APIs for Integration: Secure Endpoint offers APIs that allow integration with security
orchestration, automation, and response (SOAR) platforms, SIEM solutions, and
third-party security tools. These APIs enable automated response actions, threat
intelligence sharing, and endpoint management.
Cisco Umbrella:
Cloud Security: Umbrella is a cloud-delivered security service that provides DNS-layer
security, secure web gateway (SWG) functionality, firewall integration, and threat
intelligence to protect users and devices from internet-based threats.
APIs for Customization: Umbrella offers APIs for custom integrations, policy
management, reporting, and event notifications. These APIs enable organizations
to customize security policies, automate security workflows, and integrate Umbrella
with other security solutions.
Cisco Firepower:
Next-Generation Firewall (NGFW): Firepower Threat Defense (FTD) is a NGFW
platform that combines firewall, intrusion prevention system (IPS), advanced malware
protection (AMP), and URL filtering capabilities for comprehensive network security.

APIs for Management: Firepower provides RESTful APIs for device management,
configuration, policy enforcement, and event monitoring. These APIs allow
administrators to automate firewall management tasks, orchestrate security
policies, and integrate Firepower with security orchestration platforms.
Cisco Identity Services Engine (ISE):

Network Access Control: ISE is a network access control (NAC) solution

that provides policy-based access control, authentication, and authorization
for users and devices connecting to the network. It enforces security policies
based on user identity, device type, and contextual information.

APIs for Integration: ISE offers APIs for integration with identity management
systems, endpoint security solutions, and network infrastructure. These APIs
enable automated user provisioning, access policy enforcement, and security
policy orchestration.
Cisco Secure Malware Analytics (formerly Threat Grid):

Threat Analysis and Intelligence: Secure Malware Analytics is a threat intelligence

and analysis platform that provides malware sandboxing, threat detection, and threat
intelligence insights. It helps organizations analyze and respond to advanced threats.

APIs for Threat Intelligence: Secure Malware Analytics offers APIs for threat intelligence
sharing, malware analysis, and automated threat response. These APIs enable security
teams to investigate and remediate threats, share threat intelligence, and integrate threat
data into security operations.
Cisco SecureX Threat Response (XDR):

Extended Detection and Response (XDR): SecureX Threat Response is an

XDR platform that correlates security alerts, events, and telemetry data from
multiple security products and sources to provide comprehensive threat visibility
and response capabilities.

APIs for Orchestration: SecureX Threat Response offers APIs for security orchestration,
incident response automation, and threat enrichment. These APIs enable security teams
to automate threat response actions, streamline incident investigations, and integrate XDR
with security workflows.

These security platforms and APIs empower organizations to implement layered

security defenses, automate security operations, detect and respond to threats in
real time, and ensure the security posture of their networks, endpoints, and cloud
environments.
Cisco Secure Endpoint API Example:
Objective: Retrieve a list of security events from Secure Endpoint and take action based on the severity of the events.

Python Script:
Explanation: This script uses the Secure Endpoint API to retrieve a list of security events filtered by
event type and start date. It then processes the events based on their severity, taking different actions
for high, medium, and low severity events.
Cisco Umbrella API Example:
Objective: Block a malicious domain in Cisco Umbrella based on threat intelligence data.

Python Script:
Explanation: This script uses the Umbrella API to block a specified domain by categorizing
it as malicious and taking the "block" action. It demonstrates how APIs can be used to automate
security controls and response actions in Cisco Umbrella.
3.6 Describe the device level APIs and dynamic interfaces for IOS XE and NX-OS
IOS XE:
Device-Level APIs:
RESTCONF: This is a RESTful API for device configuration and management.
It uses HTTP methods like GET, POST, PUT, DELETE to interact with devices.
NETCONF: A protocol for managing network devices. It uses XML-based messages
over a secure connection to configure and monitor devices.

YANG Models: IOS XE devices support YANG data models, which provide a
structured way to define configuration and operational data for network elements.

Dynamic Interfaces:
Embedded Event Manager (EEM): Allows you to monitor events and take automated
actions based on predefined policies. For example, you can trigger scripts in response to
specific events like interface status changes.

Python Scripts: With the Python interpreter integrated into IOS XE, you can create custom
scripts to automate tasks and interact with device APIs programmatically.
NX-OS:
Device-Level APIs:

NX-API: Provides a RESTful API for NX-OS devices. It supports both XML and
JSON formats for data exchange and allows configuration and monitoring of devices.
NETCONF: Similar to IOS XE, NX-OS devices support NETCONF for device
management using XML-based messages.
NX-SDK: Offers a software development kit for building custom applications
and scripts to interact with NX-OS devices.

Dynamic Interfaces:

PowerOn Auto Provisioning (POAP): Automates the initial configuration and software
upgrades of devices. It dynamically assigns IP addresses and installs software based
on predefined policies.

NX-OS Python SDK: Allows you to write Python scripts to automate tasks and configure
devices using NX-OS APIs. It provides a Pythonic way to interact with the device.
Here's an example of using the RESTCONF API on an IOS XE device to retrieve
interface information using Python and the requests library:
NX-API REST

auth=(username, password), verify=False)

3.7 Identify the appropriate DevNet resource for a given scenario (Sandbox, Code Exchange,
support, forums, Learning Labs, and API documentation)
Testing and Experimenting with Cisco Technologies:

DevNet Sandbox: Ideal for testing and experimenting with Cisco technologies in a virtual
environment. You can reserve a lab and get hands-on experience with various Cisco products.
https://developer.cisco.com/site/sandbox/

Finding and Sharing Code Samples and Projects:

DevNet Code Exchange: Perfect for finding pre-built code samples and projects shared by
the community. It's a collaborative platform where you can also share your own code.
https://developer.cisco.com/codeexchange/search/?q=dnac

Learning and Skill Development:

DevNet Learning Labs: Best suited for guided learning paths and interactive tutorials. Learning
Labs offer step-by-step instructions to help you understand and implement various Cisco technologies.

Getting Help and Support for Technical Issues:

DevNet Support: Use this resource when you need help with specific technical issues.
DevNet provides access to technical support for troubleshooting and resolving problems.
Engaging with the Community and Discussing Topics:

DevNet Forums: Ideal for engaging with the community, asking questions, sharing knowledge, and
discussing topics related to Cisco technologies. Forums are a great way to get insights and advice
from peers and experts.

Accessing Detailed Information on APIs:

DevNet API Documentation: This is where you can find comprehensive documentation for
various Cisco APIs. It includes detailed information on how to use the APIs, along with examples
and reference material.
Choose the right resource for a given scenario:

Scenario: You want to build a new integration using Cisco's DNA Center API.

Resource: DevNet API Documentation. This will provide you with all the necessary details about
the DNA Center API endpoints, methods, and usage examples.

Scenario: You are troubleshooting an issue with a script you wrote for automating
network configurations.
Resource: DevNet Support. You can get help from Cisco’s technical support team to
resolve your issue.

Scenario: You want to learn how to deploy a new Cisco technology in your lab environment.

Resource: DevNet Learning Labs. Interactive tutorials will guide you through the
deployment process step-by-step.
Scenario: You need a pre-built script to automate a repetitive task in your network.

Resource: DevNet Code Exchange. You can search for existing scripts and code samples that
meet your requirements.

Scenario: You are looking for advice and best practices from other network engineers.

Resource: DevNet Forums. Engaging with the community can provide valuable insights and
shared experiences.

Scenario: You want to experiment with Cisco's latest security solutions without setting up a
physical lab.

Resource: DevNet Sandbox. Virtual labs allow you to explore and test new solutions in a
risk-free environment.
3.8 Apply concepts of model driven programmability
(YANG, RESTCONF, and NETCONF) in a Cisco environment

Model-driven programmability leverages standardized data models and

protocols to enable network automation and management. In a Cisco
environment, this is primarily implemented using YANG models, RESTCONF,
and NETCONF. Here’s how you can apply these concepts:

YANG
RESTCONF
NETCONF
YANG Models

YANG is a data modeling language used to model configuration and state

data for network devices. It provides a structured format for representing
device configurations.

Steps to use YANG Models:

Identify the YANG Model: Find the appropriate YANG model for the
configuration or operational data you need. Cisco provides many standard
and custom YANG models.

Understand the Model: Study the structure and elements of the YANG model to
understand how data is organized.

Use Tools: Tools like pyang can be used to validate and visualize YANG models.
RESTCONF

RESTCONF is a protocol based on HTTP methods that provides a programmatic

interface to access YANG-modeled data. It uses RESTful principles to interact with
network devices.

Steps to use RESTCONF:

Enable RESTCONF on the Device: Ensure that RESTCONF is enabled on your

Cisco device.

Formulate REST API Requests: Use HTTP methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE)
to interact with the device’s RESTCONF interface.

Use JSON/XML Payloads: Send and receive data in JSON or XML

format as specified by the YANG model.
NETCONF

NETCONF is a network management protocol that provides mechanisms to

install, manipulate, and delete the configuration of network devices. It uses
XML-encoded data and operates over a secure transport layer (SSH).

Steps to use NETCONF:

Enable NETCONF on the Device: Ensure NETCONF is enabled on

your Cisco device.

Establish a NETCONF Session: Use an SSH client or a library

(e.g., ncclient in Python) to open a NETCONF session.

Send NETCONF RPCs: Use Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs) to perform

configuration changes and retrieve data.
Example (Python with ncclient):
Summary
YANG Models: Define the structure and schema of configuration and state data.
RESTCONF: Use RESTful HTTP methods to interact with YANG-modeled data using JSON or XML.

NETCONF: Perform configuration and state management using XML over SSH.
These model-driven programmability tools enable efficient, scalable, and consistent network
management and automation in Cisco environments.
3.9 Construct code to perform a specific operation based on a set of requirements and given
API reference documentation such as these:
3.9.a Obtain a list of network devices by using Meraki, Cisco DNA Center,
ACI, Cisco SD-WAN, or NSO
3.9.b Manage spaces, participants, and messages in Webex
3.9.c Obtain a list of clients / hosts seen on a network using Meraki or Cisco DNA Center
3.9.a Obtain a list of network devices by using Meraki, Cisco DNA Center,
ACI, Cisco SD-WAN, or NSO
Meraki API
Cisco DNA Center API
Cisco ACI API
Cisco SD-WAN API
Cisco NSO API
3.9.b Manage spaces, participants, and messages in Webex
Managing spaces, participants, and messages in Webex can be done
using the Webex Teams API. Here’s how you can use Python to interact
with the Webex API to manage spaces, participants, and messages.

Prerequisites
Webex API Token: Obtain an access token from your Webex account.

Python Requests Library: Ensure the requests library is installed in your

Python environment (pip install requests).
Managing Spaces -- List Spaces
Create a Space
Managing Participants--- List Participants in a Space
Add a Participant to a Space
Managing Messages List Messages in a Space
Send a Message to a Space
Summary

Managing Spaces: Use the /rooms endpoint to list and create spaces.
Managing Participants: Use the /memberships endpoint to list and add participants to spaces.
Managing Messages: Use the /messages endpoint to list and send messages in spaces.

These scripts demonstrate basic interactions with the Webex API. Replace placeholders
like your_access_token, your_space_id, and [email protected] with actual values.
This will allow you to effectively manage your Webex spaces, participants, and messages.
3.9.c Obtain a list of clients / hosts seen on a network using Meraki or Cisco DNA Center
To obtain a list of clients or hosts seen on a network using Meraki or Cisco DNA Center,
you can use their respective APIs. Below are examples demonstrating how to do this using Python.
1. Meraki API

The Meraki Dashboard API allows you to retrieve a list of clients seen on a network.

Python Example:
Detailed Steps for Each Platform
Meraki API

Get API Key: Ensure you have your Meraki API key.
Network ID: Obtain the network ID for which you want to list clients.
API Endpoint: Use the /networks/{networkId}/clients endpoint to get the list of clients.
Authentication: Use the API key in the request headers.
Example Outputs For Meraki:
Cisco DNA Center API
Cisco DNA Center API provides various endpoints to retrieve information about clients connected to the network.

Python Example:
For Cisco DNA Center:
Summary

Meraki API: Use the /networks/{networkId}/clients endpoint

to list clients on a network.

Cisco DNA Center API: Use the /dna/intent/api/v1/client-detail endpoint to

get details about clients connected to the network.

Replace the placeholders (your_meraki_api_key, your_network_id,

dnac.example.com, your_dnac_username, and your_dnac_password)
with actual values from your Meraki or Cisco DNA Center setup to run these scripts.
4.0 Application Deployment & Security - 15 %
4.1 Describe benefits of edge computing
4.2 Identify attributes of different application deployment models
(private cloud, public cloud, hybrid cloud, and edge)
4.3 Identify the attributes of these application deployment types
4.3.a Virtual machines
4.3.b Bare metal
4.3.c Containers
4.4 Describe components for a CI/CD pipeline in application deployments
4.5 Construct a Python unit test
4.6 Interpret contents of a Dockerfile
4.7 Utilize Docker images in local developer environment
4.8 Identify application security issues related to secret protection, encryption
(storage and transport), and data handling
4.9 Explain firewall, DNS, load balancers, and reverse proxy in application deployment
4.10 Describe top OWASP threats (such as XSS, SQL injections, and CSRF)
4.11 Utilize Bash commands (file management, directory navigation, and environmental variables)
4.12 Identify the principles of DevOps practices
4.1 Describe benefits of edge computing
Reduced Latency ⏱️ - Processes data closer to the source for faster response times.
Bandwidth Optimization 📉 - Reduces data transmission to the cloud, saving bandwidth.
Enhanced Privacy and Security 🔒 - Keeps sensitive data local, improving security.
Improved Reliability and Resilience ⚙️ - Distributes processing across multiple nodes to
avoid single points of failure.
Scalability and Flexibility 📈 - Easily scales by adding more edge nodes as needed.
Local Data Processing 🗂️ - Ensures compliance with data sovereignty laws by processing data locally.

Enhanced User Experience 🎮 - Provides faster, smoother interactions for applications like gaming and VR.
Cost Savings 💰 - Reduces operational costs by lowering cloud resource and bandwidth needs.

Enabling Emerging Technologies 🚀 - Supports 5G, IoT, and AI with necessary computational power and low latency.

Contextual Awareness 📍 - Gathers and processes contextual data for personalized applications.

Autonomous Operations 🤖 - Allows devices to operate independently in environments with limited connectivity.

These benefits highlight how edge computing improves performance, security,

and scalability while supporting new technologies and reducing costs.
1. Reduced Latency

By processing data closer to the source, edge computing significantly reduces the
latency associated with transmitting data to a centralized data center or cloud.
This is critical for applications that require real-time processing, such as autonomous
vehicles, industrial automation, and augmented reality.

2. Bandwidth Optimization

Edge computing reduces the amount of data that needs to be transmitted over
the network to central data centers. By processing and filtering data locally, only
relevant information is sent to the cloud, optimizing bandwidth usage and reducing costs.

3. Enhanced Privacy and Security

Processing data at the edge can improve privacy and security by keeping sensitive data local
rather than transmitting it across potentially insecure networks to centralized servers. This is
especially beneficial for applications in healthcare, finance, and smart cities where data privacy
is paramount.
4. Improved Reliability and Resilience

Edge computing can enhance the reliability and resilience of applications by

distributing processing across multiple edge nodes. If one node fails, others
can continue to operate, reducing the risk of a single point of failure and improving
overall system robustness.
5. Scalability and Flexibility

Edge computing enables organizations to scale their operations more efficiently by

adding more edge nodes as needed without relying on central infrastructure. This
decentralized approach can handle increased data loads and support the growing
number of connected devices in the Internet of Things (IoT).
6. Local Data Processing

Certain applications require data to be processed locally due to regulatory, legal, or

compliance reasons. Edge computing facilitates local data processing, ensuring
compliance with data sovereignty laws and regulations.
7.Enhanced User Experience
By reducing latency and improving response times, edge computing can enhance
user experiences in applications such as gaming, video streaming, and virtual reality.
Faster processing times lead to smoother and more responsive interactions.
8. Cost Savings

Edge computing can reduce operational costs by decreasing the need for extensive
cloud resources and bandwidth. By processing data locally, organizations can reduce
the amount of data transferred to the cloud and lower associated costs.
9. Enabling Emerging Technologies

Edge computing supports the deployment and operation of emerging technologies such as
5G, IoT, and AI by providing the necessary computational power and low latency required for
these applications to function effectively.
10. Contextual Awareness

Edge devices can gather and process contextual data such as location, environment, and
user behavior, enabling more personalized and context-aware applications. This capability
is valuable for smart homes, retail, and location-based services.
11. Autonomous Operations

Edge computing allows devices to operate autonomously without relying on constant

connectivity to a central cloud. This is crucial for remote or mobile applications, such
as drones, remote sensors, and edge robots, which may operate in environments with
limited or intermittent connectivity.

In summary, edge computing offers numerous benefits by bringing computation closer to

the data source, enhancing performance, security, and user experience while reducing
costs and supporting the growth of new technologies and applications.
4.2 Identify attributes of different application deployment models
(private cloud, public cloud, hybrid cloud, and edge)
Private Cloud
Attributes:

Ownership: Owned and operated by a single organization.

Location: Hosted on-premises or at a dedicated service provider's data center.
Security: High security and control over data and infrastructure.
Customization: Highly customizable to meet specific organizational needs.
Performance: Predictable performance with dedicated resources.
Compliance: Easier to comply with industry regulations and standards.
Cost: Higher initial capital expenditure, but potentially more cost-effective for
large-scale operations.
Maintenance: Internal management and maintenance required.
Scalability: Limited by internal resources and infrastructure.
Public Cloud
Attributes:
Ownership: Operated by third-party cloud service providers
(e.g., AWS, Google Cloud, Azure).
Location: Hosted off-premises in the provider's data centers.
Security: Shared responsibility model for security, with robust features
provided by the provider.
Customization: Limited to the services and configurations offered by the provider.
Performance: Variable performance depending on shared resources.
Compliance: Providers often comply with various industry standards, but specific
requirements may vary.
Cost: Pay-as-you-go pricing model, reducing capital expenditure.
Maintenance: Maintenance and upgrades handled by the service provider.
Scalability: Highly scalable with virtually unlimited resources.
Hybrid Cloud
Attributes:
Ownership: Combines private and public cloud resources, often
owned by both the organization and third-party providers.
Location: Mix of on-premises (private cloud) and provider's data
centers (public cloud).
Security: Sensitive data can be kept on-premises while leveraging
public cloud for less sensitive operations.
Customization: High customization for the private portion, with
flexibility in the public portion.

Performance: Predictable performance for private cloud, scalable

performance in public cloud.
Compliance: Easier to meet regulatory requirements by keeping
specific data in the private cloud.
Cost: Optimizes costs by using the public cloud for variable workloads and
private cloud for steady-state operations.

Maintenance: Shared maintenance responsibilities between the organization

and the public cloud provider.

Scalability: High scalability by leveraging both private and public resources.

Edge Computing

Attributes:

Ownership: Typically owned by the organization, with edge devices deployed

near data sources.
Location: Data processing occurs close to the data source (e.g., IoT devices, sensors).
Security: Data remains closer to the source, potentially enhancing privacy and security.
Customization: Customizable for specific edge applications and needs.
Performance: Low latency with real-time data processing and decision-making.
Compliance: Local processing ensures compliance with data sovereignty laws.
Cost: Reduces costs associated with data transfer to centralized clouds, but may require
investment in edge infrastructure.
Maintenance: Local maintenance required, often with remote management capabilities.
Scalability: Scales by adding more edge devices and nodes.
Comparison Table

1⃣
2⃣

3⃣
4⃣

5⃣

6⃣
Comparison Table

7⃣
8⃣

9⃣
🔟
1⃣1⃣
1⃣2⃣
1⃣3⃣
4.3 Identify the attributes of these application deployment types

4.3.a Virtual machines

4.3.b Bare metal
4.3.c Containers
Virtual Machines (VMs)

Attributes:
Isolation: Each VM runs in its own isolated environment with a separate operating system.

Overhead: Requires significant resources due to the need for a full OS for each VM.
Performance: Generally slower compared to bare metal due to the overhead of virtualization.

Flexibility: Supports multiple OS types and versions on the same physical hardware.
Scalability: Easy to scale by creating additional VMs, but limited by the underlying physical
hardware.
Portability: VMs can be moved between different physical hosts, provided the hypervisor
is supported.
Security: Strong isolation between VMs; vulnerabilities in one VM typically do not affect others.
Management: Requires a hypervisor (e.g., VMware, Hyper-V) for management,
which adds complexity.
Boot Time: Typically takes longer to boot compared to containers.
Bare Metal
Attributes:
Performance: Highest performance as there is no virtualization overhead.
Isolation: Full control of the hardware, providing strong isolation from other systems.
Overhead: No overhead from a hypervisor or virtualization layer.
Flexibility: Limited to running a single OS directly on the hardware; multiple OS
instances require multiple physical machines.
Scalability: Scaling requires adding more physical servers, which can be more
costly and time-consuming.
Portability: Less portable than VMs and containers; moving an application to
different hardware can be more complex.
Security: High security, as there is no shared hypervisor layer; however, physical security
and hardware-level vulnerabilities need consideration.
Management: Simpler in terms of not needing a hypervisor, but each server needs
individual management.
Boot Time: Faster than VMs, typically faster than containers depending on the
OS and application.
Containers
Attributes:

Isolation: Shares the host OS kernel, providing process-level isolation.

Overhead: Minimal overhead compared to VMs as containers share the host OS kernel.

Performance: Near-native performance due to lightweight nature.

Flexibility: Can run multiple isolated applications on the same OS, but limited to the same OS kernel.
Scalability: Highly scalable; containers can be quickly started, stopped, and replicated.
Portability: Highly portable; can be moved between different environments as long as the container
runtime is supported.
Security: Less isolated than VMs; vulnerabilities in the shared kernel can affect all containers, but
modern tools and best practices can mitigate risks.

Management: Managed through container orchestration tools (e.g., Kubernetes, Docker Swarm),
simplifying deployment and scaling.

Boot Time: Very fast to start and stop, much faster than VMs and comparable to bare metal in
some cases.
Container Runtime Engine:

A software layer that manages containers on the host OS.

Examples include Docker, containerd, CRI-O.
It allows containers to share the host OS kernel while providing isolated
environments for applications.

Containers:

Container 1, 2, 3, ...: Each container runs its own application along with the
necessary libraries and binaries, isolated from other containers.
Containers share the same OS kernel but operate in isolated user spaces.
Containers are lightweight and can be started or stopped quickly.
Comparison Table
4.4 Describe components for a CI/CD
pipeline in application deployments
Components of a CI/CD Pipeline

1⃣ Source Control Management (SCM):

Examples: Git, GitHub, GitLab, Bitbucket
Function: Manages code repositories, tracks changes, and collaborates on code
through branches and pull requests.

2⃣ Continuous Integration (CI):

Build Servers: Jenkins, Travis CI, CircleCI, GitLab CI
Function: Automatically builds and tests the application whenever
code changes are pushed to the repository.
Components:
Build Automation: Compiles code, packages applications.
Automated Testing: Runs unit tests, integration tests to verify code changes.
3⃣ Artifact Repository:
Examples: JFrog Artifactory, Nexus, Amazon S3
Function: Stores built artifacts (e.g., binaries, packages, Docker images) for deployment.

4⃣ Continuous Delivery (CD):

Deployment Tools: Spinnaker, Octopus Deploy, AWS CodeDeploy, Google Cloud Deploy
Function: Automates the deployment of applications to different environments
(e.g., development, staging, production).

Components:
Environment Management: Manages different deployment environments.
Configuration Management: Ensures consistent application configuration across
environments.
5⃣Continuous Deployment (CD):
Function: Extends continuous delivery by automatically deploying code changes to
production after passing tests and validations.
Components:
Deployment Automation: Fully automates the process of deploying to production.
Canary Releases/Rolling Updates: Gradually deploys changes to subsets of users
to ensure stability.

6⃣Monitoring and Logging:

Examples: Prometheus, Grafana, ELK Stack (Elasticsearch, Logstash, Kibana), Splunk
Function: Monitors application performance, collects logs, and provides alerts for issues.
Components:
Application Performance Monitoring (APM): Monitors application health and performance.
Log Aggregation: Collects and aggregates logs for troubleshooting and analysis.
7⃣ Feedback Loops:
Function: Provides feedback to developers and operations about the status
of builds, tests,and deployments.
Components:
Notifications: Email, Slack, or other messaging services to notify about build
status, test results, and deployment outcomes.
Dashboards: Visual dashboards to track the status and health of the CI/CD pipeline.

8⃣ Security (DevSecOps):
Tools: Snyk, WhiteSource, SonarQube, OWASP ZAP
Function: Integrates security practices into the CI/CD pipeline to identify and
remediate vulnerabilities early in the development process.
Components:
Static Application Security Testing (SAST): Scans source code for vulnerabilities.
Dynamic Application Security Testing (DAST): Tests running applications for security
vulnerabilities.
Dependency Scanning: Checks for vulnerabilities in third-party libraries and
dependencies.
CI/CD Pipeline Diagram

1⃣ 2⃣ 3⃣

4⃣ 5⃣ 6⃣

8⃣ 7⃣
4.5 Construct a Python unit test
You'll use the unittest module, which is part of Python's standard library. Here's an
example of how to create a unit test for a simple Python function.
Step-by-Step Example
Let's assume we have a function that adds two numbers:
Writing Unit Tests
1⃣Create a Test File:
Create a separate file for your tests, typically named test_<module>.py.

2⃣Import Required Modules:

Import unittest and the module you want to test.

3⃣Create Test Cases:

Define a class that inherits from unittest.TestCase.
Write test methods within this class. Each method should test a
specific aspect of your function.
4⃣Run the Tests:
Use unittest.main() to run the
tests.
Here is how you can create a unit
test for the add function:
Explanation:

1⃣Imports:
unittest: The built-in module for unit testing in Python.
add: The function being tested.

2⃣ Test Class:
TestMathOperations: A subclass of unittest.TestCase that contains test methods.

3⃣Test Methods:
test_add_positive_numbers: Tests the addition of two positive numbers.
test_add_negative_numbers: Tests the addition of two negative numbers.
test_add_positive_and_negative: Tests the addition of a positive and a negative number.
test_add_zero: Tests the addition of zero to another number.
4⃣ Assertions:
self.assertEqual(a, b): Checks that a equals b. If not, the test fails.

5⃣ Running Tests:
unittest.main(): Runs all the test cases when the script is executed.

Running the Test

To run the tests, you can execute the test script from the command line:

python test_math_operations.py
4.6 Interpret contents of a Dockerfile

A Dockerfile is a script containing a series of instructions on

how to build a Docker image. Each instruction creates a layer
in the image, and the resulting image can be run as a container.
Here's an example Dockerfile and an explanation of its contents:
Example Dockerfile
Explanation of Each Instruction

1⃣FROM:
FROM python:3.9-slim: Specifies the base image for the Docker image. In this case, it uses a
slim version of Python 3.9. This base image is pulled from Docker Hub if it doesn't exist locally.

2⃣ENV:
ENV PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE=1: Sets an environment variable inside the container
to prevent Python from writing .pyc files.
ENV PYTHONUNBUFFERED=1: Sets an environment variable to ensure Python output is sent
straight to the terminal (stdout) without being buffered, which is helpful for logging.

3⃣WORKDIR:
WORKDIR /app: Sets the working directory inside the container to /app. All subsequent
instructions that use relative paths will be based in this directory.
4⃣ COPY:
COPY requirements.txt /app/: Copies the requirements.txt file from the host
machine to the /app/ directory inside the container.

COPY . /app/: Copies all files from the current directory on the host machine
to the /app/ directory in the container.

5⃣ RUN:
RUN pip install --no-cache-dir -r requirements.txt: Runs a command to install the Python
dependencies specified in requirements.txt. The --no-cache-dir option prevents pip
from caching the packages, which reduces the image size.

6⃣ CMD:
CMD ["python", "app.py"]: Specifies the command to run when the container starts.
Here, it runs the Python application app.py.
Summary

1⃣ Base Image: The image starts with a Python 3.9 slim base image.

2⃣ Environment Variables: Configures Python to run without creating

bytecode files and without buffering stdout.

3⃣ Working Directory: Sets the working directory inside the container to /app.

4⃣ Dependency Installation: Copies the requirements.txt file to the container

and installs the dependencies using pip.

5⃣ Application Code: Copies the application code into the container.

6⃣ Startup Command: Specifies the command to run the Python application

the container starts.
This Dockerfile sets up a container with Python 3.9, installs the required
dependencies, and runs a Python application. It provides a reproducible
environment, ensuring that the application runs consistently across
different systems.

Useful Links:-

https://docs.docker.com/get-started/

https://code.visualstudio.com/docs/?dv=win64user

https://docs.docker.com/desktop/install/windows-install/
4.7 Utilize Docker images in local developer environment
501 sudo apt update
502 apt list --upgradable
503 sudo apt install apt-transport-https ca-certificates curl software-properties-common
504 curl -fsSL https://download.docker.com/linux/ubuntu/gpg | sudo apt-key add -
505 sudo add-apt-repository "deb [arch=amd64]
https://download.docker.com/linux/ubuntu focal stable"
506 apt-cache policy docker-ce
507 sudo apt install docker-ce
508 sudo systemctl status docker
509 docker pull python:3.9-slim
Utilizing Docker images in a local developer environment can significantly streamline
development workflows by providing consistent and isolated environments. Here’s a
guide on how to use Docker images for development:
Steps to Utilize Docker Images in Local Development

1⃣ Install Docker:
Ensure Docker is installed on your machine. You can download it from
Docker's official website. https://www.docker.com/
2⃣ Pull a Docker Image:
Pull the required Docker image from Docker Hub or any other Docker registry.

docker pull python:3.9-slim

This command pulls the Python 3.9 slim image from Docker Hub.
3⃣Create a Dockerfile for Your Project:
Create a Dockerfile in your project directory to define your development
environment. Here's an example Dockerfile for a Python project:
# Use the official Python image
FROM python:3.9-slim

# Set environment variables

ENV PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE=1
ENV PYTHONUNBUFFERED=1

# Set the working directory inside the container

WORKDIR /app

# Copy the requirements.txt file into the container

COPY requirements.txt /app/

# Install the dependencies

RUN pip install --no-cache-dir -r requirements.txt
# Copy the rest of the application code into the container
COPY . /app/
4⃣ Build the Docker Image:
Build the Docker image from the Dockerfile.

docker build -t my-python-app .

This command builds an image with the tag my-python-app.

5⃣ Run a Docker Container:
Run a container from the built image.

docker run -it --rm -v $(pwd):/app -w /app my-python-app /bin/bash

Options:
-it: Runs the container in interactive mode with a terminal.
--rm: Automatically removes the container when it exits.
-v $(pwd):/app: Mounts the current directory ($(pwd)) to the /app directory
inside the container, allowing you to edit files locally and have changes
reflected in the container.
-w /app: Sets the working directory inside the container.
my-python-app: The name of the Docker image to use.
/bin/bash: The command to run inside the container (a Bash shell in this case).
6⃣ Develop Inside the Container:
With the container running, you can develop your application. Changes made
to files in the mounted directory will be reflected inside the container.
You can run your application and its tests inside the container, ensuring a
consistent environment.
7⃣Run Application/Tests:
Inside the container, you can run your application or tests just like you
would on your local machine.
python app.py

Or run tests:
pytest
Example Workflow

Here’s a typical workflow for a Python developer using Docker:

1⃣ Setup Project Structure:
Ensure your project has a requirements.txt file with necessary
dependencies listed.

Create a Dockerfile in the project root.

2⃣ Build Docker Image:
docker build -t my-python-app .

3⃣ Run Container for Development:

docker run -it --rm -v $(pwd):/app -w /app my-python-app /bin/bash
Develop and Test:

4⃣ Make changes to your code using your preferred editor on your local machine.
Inside the container shell, run your application or tests to validate changes.

5⃣ Cleanup:
Exit the container. The --rm option ensures the container is removed automatically.
Benefits of Using Docker for Local Development

Consistency: Ensures the same environment is used across different

development machines.
Isolation: Avoids conflicts with dependencies and tools installed on
the host machine.
Reproducibility: Makes it easy to share the development environment setup
with other team members.

Simplified Setup: Reduces the setup time for new developers by providing
a pre-configured environment.

By following these steps, you can effectively utilize Docker images

in your local development environment, enhancing consistency,
reproducibility, and isolation.
4.8 Identify application security issues related to secret protection, encryption
(storage and transport), and data handling
Application Security Best Practices Diagram
Secret Protection

1⃣ Hardcoding Secrets:
Issue: Storing secrets such as API keys, passwords, and tokens directly in the codebase.
Mitigation: Use environment variables or secret management tools (e.g., AWS Secrets
Manager, HashiCorp Vault).

2⃣Insecure Secret Storage:

Issue: Storing secrets in plaintext within configuration files or databases.
Mitigation: Encrypt secrets and use secure storage mechanisms provided by the
operating system or cloud providers.

3⃣Insufficient Access Control:

Issue: Improper access controls leading to unauthorized access to secrets.
Mitigation: Implement role-based access control (RBAC) and ensure that only
authorized personnel and applications can access sensitive information.
Encryption (Storage and Transport)

1⃣ Unencrypted Data at Rest:

Issue: Storing sensitive data without encryption.
Mitigation: Use strong encryption standards (e.g., AES-256) for data
at rest, including databases, file storage, and backups.

2⃣ Unencrypted Data in Transit:

Issue: Transmitting sensitive data without encryption.
Mitigation: Use Transport Layer Security (TLS) to encrypt data in transit, ensuring
that communications between clients and servers are secure.

3⃣ Weak Encryption Algorithms:

Issue: Using outdated or weak encryption algorithms that can be easily broken.
Mitigation: Regularly update encryption algorithms to adhere to current security
standards (e.g., avoid using MD5, SHA-1).
Data Handling

1⃣ Insecure Data Storage:

Issue: Storing sensitive information in insecure locations, such as public
folders or improperly configured databases.
Mitigation: Ensure data is stored in secure environments with proper access
controls and encryption.

2⃣ Improper Data Sanitization:

Issue: Failing to properly sanitize or validate input data, leading to vulnerabilities
like SQL injection, XSS (Cross-Site Scripting), and more.
Mitigation: Implement input validation and sanitization to prevent injection attacks.
Use parameterized queries and ORM (Object-Relational Mapping) tools.
3⃣ Excessive Data Exposure:
Issue: Exposing more data than necessary through APIs or other interfaces.
Mitigation: Follow the principle of least privilege by exposing only the necessary data.
Implement proper API security measures, including rate limiting and authentication.

4⃣ Improper Data Disposal:

Issue: Failing to securely delete or dispose of sensitive data, leading to potential
data breaches.
Mitigation: Use secure data deletion methods, such as shredding files and
ensuring that deleted data cannot be recovered.
Best Practices Summary

Use Secret Management Tools: Tools like AWS Secrets Manager, HashiCorp
Vault, and Azure Key Vault help manage and rotate secrets securely.
Encrypt Data at Rest and in Transit: Ensure all sensitive data is encrypted
using strong, current encryption standards.
Implement Access Controls: Apply strict access controls to both data and
secrets, using principles like RBAC.
Sanitize and Validate Input: Always sanitize and validate input data to
prevent common vulnerabilities like SQL injection and XSS.
Regularly Update Security Practices: Stay updated with the latest security
best practices and regularly audit your application for potential vulnerabilities.
Secure Data Disposal: Ensure that data is securely deleted and not recoverable
once it is no longer needed.
Application Security Best Practices Diagram
4.9 Explain firewall, DNS, load balancers, and reverse proxy in application deployment
Firewall

A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and controls incoming
and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules.

Purpose: Protects the network from unauthorized access, attacks, and malicious activity.
Types:
Network Firewalls: Placed between internal and external networks, filtering traffic based
on IP addresses, ports, and protocols.
Application Firewalls: Focus on inspecting traffic at the application layer, identifying
and blocking malicious payloads.
Common Features:
Packet Filtering: Inspects individual packets and allows or blocks them based on predefined rules.
Stateful Inspection: Monitors the state of active connections and makes decisions based
on the context of the traffic.
Proxy Services: Intermediary between clients and servers to inspect and control traffic.
Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS): Detects and prevents security threats in real-time.
DNS (Domain Name System)

DNS is a hierarchical and decentralized naming system used to translate

human-readable domain names (like www.example.com) into IP addresses (like 192.0.2.1).
Purpose: Simplifies access to resources by using memorable domain names instead of
numerical IP addresses.
Components:
DNS Resolver: Client-side component that queries DNS servers to resolve domain names.
DNS Server: Holds the DNS records and responds to queries from DNS resolvers.
DNS Records: Different types of records like A (Address), AAAA (IPv6 Address), CNAME
(Canonical Name), and MX (Mail Exchange) that provide information about domain names.

How It Works:
User enters a domain name in their browser.
DNS resolver queries DNS servers to find the IP address.
DNS server responds with the IP address.
Browser uses the IP address to connect to the web server.
Load Balancer

A load balancer is a device or software that distributes incoming network traffic across
multiple servers to ensure no single server becomes overwhelmed.

Purpose: Enhances the availability and reliability of applications by distributing

traffic, improving response times, and preventing server overload.
Types:
Hardware Load Balancers: Physical devices dedicated to balancing traffic.
Software Load Balancers: Software applications running on standard hardware
or virtual machines.

Load Balancing Algorithms:

Round Robin: Distributes requests sequentially across servers.
Least Connections: Sends requests to the server with the fewest active connections.
IP Hash: Distributes requests based on the client's IP address.
Additional Features:
Health Checks: Monitors server health and reroutes traffic if a server is down.
SSL Termination: Decrypts SSL traffic to reduce the load on application servers.
Session Persistence: Ensures requests from the same client are always routed to
the same server.
Reverse Proxy
A reverse proxy is a server that sits between client devices and backend
servers, forwarding client requests to the appropriate backend server.
Purpose: Improves security, performance, and reliability of applications by handling requests
on behalf of backend servers.
Benefits:
Security: Hides the IP addresses of backend servers, providing an additional layer of
protection.
Load Balancing: Distributes incoming requests across multiple servers.
Caching: Stores copies of frequently requested content to reduce load on backend servers
and improve response times.
SSL Termination: Manages SSL/TLS encryption, reducing the load on backend servers.
Compression: Compresses responses before sending them to clients to save bandwidth
and improve load times.
Common Use Cases:

Web Acceleration: Reducing latency and improving load times by caching content and
compressing responses.
API Gateway: Routing API requests to the appropriate microservices and managing API
security, rate limiting, and logging.
Summary Table
4.10 Describe top OWASP threats (such as XSS, SQL injections, and CSRF)
The OWASP (Open Web Application Security Project) publishes a list of the top
security threats to web applications. Here's a description of some of the top OWASP
threats, including Cross-Site Scripting (XSS), SQL Injection, and Cross-Site Request
Forgery (CSRF):
OWASP Threat
Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)
SQL Injection
Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF)
Injection
Insecure Deserialization
Security Misconfiguration
Broken Authentication
Sensitive Data Exposure
Using Components with Known Vulnerabilities
Insufficient Logging and Monitoring
Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)

Description: XSS occurs when an attacker injects malicious scripts into content from
otherwise trusted websites. The scripts are then executed in the context of the victim’s browser.
Types of XSS:
Stored XSS: The malicious script is permanently stored on the target server (e.g., in a database).
Reflected XSS: The malicious script is reflected off a web server, such as in an error message
or search result.
DOM-Based XSS: The vulnerability exists in the client-side code rather than server-side.
Impact:
Stealing cookies, session tokens, or other sensitive information.
Defacing websites.
Redirecting users to malicious sites.

Mitigation:
Escape untrusted data based on the context (HTML, JavaScript, URL, etc.).
Use Content Security Policy (CSP) to reduce the impact of XSS.
Validate input on the server side.
SQL Injection

Description: SQL Injection happens when an attacker can execute arbitrary SQL
code on a database by manipulating user inputs that are not properly sanitized.
Impact:
Unauthorized access to data.
Data modification or deletion.
Compromising the entire database server.

Mitigation:
Use parameterized queries or prepared statements.
Use ORM (Object-Relational Mapping) frameworks that automatically
handle query parameterization.
Validate and sanitize inputs.
Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF)

Description: CSRF involves tricking a user into performing actions on a web

application in which they are authenticated, without their consent or knowledge.

Impact:
Unintended fund transfers.
Changing account settings, including passwords and email addresses.
Performing administrative functions.

Mitigation:
Use anti-CSRF tokens that are unique per session/request.
Validate the origin and referer headers.
Implement SameSite cookie attributes.
Injection

Description: Injection flaws occur when untrusted data is sent to an interpreter

as part of a command or query. The attacker’s hostile data can trick the interpreter
into executing unintended commands or accessing data without proper authorization.

Impact:
Data loss or corruption.
Loss of accountability or denial of access.
Full system compromise.

Mitigation:
Use safe APIs.
Avoid using the interpreter directly.
Escape special characters in inputs.
Insecure Deserialization

Description: Insecure deserialization happens when untrusted data is used

to abuse the logic of an application, inflict denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, or
execute arbitrary code.
Impact:
Remote code execution.
Elevation of privileges.
Denial of Service (DoS).
Mitigation:
Avoid accepting serialized objects from untrusted sources.
Use integrity checks (e.g., digital signatures) to detect tampering.
Monitor deserialization and data integrity.
Security Misconfiguration

Description: Security misconfiguration can occur at any level of an application

stack, including the platform, web server, database, frameworks, or custom code.

Impact:
Unauthorized access to default accounts, unused pages, unpatched flaws, etc.
Exposure of sensitive data.

Mitigation:
Implement a repeatable hardening process.
Use automated scanners to detect misconfigurations.
Regularly patch and update software.
Broken Authentication
Description: Broken authentication involves issues that allow attackers to
compromise passwords, keys, or session tokens, or to exploit other
implementation flaws to assume other users’ identities.
Impact:
User account compromise.
Data theft or manipulation.
Unauthorized access to systems and sensitive data.
Mitigation:
Implement multi-factor authentication.
Store passwords using strong hashing algorithms.
Use secure mechanisms for session management.
Sensitive Data Exposure
Description: Sensitive data exposure occurs when applications do not
adequately protect sensitive information, such as financial, healthcare,
or personally identifiable information (PII).
Impact:
Identity theft.
Financial loss.
Legal repercussions.
Mitigation:
Encrypt data at rest and in transit.
Use strong cryptographic algorithms.
Limit data exposure by adhering to the principle of least privilege.
Using Components with Known Vulnerabilities

Description: This occurs when applications use libraries, frameworks, or other

software modules with known vulnerabilities.

Impact:
Exploitation of known vulnerabilities to compromise systems.
Data breaches or corruption.
Full system compromise.
Mitigation:
Regularly update components and dependencies.
Use tools to monitor and manage vulnerabilities (e.g., OWASP Dependency-Check).
Prefer components that are actively maintained and supported.
Insufficient Logging and Monitoring

Description: Insufficient logging and monitoring can allow attackers to pivot

to other systems, maintain persistence, and tamper with or delete data without
being detected.

Impact:
Delayed detection of breaches.
Incomplete forensic analysis.
Unidentified and uncontained attacks.

Mitigation:
Implement comprehensive logging and monitoring.
Regularly review and analyze logs.
Establish an incident response plan.
Summary Table
4.11 Utilize Bash commands (file management, directory navigation, and environmental variables)
Essential Bash commands for file management, directory navigation, and handling environmental variables:

File Management
Directory Navigation Commands Summary Table
Environmental Variables
Next Videos
4.12 Identify the principles of DevOps practices
Principles of DevOps Practices

1⃣ Collaboration and Communication

Foster a culture of collaboration between development and operations teams.
Break down silos and encourage shared goals and responsibilities.

2⃣ Automation
Automate repetitive tasks such as testing, deployment, and infrastructure
provisioning.
Utilize CI/CD pipelines to streamline processes and reduce manual intervention.

3⃣ Continuous Integration and Continuous Deployment (CI/CD)

Continuously integrate code changes and deploy them in small, manageable
increments.
Ensure rapid feedback loops and reduce the time to market for new features.
4⃣Infrastructure as Code (IaC)
Manage infrastructure through code and version control systems.
Use tools like Terraform, Ansible, or CloudFormation to automate
the provisioning and management of infrastructure.
5⃣Monitoring and Logging
Implement comprehensive monitoring and logging to gain
visibility into system performance and issues.
Use tools like Prometheus, Grafana, ELK Stack (Elasticsearch,
Logstash, Kibana), and Splunk.
6⃣Continuous Feedback
Establish feedback loops from operations to development to
continuously improve the system.
Collect and analyze user feedback, system metrics, and
performance data to inform decisions.
7⃣Security
Integrate security practices into the DevOps pipeline (DevSecOps).
Perform automated security tests, vulnerability scanning, and compliance
checks throughout the development lifecycle.
8⃣ Version Control
Use version control systems (e.g., Git) to track changes to code,
configuration, and infrastructure.
Enable collaboration, rollback capabilities, and audit trails.
9⃣Agile Methodologies
Adopt agile practices such as iterative development, sprints, and scrum
to enhance flexibility and adaptability.
Focus on delivering incremental value and responding to changing
requirements.
🔟Culture of Learning and Experimentation
Encourage a culture of continuous learning and experimentation.
Promote blameless post-mortems and iterative improvements to
processes and systems.
1⃣1⃣ Customer-Centric Approach
Prioritize customer needs and feedback.
Align development and operations efforts with delivering value
to end-users.
By adhering to these principles, organizations can achieve greater efficiency,
reliability, and scalability in their software delivery processes, ultimately leading
to improved business outcomes and customer satisfaction.
5.0 Infrastructure and Automation - 20%
5.1 Describe the value of model driven programmability for infrastructure automation

5.2 Compare controller-level to device-level management

5.3 Describe the use and roles of network simulation and test tools (such as Cisco Modeling
Labs and pyATS)
5.4 Describe the components and benefits of CI/CD pipeline in infrastructure automation
5.5 Describe principles of infrastructure as code
5.6 Describe the capabilities of automation tools such as Ansible, Terraform, and Cisco NSO
5.7 Identify the workflow being automated by a Python script that uses Cisco APIs including
ACI, Meraki, Cisco DNA Center, or RESTCONF
5.8 Identify the workflow being automated by an Ansible playbook (management
packages, user management related to services, basic service configuration, and start/stop)

5.9 Identify the workflow being automated by a bash script (such as file management, app
install, user management, directory navigation)
5.10 Interpret the results of a RESTCONF or NETCONF query

5.11 Interpret basic YANG models

5.12 Interpret a unified diff
5.13 Describe the principles and benefits of a code review process
5.14 Interpret sequence diagram that includes API calls
5.1 Describe the value of model driven
programmability for infrastructure automation
Model-driven programmability offers significant value for infrastructure automation
by providing a structured approach to defining and managing network
configurations. Here are some key benefits:

1⃣Abstraction and Simplification:

Model-driven programmability abstracts complex network configurations into
high-level models.
It simplifies configuration tasks by providing a standardized representation of
network elements, protocols, and services.

2⃣ Consistency and Standardization:

Using models ensures consistent configurations across devices and
environments
It promotes standardization by defining templates and policies that
can be applied uniformly
3⃣Automation and Efficiency:
Models enable automation through programmable interfaces (APIs) that
can interact with network devices.
Automation reduces manual errors, speeds up deployment processes, and
improves overall operational efficiency.
4⃣Scalability and Flexibility:
Model-driven approaches are scalable and adaptable to changing network
requirements.
They allow for dynamic provisioning, scaling, and modification of network
resources based on demand.
5⃣Visibility and Control:
Models provide visibility into network state and configurations through
centralized management platforms.
They enable better control over network policies, security rules, and traffic
management.
6⃣ Versioning and Compliance:
Models support versioning, allowing teams to track changes and rollback
configurations if needed.
They facilitate compliance with industry standards and best practices by
enforcing consistent configurations.

7⃣Collaboration and DevOps Integration:

Model-driven programmability fosters collaboration between development,
operations, and network teams.

It aligns with DevOps practices by enabling version-controlled infrastructure

as code (IaC) and automated workflows.
Lab Scenario: Cisco Network Implementation
IP Schema:
Network: 192.168.1.0/24
VLAN 10: 192.168.1.1 (Switch1)
VLAN 20: 192.168.1.2 (Switch2)
VLAN 30: 192.168.1.3 (Switch3)

IP Topology:

Switch1 (VLAN 10):

Port Fa0/1: Connected to Router1 (192.168.1.254)
Port Fa0/2: Connected to Switch2 (Trunk)
Switch2 (VLAN 20):
Port Fa0/1: Connected to Switch1 (Trunk)
Port Fa0/2: Connected to Switch3 (Trunk)
Switch3 (VLAN 30):
Port Fa0/1: Connected to Switch2 (Trunk)
5.11 Interpret basic YANG models
YANG (Yet Another Next Generation) is a data modeling language used to model
configuration and state data manipulated by the Network Configuration Protocol
(NETCONF), RESTCONF, and other network management protocols. YANG models
define the structure and constraints of network data, which can be used to generate
configurations and retrieve operational data.
Here, we'll interpret some basic components of a YANG model.
Components of YANG Models:
Module:
A YANG module is the top-level structure and defines the namespace
and data structures.
It typically contains namespace, prefix, import
statements, and various data definitions.
Namespace:
The namespace uniquely identifies the module to prevent
naming conflicts.
Prefix:
The prefix is a short string that is used to reference the
module's namespace in instance documents.
Container:
A container groups related nodes together. It can contain
leaf nodes, lists, other containers, etc.
Leaf:
A leaf is a single value node, such as an integer, string,
or boolean.
List:
A list represents a sequence of entries. Each entry is
structured similarly to a container.
Type:
The type statement defines the data type of a leaf, such
as string, int, boolean, etc.
Example YANG Model
Let's look at a simple YANG model for a network interface.
Interpretation:
Module Declaration:
module example-interface: Defines the module name as example-interface.
Namespace and Prefix:
namespace "urn:example:interface": Assigns a unique identifier to avoid naming
conflicts prefix "if": Provides a shorthand for referencing this module's elements.

Import Statement:
import ietf-interfaces { prefix if; }: Imports another YANG module called
ietf-interfaces and assigns it the prefix if.

Container:
container interfaces: Defines a container named interfaces that will
group related data nodes.
List:
list interface { key "name"; }: Defines a list of interfaces. Each entry in the
list is uniquely identified by the name key.

Leaf Nodes:
leaf name { type string; }: Defines a name leaf with a string type.
leaf enabled { type boolean; default "true"; }: Defines an enabled leaf
with a boolean type and a default value of true.
Nested Container:
container ipv4: Defines a container within each interface entry to hold
IPv4 configuration.
leaf address { type inet:ipv4-address; }: Defines an address leaf within the
ipv4 container for the IPv4 address.
leaf netmask { type inet:ipv4-address; }: Defines a netmask leaf within the ipv4
container for the subnet mask.
Conclusion:

The example YANG model defines a structured way to configure network interfaces,
including their names, enable/disable state, and IPv4 configuration. Understanding
these basic components and their structure is crucial for working with YANG models
effectively.
Here are the YANG scripts for the configurations mentioned in the lab scenario:
These YANG scripts define the configuration structure for Router1,
Switch1, Switch2, and Switch3, including interface configurations and
IP addresses. Adjust the namespaces, prefixes, and specific configuration
details as needed for your network environment.

Here are the corresponding XML payloads based on the provided YANG
scripts for Router1, Switch1, Switch2, and Switch3:
These XML payloads represent the configurations specified
in the respective YANG models for Router1, Switch1, Switch2,
and Switch3. Adjust the values accordingly based on your specific
requirements and network setup.
Lab Prerequisites

Network Device with NETCONF Support: Ensure you have a network device
(router or switch) that supports NETCONF and YANG. Cisco IOS XE devices
typically support these protocols.

NETCONF/YANG Client: You will need a NETCONF client to send configurations

to the network device. Tools like ncclient, which is a Python library, or a graphical
tool like Cisco's YANG Suite, can be used.

Python Environment: If using ncclient, you need a Python environment set up.
Step-by-Step Guide
Step 1: Install Required Tools
If you are using Python and ncclient, install it using pip:
pip install ncclient
Step 2: Create YANG Model Configurations in XML

Prepare the XML payloads based on the YANG models as shown earlier.
Save each configuration in separate XML files.

Example: Save the Router1 configuration as router1_config.xml.

Step 3: Python Script to Push Configurations

Create a Python script to

connect to your network
device and push the
configurations.
Example: netconf_push.py
Step 4: Run the Script
Execute the Python script to push the configuration to the network device.
python netconf_push.py

Step 5: Verify the Configuration

After pushing the configuration, verify it on the network device using CLI
commands to ensure the configuration has been applied correctly
Additional Configuration (if needed)
For a full lab setup, repeat the above steps for Switch1, Switch2, and
Switch3 configurations. Make sure to adjust the device connection details
and XML payloads accordingly.
5.2 Compare controller-level to device-level management
Control, Management Interface, Configuration, Ease of Use, and Consistency
5.3 Describe the use and roles of network simulation and
test tools (such as Cisco Modeling Labs and pyATS)
3⃣ Proof of Concept (PoC):
Enables testing of new network designs and configurations before
deploying them in a production environment.
Helps validate network designs and configurations to ensure they
meet business requirements.

4⃣ Troubleshooting and Debugging:

Allows simulation of network issues and troubleshooting them in a
controlled environment.
Provides insight into how changes affect network behavior and
performance.

5⃣ Software Development and Testing:

Facilitates testing of network automation scripts and software in a
virtual network environment.
Supports API integration for automated testing and network management.
pyATS

pyATS (Python Automated Test Systems) is an open-source, Python-based

test framework developed by Cisco. It is used for automating network
testing and validation. pyATS is highly extensible and can be integrated
with other tools and frameworks.

1⃣ Roles and Uses

Automated Testing:
Automates the execution of network tests, reducing the time
and effort required for manual testing.

Supports a wide range of test cases, including configuration

validation, performance testing, and compliance checks.
Detailed Comparison
1⃣ Scope
Controller-Level Management: Manages multiple devices from a
central point.
Device-Level Management: Each device is managed individually.
2⃣ Control Plane
Controller-Level Management: Centralized control plane.
Device-Level Management: Distributed control plane on each device.

3⃣ Configuration Management
Controller-Level Management: Configurations are applied from a single
interface.
Device-Level Management: Configurations need to be applied separately
on each device.

4⃣ Scalability
Controller-Level Management: Scales well for large networks.
Device-Level Management: Limited scalability, managing each
device becomes cumbersome.
Network simulation and test tools are essential for network
engineers to design, test, and troubleshoot network configurations
and protocols without impacting live environments. They offer a
safe and controlled way to explore and validate network changes.
Two widely used tools in this domain are Cisco Modeling Labs (CML)
and pyATS.
Cisco Modeling Labs (CML)

Description
Cisco Modeling Labs (CML) is a powerful network simulation tool
developed by Cisco. It enables users to create and run virtual
network topologies using Cisco's operating systems and software.
CML is designed for both individuals (CML-Personal) and enterprises
(CML-Enterprise).
Roles and Uses

1⃣Network Design and Testing:

Allows engineers to design complex network topologies and test them
virtually.

Supports a wide range of Cisco devices and configurations, enabling

realistic network scenarios.

2⃣Training and Certification Preparation:

Provides a platform for learners to practice for Cisco certifications
like CCNA, CCNP, and CCIE.

Offers pre-built labs and scenarios that align with certification

curricula.
2⃣ Continuous Integration/Continuous Deployment (CI/CD):
Integrates with CI/CD pipelines to automate testing of network
changes before they are deployed to production.
Ensures that network changes do not introduce regressions or
issues.
3⃣ Network Validation:
Validates network configurations against predefined criteria
and standards.
Ensures network devices are configured correctly and operating
as expected.

4⃣ Performance Monitoring:
Monitors network performance metrics and alerts on deviations from
expected values.
Helps in identifying performance bottlenecks and ensuring network
reliability.
5⃣ Test Script Development:
Allows creation of custom test scripts to meet specific testing
requirements.
Uses Python, making it accessible to network engineers familiar
with scripting.

6⃣ Integration with Other Tools:

Can be integrated with other network management and automation
tools, enhancing its functionality.
Supports REST APIs for seamless integration with external systems.
5.4 Describe the components and benefits of CI/CD pipeline in infrastructure automation

Watch this Video :)

5.5 Describe principles of infrastructure as code
Tools Supporting IaC

Several tools support the principles of IaC, including:

Terraform: A declarative tool that supports multiple cloud providers
and enables infrastructure provisioning.

AWS CloudFormation: A declarative tool specifically for AWS, allowing

the provisioning of AWS resources.

Ansible: An imperative configuration management tool that can also be

used for provisioning.

Puppet and Chef: Configuration management tools that use an imperative

approach for defining the state of infrastructure.

By adhering to these principles, IaC enables more efficient, reliable,

and scalable infrastructure management, aligning closely with modern
DevOps practices.
5.6 Describe the capabilities of automation tools
such as Ansible, Terraform, and Cisco NSO
Ansible

1. Configuration Management
Automates the configuration of systems and software, ensuring consistency
across environments.
Uses playbooks (written in YAML) to define tasks and roles, making it easy
to read and write configurations.

2. Application Deployment
Facilitates automated deployment of applications, managing dependencies,
configurations, and services.
Supports rolling updates and rollback procedures, ensuring minimal downtime
and consistency.

3. Orchestration
Coordinates multiple configurations and deployments across various systems.
Integrates with cloud services (AWS, Azure, Google Cloud) and container
orchestration platforms (Kubernetes, Docker).
4. Agentless Architecture

Operates without the need for agents installed on target machines, using
SSH for Linux/Unix systems and WinRM for Windows systems.
Simplifies management and reduces overhead.

5. Extensibility
Supports custom modules and plugins, allowing for tailored automation
workflows.
Large ecosystem of community-contributed modules for various applications
and services.
6. Idempotency
Ensures that repeated executions of playbooks result in the same system
state, preventing unintended changes.
Terraform
1. Infrastructure as Code (IaC)
Uses a declarative approach to define and provision infrastructure.
Configuration files (written in HCL) describe the desired state of
infrastructure, which Terraform then enforces.

2. Multi-Cloud Support
Supports multiple cloud providers (AWS, Azure, Google Cloud) and
on-premises solutions.
Enables consistent infrastructure management across different
environments and platforms.

3. Dependency Management
Automatically manages dependencies between resources, ensuring
that changes are applied in the correct order.
Detects and handles resource dependencies and dependencies
between modules.
4. State Management
Maintains a state file that tracks the real-world state of
infrastructure.
Facilitates incremental updates, ensuring that only necessary
changes are applied.

5. Modular and Reusable Configurations

Encourages the use of modules to encapsulate and reuse infrastructure
configurations.
Promotes DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself) principles by allowing shared
configurations across projects.

6. Extensibility
Supports custom providers and modules, enabling the extension of
Terraform's functionality.
Large ecosystem of community-contributed modules and providers.
7. Plan and Apply

Allows users to preview changes before applying them using

the terraform plan command.
Ensures transparency and predictability in infrastructure
changes.
Cisco NSO (Network Services Orchestrator)

1. Service Orchestration
Automates the deployment and lifecycle management of
network services.
Supports the creation, modification, and deletion of
network services across multi-vendor environments.
2. Model-Driven Approach
Uses YANG models to define network services and devices.
Ensures consistency and standardization across different
network components.
3. Multi-Vendor Support
Integrates with various network devices and technologies
from different vendors.
Provides a unified management interface for heterogeneous
network environments.
4. Configuration Management
Automates the configuration and provisioning of network devices.
Ensures consistent and accurate device configurations, reducing
manual errors.

5. Transactional Integrity
Supports atomic transactions, ensuring that configuration
changes are either fully applied or fully rolled back.
Maintains network stability and reliability by preventing
partial configurations.

6. Extensibility
Allows customization through service models and templates.
Supports integration with external systems via APIs and custom
scripts.
7. Real-Time Network Management
Provides real-time visibility into the network state and
configurations.
Enables rapid troubleshooting and resolution of network
issues.

These tools provide robust automation capabilities, addressing

different aspects of infrastructure and network management.
Ansible excels in configuration management and application
deployment, Terraform in infrastructure provisioning across
multiple platforms, and Cisco NSO in orchestrating complex
network services across multi-vendor environments.
5.7 Identify the workflow being automated by a Python script
that uses Cisco APIs including ACI, Meraki, Cisco DNA Center,
or RESTCONF
5.10 Interpret the results of a RESTCONF or NETCONF query
5.14 Interpret sequence diagram that includes API calls
5.14 Interpret sequence diagram that includes API calls
Elements of a Sequence Diagram

1⃣ Actors/Participants:
the system. They can
These are the entities that interact in
be users, systems, or other entities.

2⃣ Lifelines: Represent the lifespan of an object or actor.

It's a vertical dashed line that shows the object's presence
over time.

3⃣ Activation
the period
Bars: Thick vertical bars on a lifeline indicating
an object is active and executing a process.

Messages/Arrows: Horizontal arrows representing communication

4⃣ between objects. These can be synchronous (solid line with
filled arrowhead) or asynchronous (solid line with open
arrowhead).
Steps to Interpret

1⃣ Identify Participants and Lifelines:

Look at the top of the diagram to see the different participants involved.
Each participant will have a lifeline running vertically down the page.

2⃣ Understand the Flow of Messages:

Messages (API calls) are shown as arrows from one lifeline to another.
The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the message or
API call.
Read the labels on the arrows to understand the type of API
call or message being sent.
3⃣ Sequence of Interactions:
The sequence of messages from top to bottom shows the order in which
interactions occur.
Follow the arrows from the top down to understand the flow of operations.
4⃣ Types of Messages:

Synchronous Calls: Indicated by a solid line with a filled arrowhead,

meaning the sender waits for a response before continuing.

Asynchronous Calls: Indicated by a solid line with an open arrowhead,

meaning the sender continues without waiting for a response.

5⃣ Activations:
Thick bars on a lifeline indicate periods when a participant is
performing an action.
The length of the activation bar represents the duration of the action.

6⃣ Return Messages:

Dashed lines with an open arrowhead going back to the sender indicate a
response or return message from an API call.
Example Sequence Diagram Interpretation

Let's consider a hypothetical sequence diagram with three participants:

Client, API Gateway, and Service.
1⃣ Participants:
Client: Initiates the interaction.
API Gateway: Acts as an intermediary.
Service: Processes the request and returns a response.

2⃣ Flow of Messages:
Client sends a Request to the API Gateway.
API Gateway forwards the Request to the Service.
Service processes the request and sends a Response back to
the API Gateway.
API Gateway forwards the Response back to the Client.
3⃣ Types of Messages:
The initial Request from Client to API Gateway is a synchronous call.
The Forward from API Gateway to Service is also synchronous.
The Response messages are synchronous return messages.
4⃣ Activations:
Activation

The Client's activation starts with sending the Request and ends
after receiving the Response.
The API Gateway is active while forwarding the request and waiting
for the response from the Service.

The Service is active while processing the request and sending back
the response.
Interpretation Summary

The sequence diagram shows a request-response flow where the Client

sends a request to the Service through the API Gateway.
Each interaction is synchronous, meaning the sender waits for a
response before continuing.
The diagram highlights the roles of each participant and the flow of
data between them, ensuring a clear understanding of how the system
components interact via API calls.
5.10 Interpret the results of a RESTCONF or NETCONF query

RESTCONF Query Results

RESTCONF uses HTTP-based methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE) to

interact with network devices, and the responses are typically
in JSON or XML format.

Example RESTCONF Query and Result

Interpreting the RESTCONF Result:
1⃣ Root Element: The root element "ietf-interfaces:interface"
indicates that the data pertains to an interface configuration.
2⃣ Interface Details:
"name": The name of the interface ("GigabitEthernet0").
"description": A human-readable description of the interface
("Uplink interface to core router").
"type": The type of the interface ("iana-if-type:ethernetCsmacd"),
indicating it's an Ethernet interface.
"enabled": The status of the interface (true means the interface
is enabled).
3⃣ IPv4 Configuration:
"ietf-ip:ipv4": Indicates the IPv4 configuration block.
"address": Contains the IP address and netmask for the interface.
NETCONF Query Results

NETCONF uses XML for encoding messages and communicates over SSH.
It retrieves and modifies data in a structured way, often
representing the configuration in a hierarchical XML format.

Example NETCONF Query and Result

Interpreting the NETCONF Result:

Root Element: The root element <rpc-reply> indicates a reply to

the RPC request.
Data Element: The <data> element contains the requested
information.

Interface Details:
<name/: The name of the interface ("GigabitEthernet0").

<description/: A human-readable description of the interface

("Uplink interface to core router").
<type/: The type of the interface ("ianaift:ethernetCsmacd"),
indicating it's an Ethernet interface.
<enabled/: The status of the interface (true means the interface
is enabled).
4⃣ IPv4 Configuration:

<ipv4/: Indicates the IPv4 configuration block.

<address/: Contains the IP address and netmask for the interface.
<ip/: The IP address of the interface ("192.0.2.1").
<netmask/: The netmask for the IP address ("255.255.255.0").

Summary
RESTCONF responses are typically in JSON or XML format and use
HTTP-based methods. They provide structured data in a straightforward
key-value format.
NETCONF responses are in XML format and use a hierarchical structure
to represent configuration data. They provide detailed, nested
information about network configurations.
5.7 Identify the workflow being automated by a Python script
that uses Cisco APIs including ACI, Meraki, Cisco DNA Center,
or RESTCONF
Cisco ACI (Application Centric Infrastructure) API

Cisco ACI API is used to manage and configure Cisco's data center solutions.
Common Workflows:

1⃣ Network Configuration Automation:

Creating, updating, or deleting network policies.
Configuring tenants, application profiles, and endpoint groups (EPGs).
Automating VLAN, VRF, and bridge domain configurations.

2⃣ Monitoring and Analytics:

Retrieving health scores and performance metrics.
Collecting logs and event data for analysis.
Monitoring network traffic patterns and alerts.
3⃣ Policy Management:
Automating security policies and access control lists (ACLs).
Enforcing compliance policies across the network.
Cisco Meraki API

Cisco Meraki API is used to manage and configure Meraki network

devices and services.
Common Workflows:
1⃣ Device Management:
Adding, removing, or updating devices in the Meraki dashboard.
Configuring device settings, such as SSIDs for wireless access
points.
Managing firmware updates.
2⃣ Network Configuration:
Automating VLAN configurations.
Setting up and modifying firewall rules.
Configuring network-wide settings.

3⃣ Monitoring and Reporting:

Retrieving network usage statistics and device status.
Generating reports on network performance and security.
Part 1- Network Information Retrieval
Part 2: VLAN Configuration
Cisco DNA Center API
Cisco DNA Center API is used for intent-based networking and automating network
operations.
Common Workflows:

1⃣ Network Provisioning:
Automating the deployment of network devices.
Applying configuration templates to devices.
Configuring network policies and segmentation.

2⃣ Assurance and Monitoring:

Retrieving network health and performance metrics.
Monitoring device status and generating alerts.
Collecting telemetry data for analytics.

3⃣ Software Management:
Managing software images and upgrades for network devices.
Scheduling and automating firmware updates.
Part 1: Authentication and
Device Retrieval
Part 2: Template
Application to Device
5.8 Identify the workflow being automated by an Ansible
playbook (management packages, user management related
to services, basic service configuration, and start/stop)
An Ansible playbook can automate a variety of workflows related to
IT management. Here are four typical workflows that can be automated
using Ansible, each focusing on different aspects of system and service
management:

1⃣ Management Packages
2⃣ User Management Related to Services
3⃣ Basic Service Configuration
4⃣ Start/Stop Services
1⃣ Management Packages
This workflow involves installing, updating, and removing software
packages on managed hosts.

Playbook Example:
Workflow:
Ensure required packages are installed: Installs the httpd package if it
is not already present.
Update packages to the latest version: Ensures the nginx package is
updated to its latest version.
Remove unwanted packages: Removes the old-software package
if it is installed.
2⃣ User Management Related to Services
This workflow involves managing user accounts and permissions,
particularly those related to specific services.

Playbook Example:
Workflow:

Ensure the service user exists: Creates the serviceuser and adds it to
the servicegroup group.
Set user password: Sets the password for serviceuser.
Grant sudo privileges: Ensures serviceuser has passwordless sudo privileges.
3⃣
3. Basic Service Configuration
This workflow involves configuring services on managed hosts.

Playbook Example:
Workflow:

Configure NTP service: Copies a pre-defined ntp.conf to the appropriate

directory.
Configure SSH service: Ensures root login is disabled by modifying
sshd_config.
Apply firewall rules: Enables SSH service in the firewall.
4⃣ Start/Stop Services

This workflow involves starting, stopping, and restarting services on

managed hosts.
Playbook Example:

Workflow:

Start a service: Ensures the httpd service is running.

Stop a service: Ensures the nginx service is stopped.
Restart a service: Restarts the sshd service.
Summary

By examining these examples, you can identify the automated workflow

being managed by an Ansible playbook. Here’s a quick summary of the
workflows:

1⃣ Management Packages: Installing, updating, and removing software

packages.

2⃣ User Management Related to Services: Managing user accounts and

permissions, especially related to services.

3⃣ Basic Service Configuration: Configuring service settings, such as

NTP, SSH, and firewall rules.
4⃣ Start/Stop Services: Managing the state of services (starting, stopping,
and restarting).
5.9 Identify the workflow being automated by a bash script (such as
file management, app install, user management, directory navigation)
To identify the workflow being automated by a bash script, we can analyze
the common tasks that are often automated using bash. Here are four
typical workflows that can be automated using a bash script, each focusing
on different aspects of system and service management:

1⃣File Management
This workflow involves tasks like creating, copying, moving, and deleting files.
Example Bash Script:
Workflow:
Create a new directory: mkdir -p /path/to/new_directory
Copy files: cp /path/to/source_file /path/to/new_directory/
Move files: mv /path/to/new_directory/source_file /path/to/another_directory/
Delete a file: rm /path/to/another_directory/source_file
2⃣Application Installation
This workflow involves installing and configuring software applications.
Workflow:
Update package lists: sudo apt-get update
Install a package: sudo apt-get install -y apache2
Start the service: sudo systemctl start apache2
Enable the service to start on boot: sudo systemctl enable apache2
3⃣User Management
This workflow involves creating and managing user accounts.
Example Bash Script:
Workflow:
Create a new user: sudo useradd -m newuser
Set password for the new user: echo "newuser:password" | sudo chpasswd
Add the new user to a group: sudo usermod -aG sudo newuser
Delete a user: sudo userdel -r olduser
4⃣ Directory Navigation
This workflow involves navigating and working with directories.
Example Bash Script:
Workflow:
Navigate to a directory: cd /path/to/directory
List files in the directory: ls -l
Create a new subdirectory: mkdir new_subdirectory
Change to the new subdirectory: cd new_subdirectory
Summary
By examining these examples, you can identify the automated workflow
being managed by a bash script. Here’s a quick summary of the workflows:
1⃣ File Management: Creating, copying, moving, and deleting files and
directories.

2⃣ Application Installation: Installing and configuring software applications,

managing services.
3⃣ User Management: Creating and managing user accounts and permissions.
4⃣ Directory Navigation: Navigating and working within directories and
subdirectories.
Each script example demonstrates a specific workflow, showcasing
common tasks that can be automated using bash.
5.12 Interpret a unified diff
A unified diff is a format used by the diff tool and various version control
systems to show differences between two files. It provides a clear and
concise way to represent changes by showing a few lines of context around
the changes. Let's break down and interpret a sample unified diff.
Sample Unified Diff
Structure of Unified Diff
1⃣ File Headers:
The first two lines indicate the files being compared:

--- oldfile.txt indicates the original file.

+++ newfile.txt indicates the modified file.
Timestamps or revision information can also be included.
2⃣ Hunks:
Each chunk of changes is called a "hunk" and starts with a line like this:

This line provides information about where the changes occur in the
file:-
1,6 refers to the range of lines in the original file (oldfile.txt).
Here, it starts at line 1 and spans 6 lines.

+1,6 refers to the range of lines in the modified file (newfile.txt).

Here, it also starts at line 1 and spans 6 lines.
3⃣ Changes:
Lines in the hunk can be unchanged, added, or removed:Unchanged
lines are shown with a single space before the content:

Lines removed from the original file start with a minus sign (-):
Lines added in the modified file start with a plus sign (+):
Interpretation of the Sample Diff
File Headers
The diff is comparing oldfile.txt with newfile.txt.
Hunk Information
The changes start at line 1 and affect 6 lines in both files.
Changes within the Hunk

Line 2:
Original: It has a few lines of text. (removed)
Modified: It has several lines of text. (added)

Line 6:

Original: This line will be removed. (removed)

Modified: This line has been modified. (added)

Summary

This unified diff shows that:

Line 2 in oldfile.txt was changed from "It has a few lines of text." to "It
has several lines of text." in newfile.txt.
Line 6 in oldfile.txt was changed from "This line will be removed." to "
This line has been modified." in newfile.txt.

By interpreting these changes, you can understand what modifications

were made to the file, helping in tasks such as code review, debugging,
and version tracking.
5.13 Describe the principles and benefits of a code review process
The code review process is a critical component of software development
that involves the systematic examination of code by one or more developers
other than the author. This process aims to identify defects, ensure
adherence to coding standards, and improve the overall quality of the
codebase. Here are the principles and benefits of a code review process:
Principles of Code Review

1⃣ Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing:

2⃣ Constructive Feedback:
3⃣ Consistency and Standards:
4⃣ Efficiency:
5⃣ Focus on Functionality and Performance:
6⃣ Security and Compliance:
7⃣ Automated Tools:
Benefits of Code Review

1⃣ Improved Code Quality:

2⃣ Enhanced Team Collaboration:
3⃣ Knowledge Sharing and Mentorship:
4⃣ Consistency and Maintainability:
5⃣ Early Bug Detection:
6⃣ Increased Security:
7⃣ Compliance and Risk Management:
8⃣ Performance Optimization:
Principles of Code Review

1⃣ Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing:

Promotes team collaboration and knowledge sharing.
Enables learning opportunities for junior developers.

2⃣ Constructive Feedback:
Provides constructive and specific feedback.
Focuses on code improvement rather than personal criticism.

3⃣ Consistency and Standards:

Ensures adherence to coding standards and guidelines.
Maintains consistency across the codebase.
4⃣ Efficiency:
Aims for an efficient and timely review process.
Prioritizes significant issues over minor stylistic preferences.
5⃣ Focus on Functionality and Performance:
Assesses code correctness, requirement fulfillment, and performance.
Considers edge cases, error handling, and performance bottlenecks.
6⃣ Security and Compliance:
Identifies and addresses potential security vulnerabilities.
Ensures compliance with relevant standards.
7⃣ Automated Tools:
Utilizes automated tools (e.g., linters, static analysis) for common issues.
Allows human reviewers to focus on complex problems.
Principles of Code Review
Principle Description

Collaboration and Knowledge Promotes team collaboration and knowledge sharing. Enables
Sharing learning opportunities for junior developers.

Constructive Feedback Provides constructive and specific feedback. Focuses on code

improvement rather than personal criticism.

Consistency and Standards Ensures adherence to coding standards and guidelines.

Maintains consistency across the codebase.

Efficiency Aims for an efficient and timely review process. Prioritizes

significant issues over minor stylistic preferences.

Focus on Functionality and Assesses code correctness, requirement fulfillment, and performance.
Considers edge cases, error handling, and performance bottlenecks.
Performance
Security and Compliance Identifies and addresses potential security vulnerabilities.
Ensures compliance with relevant standards.

Utilizes automated tools (e.g., linters, static analysis) for common issues.
Automated Tools Allows human reviewers to focus on complex problems.
Benefits of Code Review

1⃣ Improved Code Quality:

Catches bugs and potential issues early.
Encourages best practices and coding standards.

2⃣ Enhanced Team Collaboration:

Facilitates communication and collaboration.
Fosters collective code ownership and a culture of continuous improvement.

3⃣ Knowledge Sharing and Mentorship:

Provides learning opportunities for junior developers.
Spreads knowledge of the codebase across the team.
4⃣ Consistency and Maintainability:
Ensures adherence to coding standards for consistency.
Makes the code easier to read, understand, and modify.

5⃣ Early Bug Detection:

More cost-effective than finding bugs in later stages.
Helps maintain a stable and reliable codebase.

6⃣ Increased Security:
Identifies security vulnerabilities and ensures best practices.
Enhances overall application security.
7⃣ Compliance and Risk Management:
Ensures code complies with industry standards and regulations.
Mitigates risks of non-compliance and potential legal issues.

8⃣ Performance Optimization:
Identifies and suggests performance improvements.
Ensures application performs well under expected workloads.
Benefits of Code Review
Catches bugs and potential issues early. Encourages best
Improved Code Quality practices and coding standards.

Enhanced Team Collaboration Facilitates communication and collaboration. Fosters collective

code ownership and a culture of continuous improvement.

Knowledge Sharing and Provides learning opportunities for junior developers. Spreads
Mentorship knowledge of the codebase across the team.

Consistency and Maintainability Ensures adherence to coding standards for consistency.

Makes the code easier to read, understand, and modify.

Early Bug Detection More cost-effective than finding bugs in later stages.
Helps maintain a stable and reliable codebase.

Increased Security Identifies security vulnerabilities and ensures best practices.

Enhances overall application security.

Compliance and Risk Ensures code complies with industry standards and regulations.
Management Mitigates risks of non-compliance and potential legal issues.

Identifies and suggests performance improvements.

Performance Optimization Ensures application performs well under expected workloads.
Conclusion

Code Review Process:

Essential for maintaining high-quality software.
Fosters collaboration, ensures consistency, detects issues early, and
shares knowledge.
Leads to more robust, secure, and maintainable codebases.
Results in successful software projects and better outcomes for
developers and users.
Benefits of Code Review
Catches bugs and potential issues early. Encourages best
Improved Code Quality practices and coding standards.

Enhanced Team Collaboration Facilitates communication and collaboration. Fosters collective

code ownership and a culture of continuous improvement.

Knowledge Sharing and Provides learning opportunities for junior developers. Spreads
Mentorship knowledge of the codebase across the team.

Consistency and Maintainability Ensures adherence to coding standards for consistency.

Makes the code easier to read, understand, and modify.

Early Bug Detection More cost-effective than finding bugs in later stages.
Helps maintain a stable and reliable codebase.

Increased Security Identifies security vulnerabilities and ensures best practices.

Enhances overall application security.

Compliance and Risk Ensures code complies with industry standards and regulations.
Management Mitigates risks of non-compliance and potential legal issues.

Identifies and suggests performance improvements.

Performance Optimization Ensures application performs well under expected workloads.
6.0 Network Fundamentals 15%
6.1 Describe the purpose and usage of MAC addresses and VLANs

6.2 Describe the purpose and usage of IP addresses, routes, subnet

mask / prefix, and gateways
6.3 Describe the function of common networking components (such as switches, routers,
firewalls, and load balancers)

6.4 Interpret a basic network topology diagram with elements such as switches,
routers, firewalls, load balancers, and port values

6.5 Describe the function of management, data, and control planes in a network device
6.6 Describe the functionality of these IP Services: DHCP, DNS, NAT, SNMP, NTP

6.7 Recognize common protocol port values (such as, SSH, Telnet, HTTP, HTTPS,
and NETCONF)

6.8 Identify cause of application connectivity issues (NAT problem, Transport Port
blocked, proxy, and VPN)

6.9 Explain the impacts of network constraints on applications

6.1 Describe the purpose and usage of MAC addresses and VLANs
Purpose and Usage of MAC Addresses

Purpose:

1⃣ Identification: Uniquely identify network interfaces on devices.

2⃣ Layer 2 Communication: Operate at the Data Link layer (Layer 2)
of the OSI model.

Usage:

1⃣ Ethernet Frames: Used in Ethernet

destination identification.
frames for source and

2⃣ Switching: Network switches use MAC addresses to forward data to

the correct port.

3⃣ Access Control: Used for network access control, e.g., MAC

filtering in Wi-Fi networks.
Purpose and Usage of VLANs
Purpose:

1⃣ Segmentation: Segment a physical network into multiple

broadcast domains.
2⃣ Isolation: Isolate traffic between different network segments.
Usage:

1⃣ Configuration:
VLAN IDs.
Configured on network switches, identified by

2⃣ Trunking: Trunk links carry traffic from multiple VLANs using

VLAN tagging.
3⃣ Access Ports: Connect end devices to the network, assigned to
a single VLAN.

4⃣ Network Management: Simplify network management by grouping

devices logically.
Diagram: VLAN Configuration on a Switch
Summary
MAC Addresses:
🟢 Provide unique identification for network interfaces.
🟢 Enable local network communication and device identification at
Layer 2.
🟢 Used in Ethernet frames and by network switches for traffic
forwarding and access control.
VLANs:
🟢 Segment a physical network into multiple logical networks to improve
performance and security.
🟢 Enable traffic isolation and management by grouping devices with
similar requirements.
🟢 Configured on switches, with trunk ports and access ports to
handle VLAN traffic.

🟢 Both MAC addresses and VLANs are essential components of modern

networking, working together to ensure efficient and secure data
transmission within and across local networks.
6.2 Describe the purpose and usage of IP addresses,
routes, subnet mask / prefix, and gateways
IP Addresses

Purpose:
IP addresses (Internet Protocol addresses) are numerical labels
assigned to devices connected to a computer network that uses the
Internet Protocol for communication. They operate at the network
layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model. The primary purposes of IP
addresses are:

🟢 Unique Identification: Each device on a network has a unique IP

address, ensuring that data sent across networks reaches the correct
destination.
🟢 Location Addressing: IP addresses provide a method for locating
devices on a network, enabling routing of data packets across
different networks.
Usage:
🟢 IPv4 and IPv6: There are two versions of IP addresses: IPv4 (e.g.,
192.168.1.1) and IPv6 (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, while IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses to
accommodate a larger number of devices.

🟢 Static and Dynamic Assignment: IP addresses can be assigned

statically (manually set) or dynamically (automatically assigned
using DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).
Routes
Purpose:
Routes determine the path that data packets take from the source
to the destination across interconnected networks. They ensure
efficient data transfer and proper delivery.

Usage:

🟢 Routing Tables: Routers maintain routing tables that list all

known routes to various network destinations and the next hop
to reach those destinations.

🟢 Static and Dynamic Routing: Routes can be configured manually

(static routing) or learned automatically through routing protocols
(dynamic routing), such as OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) and BGP
(Border Gateway Protocol).
Subnet Mask / Prefix
Purpose:

Subnet masks (IPv4) and prefixes (IPv6) are used to divide IP

networks into subnetworks (subnets). They define the network
and host portions of an IP address.

Usage:
🟢 IPv4 Subnet Mask: An IPv4 subnet mask is a 32-bit number
(e.g., 255.255.255.0) that, when combined with an IP address,
identifies the network and host portions. For example, with
an IP address of 192.168.1.10 and a subnet mask of
255.255.255.0, the network is 192.168.1.0/24.
🟢
IPv6 Prefix: An IPv6 prefix is written in CIDR notation
(e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3/:/64) and indicates the network portion
of the address. The prefix length specifies how many bits are
used for the network portion.
Gateways
Purpose:

Gateways (default gateways) act as exit points for devices

on a local network to communicate with devices on other
networks, including the internet. They route traffic from
a local network to external networks.

Usage:
🟢 Default Gateway: A default gateway is typically a router
that connects a local network to the internet or other
networks. Devices send traffic destined for external
networks to the default gateway, which then forwards
it appropriately.

🟢 Configuration: The IP address of the default gateway is

usually configured in the network settings of each device,
either manually or via DHCP.
Topology
Purpose:

Network topology refers to the arrangement of various elements

(links, nodes, etc.) in a computer network. It defines the
structure and layout of a network.
Usage:
Types of Topologies: Common network topologies include:

🟢 Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single

central cable.
🟢 Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central
hub or switch.
🟢 Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular fashion,
with each device having exactly two neighbors.
🟢 Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to every other device,
providing high redundancy.

🟢 Hybrid Topology: A combination of two or more different topologies.

Network Design: The chosen topology affects network performance,

scalability, and fault tolerance. For example, a star topology
is easy to manage and troubleshoot but depends heavily on the
central hub or switch.
Putting It All Together

Consider a simple network topology with the following components:

🟢 Devices (PCs, Servers): Each device has a unique IP address

within the network.
🟢 Router: Acts as the default gateway for devices, directing
traffic to external networks.
🟢 Switch: Connects multiple devices within the same network
segment (VLAN).
🟢 Subnet: The network is divided into subnets using subnet
masks to organize and manage IP addresses efficiently.

🟢 Routing: The router uses routing tables to determine the

best path for data to travel between subnets and to external
networks.
Example Topology:
In this topology:

🟢 Each device within Subnet 1 and Subnet 2 has a unique IP

address (e.g., 192.168.1.10 for a PC in Subnet 1).
🟢 The router acts as the default gateway for devices in both
subnets, facilitating communication between subnets and with
the internet.

🟢 The switches connect multiple devices within each subnet.

🟢 Subnet masks (255.255.255.0 for IPv4) define the network

and host portions of IP addresses, enabling proper routing
and organization.

This setup ensures efficient data routing, proper device

identification, and structured network management.
6.3 Describe the function of common networking components
(such as switches, routers, firewalls, and load balancers)
Network Topology
Explanation of Each Component in the Topology
Router (Gateway)
🟢 Function: Connects the internal network to the internet, serving
as the default gateway for all devices within the local network.
It routes traffic between the local network and external networks.
🟢 Role in Topology: Acts as the entry and exit point for internet
traffic. All outgoing and incoming traffic passes through this
router.
Firewall

🟢 Function: Monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network

traffic based on security rules. It protects the network from
unauthorized access and attacks.
🟢 Role in Topology: Positioned between the router and the internal
network to inspect and filter traffic. It allows legitimate
traffic while blocking malicious traffic.
Load Balancers
🟢 Function: Distribute incoming network or application traffic
across multiple servers to ensure reliability and optimal
performance. They can also perform SSL offloading and health
monitoring.
🟢 Role in Topology: Positioned between the firewall and servers
to balance the load among multiple servers. This ensures that
no single server is overwhelmed with traffic, improving
performance and availability.

Switches

🟢 Function: Forward data packets within a local network using MAC

addresses. They support VLANs for network segmentation and enable
full-duplex communication.
🟢 Role in Topology: Connect devices (PCs, servers) within the same
VLAN. Each switch handles traffic within its VLAN, and VLANs can
be created to segment the network based on function, department,
or application.
Communication Flow Diagram

User
Internet

1⃣ 8⃣

Router Router
(default (default
Gateway Gateway)
2⃣ 7⃣

Firewall Firewall

3⃣ 6⃣

4⃣ 5⃣
Load Load
Server
Balancer Balancer
6.4 Interpret a basic network topology diagram with
elements such as switches, routers, firewalls, load
balancers, and port values
Basic Network Topology Diagram Interpretation

Let's interpret a basic network topology diagram that includes

switches, routers, firewalls, load balancers, and port values.
INTERNET Corp WAN
USER

WAN RTR

DDOS NGFW SSL LB

BL-1 BL-2

L3 Fabric

SPINE-01 SPINE-06

L3 Fabric

virtual
Services
LEAF-01 LEAF-02 LEAF-03 LEAF-54

2x25G 2x25G 2x25G

Physical & Virtualized server

Interpretation of Each Component

1. Internet
Represents the external global network to which the local
network is connected.

2. Router (WAN IP: 203.0.113.1)

Function: Connects the local network to the internet and routes

traffic between the internet and the local network.
Port Values:

WAN Port: Connected to the internet with IP address 203.0.113.1.

LAN Port (Port 1): Connected to the firewall.
User Request from the Internet to Web Server and Back

1. User Request from Internet

2. Router (WAN IP: 203.0.113.1)

3. Firewall (WAN IP: 192.168.1.1)

4. Load Balancer (Port 80)

5. Server (192.168.1.2 or 192.168.1.3)

6. Load Balancer (Port 80)

7. Firewall (WAN IP: 192.168.1.1)

8. Router (WAN IP: 203.0.113.1)

9. User Receives Response

3.Firewall (WAN IP: 192.168.1.1)
Function: Monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on security rules. Protects the internal network
from external threats.

Port Values:
WAN Port (Port 1): Receives traffic from the router.
LAN Port (Port 2): Sends traffic to the load balancer.

4. Load Balancer
Function: Distributes incoming traffic across multiple servers to
ensure reliability, availability, and optimal performance.

Port Values:
Port 80: Common port for HTTP traffic. Balances web traffic among
connected servers.
5.Servers
Function: Host applications and services, responding to client requests.
IP Addresses:
Server 1: 192.168.1.2
Server 2: 192.168.1.3
6. Router (LAN IP: 192.168.2.1)

Function: Routes traffic between different internal networks (VLANs)

and connects them to the wider local network.
Port Values:
LAN Port (Port 1): Connected to internal switches.
7. Switch (VLAN 1)

Function: Connects devices within VLAN 1, allowing them to communicate

with each other.
Connected Devices:
PCs and Servers: Devices in the 192.168.2.0/24 subnet.
8. Switch (VLAN 2)
Function: Connects devices within VLAN 2, allowing them to
communicate with each other.

Connected Devices:

PCs and Servers: Devices in the 192.168.3.0/24 subnet.

Communication Flow Example

User Request from Internet:

A user sends a request from the internet to a web server
hosted in the local network.

Router (WAN IP: 203.0.113.1):

The router receives the request and forwards it to the firewall.
Firewall (WAN IP: 192.168.1.1):

The firewall inspects the request. If it's deemed safe, it

forwards the request to the load balancer.

Load Balancer (Port 80):

The load balancer distributes the request to one of the

available servers (Server 1 or Server 2).

Server Response:

The chosen server processes the request and sends a response

back through the load balancer.

Load Balancer:

The load balancer forwards the response to the firewall.

Firewall:

The firewall inspects the outgoing response. If it's deemed

safe, it forwards it to the router.

Router (WAN IP: 203.0.113.1):

The router sends the response back to the user on the internet.
Internal Network Traffic Example (Inter-VLAN Routing)

Device in VLAN 1 Communicating with Device in VLAN 2:

A device in VLAN 1 sends a request to a device in VLAN 2.

Switch (VLAN 1):

The switch forwards the request to the router.

Router (LAN IP: 192.168.2.1):

The router routes the request to the appropriate switch
for VLAN 2.
Switch (VLAN 2):
The switch forwards the request to the destination device
in VLAN 2.
Device in VLAN 2:
The device in VLAN 2 processes the request and sends a response
back to the device in VLAN 1 through the same path.
Internal Network Traffic (Inter-VLAN Routing)

1. Device in VLAN 1 sends the request

2. Switch (VLAN 1)

3. Router (LAN IP: 192.168.2.1)

4. Switch (VLAN 2)

5. Device in VLAN 2 processes request

6. Switch (VLAN 2)

7. Router (LAN IP: 192.168.2.1)

8. Switch (VLAN 1)

9. Device in VLAN 1 receives the response

6.5 Describe the function of management, data, and
control planes in a network device
Management Plane

Function:
The management plane is responsible for all the administrative tasks required
to configure, monitor, and manage the network device. It handles functions
that are necessary for the operation and maintenance of the device but do not
directly involve the forwarding of user data.

Key Features:

🟢 Configuration: Allows administrators to set up and configure the device,

including IP addresses, routing protocols, and security settings.

🟢 Monitoring: Provides tools for monitoring the performance and status of

the device, including logging, SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol),
and network telemetry.

🟢 Remote Access: Enables remote management through interfaces like SSH,

Telnet, web interfaces, or network management systems.

🟢 Authentication and Authorization: Manages access control to ensure

that only authorized personnel can access and configure the device.
Examples:

Accessing a router's command-line interface (CLI) via SSH to configure

routing protocols.

Using a network management system (NMS) to monitor device performance

and health.
2. Data Plane (Forwarding Plane)

Function:
The data plane, also known as the forwarding plane, is responsible for
the actual movement of packets through the network device. It handles the
processing and forwarding of user data based on the rules and policies
established by the control plane.

Key Features:

Packet Forwarding: Determines the destination of incoming packets and

forwards them to the appropriate outgoing interface.

Filtering: Applies access control lists (ACLs) to permit or deny

packets based on predefined rules.

Quality of Service (QoS): Implements traffic prioritization and bandwidth

management to ensure optimal performance for different types of traffic.

Encapsulation and Decapsulation: Handles the addition and removal of

protocol headers, such as Ethernet, IP, and MPLS.
Examples:

A switch forwarding Ethernet frames to the correct port based on

MAC address tables.

A router directing IP packets to the appropriate next-hop address

based on its routing table.
Control Plane
Function:
The control plane is responsible for making decisions about how packets
should be forwarded. It establishes the routing and switching paths used
by the data plane. The control plane builds and maintains routing tables,
MAC address tables, and other essential data structures that determine how
traffic should flow through the network.

Key Features:
Routing Protocols: Runs protocols like OSPF, BGP, and EIGRP to
discover and maintain the best paths through the network.

Switching Protocols: Uses protocols like STP (Spanning Tree Protocol)

to manage and optimize switching paths.

Signaling: Manages the setup and teardown of communication paths for

technologies like MPLS and LDP.
Topology Discovery: Keeps track of the network topology and adjusts
forwarding paths in response to changes, such as link failures or
topology updates.
Examples:

A router exchanging OSPF routing information with neighboring

routers to update its routing table.

A switch using the Spanning Tree Protocol to prevent loops in

the network by disabling redundant paths.
Management Plane
Function: Configuration, monitoring, and management.
Key Features: Administrative access, logging, remote
management, authentication.

Data Plane (Forwarding Plane)

Function: Actual packet forwarding and processing.
Key Features: Packet forwarding, filtering, QoS,
encapsulation.

Control Plane
Function: Decision-making for packet forwarding paths.
Key Features: Routing protocols, switching protocols,
signaling, topology discovery.
Network Topology Diagram with Management, Data, and Control Planes
Interactions of Planes within the Network Topology

1. Router (WAN IP: 203.0.113.1)

Management Plane:
Configure router settings (e.g., IP addresses, routing protocols)
via SSH, Telnet, or web interface.
Monitor router performance and log data.

Control Plane:
Runs routing protocols (e.g., BGP, OSPF) to exchange routing information
with other routers.
Builds and maintains the routing table.

Data Plane:
Forwards packets between the internet and the internal network based
on the routing table.
Applies access control lists (ACLs) to filter traffic.
2. Firewall (WAN IP: 192.168.1.1)

Management Plane:
Configure firewall rules and policies via a management interface.
Monitor firewall logs and performance.

Control Plane:
Determines the rules for allowing or blocking traffic based on
configured security policies.
Updates policies and rules dynamically based on network conditions.

Data Plane:
Inspects incoming and outgoing packets to enforce security rules.
Blocks or allows traffic according to the defined rules.
3. Load Balancer

Management Plane:
Configure load balancing algorithms and settings via a
management interface.
Monitor load balancer performance and server health.

Control Plane:
Determines which server should handle incoming traffic based
on the load balancing algorithm.
Maintains information about server availability and health.

Data Plane:
Distributes incoming traffic across multiple servers.
Performs SSL offloading if required.
4. Router (LAN IP: 192.168.2.1)

Management Plane:
Configure router settings for internal network routing.
Monitor internal network traffic and performance.

Control Plane:
Runs internal routing protocols (e.g., OSPF) to manage
internal network paths.
Maintains the routing table for the internal network.

Data Plane:
Routes packets between different VLANs and internal networks.
Applies ACLs for internal traffic filtering.
5. Switches (VLAN 1 and VLAN 2)

Management Plane:
Configure VLAN settings and port configurations via a management
interface.
Monitor switch performance and port status.

Control Plane:
Uses Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) to prevent loops and manage
port states.
Maintains MAC address tables.

Data Plane:
Forwards Ethernet frames based on MAC addresses within VLANs.
Enforces VLAN segmentation and traffic separation.
Communication Flow Examples
User Request from Internet to Web Server and Back
User Request from Internet
Management Plane: Not directly involved.
Control Plane: Routes request to internal network.
Data Plane: Forwards packet from router to firewall.

Router (WAN IP: 203.0.113.1)

Management Plane: Monitor and log traffic.
Control Plane: Determines next hop (firewall).
Data Plane: Forwards packet to firewall.

Firewall (WAN IP: 192.168.1.1)

Management Plane: Logs and monitors traffic.
Control Plane: Applies security policies.
Data Plane: Forwards packet to load balancer if allowed.
Load Balancer

Management Plane: Monitor and configure load balancing settings.

Control Plane: Selects server to handle request.
Data Plane: Forwards packet to chosen server.

Server (192.168.1.2 or 192.168.1.3)

Management Plane: Manage server settings.

Control Plane: Not directly involved in this context.
Data Plane: Processes request and sends response back to load
balancer.

Return Path (Load Balancer to Internet)

Data Plane: Repeats steps 4 to 1 in reverse order, ensuring

secure and correct delivery of the response.
Internal Network Traffic (Inter-VLAN Routing)

Device in VLAN 1 Sends Request

Management Plane: Not directly involved.
Control Plane: Determines path to VLAN 2.
Data Plane: Forwards packet to switch, then router.

Router (LAN IP: 192.168.2.1)

Management Plane: Monitor internal routing.

Control Plane: Routes packet to VLAN 2.
Data Plane: Forwards packet to switch in VLAN 2.
Switch (VLAN 2)
Management Plane: Configure and monitor VLAN settings.
Control Plane: Maintains MAC address table.
Data Plane: Forwards packet to target device in VLAN 2.

By integrating the functions of the management, control, and

data planes into the network topology, we can see how each
plane contributes to the efficient, secure, and reliable
operation of the network.
6.6 Describe the functionality of these IP Services: DHCP, DNS, NAT, SNMP, NTP
1. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
Functionality:

DHCP automatically assigns IP addresses and other network configuration

parameters to devices on a network. This allows devices to communicate
on the network without manual configuration.

Diagram:
Lab Example:

DHCP Server Setup:

🟢 Configure a DHCP server on a network device (e.g., a router or a
dedicated server).

🟢 Define a DHCP pool with a range of IP addresses and other options

(e.g., default gateway, DNS server).

PC Setup:

🟢 Ensure that PC1, PC2, and PC3 are set to obtain an IP address
automatically.

Operation:
🟢 When each PC boots up, it sends a DHCPDISCOVER message to locate
a DHCP server.
🟢 The DHCP server responds with a DHCPOFFER message.
🟢 The PC requests the offered configuration with a DHCPREQUEST message.
🟢 The DHCP server confirms the assignment with a DHCPACK message.
2. DNS (Domain Name System)
Functionality:
DNS translates human-readable domain names (e.g., //w.example.com) into
IP addresses that computers use to identify each other on the network.

DNS Server Setup:

🟢 Configure a DNS server with records mapping domain names to IP
addresses.
PC Setup:
🟢 Set the PC's DNS settings to point to the DNS server.
Operation:
🟢 When the PC tries to access //w.example.com, it sends a DNS query
to the DNS server.
🟢
The DNS server responds with the corresponding IP address.
🟢 The PC uses this IP address to establish a connection to the
desired website.
Diagram:

Lab Example:

Setup:
🟢 DNS Server IP: 192.168.1.2
🟢 Domain: example.com
Process:
🟢 The client device sends a DNS query to resolve //w.example.com.
🟢 The DNS server responds with the IP address 93.184.216.34.
NAT (Network Address Translation)
Functionality:
NAT modifies network address information in IP packet headers while
in transit. It allows multiple devices on a local network to share
a single public IP address for accessing external networks.
Diagram:

Process:
🟢 An internal device with IP 192.168.1.10 sends a request to the internet.
🟢 The router translates the source IP from 192.168.1.10 to 203.0.113.1.
🟢 The response from the internet is translated back to 192.168.1.10 by
the router.
Lab Example:

Router Setup:
🟢 Configure NAT on the router to translate private IP addresses
(e.g., 192.168.0.x) to a public IP address.

PC Setup:
🟢 PCs are configured with private IP addresses and the router as
their default gateway.

Operation:

🟢 When a PC sends a request to the internet, the router

translates the private IP address to the router's public
IP address.

🟢 The router keeps track of the translation to ensure responses

are sent back to the correct internal device.
4. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

Functionality:

SNMP is used for collecting and organizing information about managed

devices on IP networks and modifying that information to change device
behavior.
Diagram:
4. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

Functionality:
SNMP is used for collecting and organizing information about managed
devices on IP networks and for modifying that information to change
device behavior.
Diagram:

Lab Example:
Setup:
SNMP Manager IP: 192.168.1.3
Managed Device IP: 192.168.1.4
Process:
The SNMP Manager sends a request to the Managed Device to get
interface statistics.
The Managed Device responds with the requested information.
5. NTP (Network Time Protocol)
Functionality:
NTP synchronizes the clocks of computers to some time reference. It
ensures that all devices on a network maintain accurate time, which
is crucial for logging events, security, and network management.

Diagram:

Lab Example:
Setup:
NTP Server IP: 192.168.1.5
Process:
A client device sends a request to the NTP server to synchronize
its clock.
The NTP server responds with the current time, and the client
adjusts its clock accordingly.
Comprehensive Diagram
Detailed Functionality with the Network
DHCP:
Client devices obtain IP addresses and network configuration
from the DHCP server.
DNS:
Client devices resolve domain names to IP addresses using
the DNS server.
NAT:
The router translates private IP addresses to a public IP
address for internet access and vice versa.
SNMP:
The SNMP Manager monitors and manages network devices using
SNMP protocol.
NTP:
Client devices synchronize their clocks with the NTP server
for accurate timekeeping.
6.7 Recognize common protocol port values
(such as, SSH, Telnet, HTTP, HTTPS, and NETCONF)
Recognizing common protocol port values is essential for network
configuration, management, and troubleshooting. Below, I describe
the port values for common protocols such as SSH, Telnet, HTTP, HTTPS,
and NETCONF, along with a diagram and a lab example for each protocol.

Common Protocol Port Values

SSH (Secure Shell)

Port: 22
Function: Provides secure remote login and other secure network
services over an insecure network.

Telnet
Port: 23
Function: Provides a bidirectional interactive text-oriented
communication facility using a virtual terminal connection.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
Port: 80
Function: Used for transmitting hypertext requests and
information on the internet.

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)

Port: 443
Function: Secured version of HTTP using SSL/TLS to encrypt data
transmitted between the client and server.

NETCONF (Network Configuration Protocol)

Port: 830
Function: Used for installing, manipulating, and deleting the
configuration of network devices.
Network Topology Diagram
Lab Example
1. SSH (Port 22)
Setup:
SSH Server IP: 192.168.1.10
Client Device IP: 192.168.1.100
Process:
Client uses an SSH client (e.g., PuTTY, OpenSSH) to connect to the server
using ssh [email protected].
Server authenticates the user and establishes a secure connection.

2. Telnet (Port 23)

Setup:
Telnet Server IP: 192.168.1.11
Client Device IP: 192.168.1.100
Process:
Client uses a Telnet client to connect to the server using telnet 192.168.1.11.
Server provides a text-based interface for remote management.
3.HTTP (Port 80)
Setup:
Web Server IP: 192.168.1.12
Client Device IP: 192.168.1.100
Process:
Client uses a web browser to access http://192.168.1.12.
Server responds with the requested web page.
4. HTTPS (Port 443)
Setup:
HTTPS Server IP: 192.168.1.13
Client Device IP: 192.168.1.100
Process:
Client uses a web browser to access https://192.168.1.13.
Server establishes a secure SSL/TLS connection and responds with
the requested web page.
5.NETCONF (Port 830)

Setup:
NETCONF Server IP: 192.168.1.14
Client Device IP: 192.168.1.100
Process:
Client uses a NETCONF client to connect to the server using
netconf /-host 192.168.1.14 /-port 830.
Server allows the client to manipulate network device
configurations.
Detailed Lab Example

Let's set up a simple lab environment to illustrate the functionality

of these protocols.

Network Configuration:

Router: Connects the internal network to the internet.

Switch: Connects multiple servers and clients within the
internal network.
Firewall: Protects the internal network by filtering traffic
based on rules.
Lab Example Setup
Practical Steps in the Lab

1. SSH Connection:

2. Telnet Connection:

3. HTTP Connection:
4. HTTPS Connection:

5. NETCONF Connection:
Diagram with Protocols and Ports
6.8 Identify cause of application connectivity issues
(NAT problem, Transport Port blocked, proxy, and VPN)
Identifying the cause of application connectivity issues requires
a systematic approach to isolate and diagnose potential problems.

Network Topology
Lab Setup

🟢 Router with NAT: Public IP 203.0.113.1, internal network

192.168.1.0/24.
🟢 Firewall: Configured with rules to allow/deny traffic.

🟢 Switch: Connects internal devices.

🟢 Proxy Server: IP 192.168.1.20, used to control and log web traffic.
🟢 VPN Server: IP 192.168.1.30, provides VPN services for remote
clients.
🟢 Web Server: Hosts HTTP/HTTPS services at IP 192.168.1.10.
🟢 Client Device: Connects to various services, IP 192.168.1.100.
🟢 VPN Client Device: Connects via VPN, VPN IP 10.0.0.100, internal
IP 192.168.1.200.
Common Issues and Diagnostics

1. NAT Problems

Symptoms:

Unable to access internal services from outside.

Connections from the internal network to the internet fail.

Diagnosis:
Check NAT Configuration: Ensure proper NAT rules are configured
on the router.
# Example of checking NAT rules on a typical router
show ip nat translations

Port Forwarding: Ensure port forwarding is correctly set up for services

that need to be accessed externally.

# Example command for port forwarding on a router

ip nat inside source static tcp 192.168.1.10 80 203.0.113.1 80
Lab Example:

1.Setup Port Forwarding:

Forward port 80 from the public IP (203.0.113.1) to the internal web
server (192.168.1.10).

ip nat inside source static tcp 192.168.1.10 80 203.0.113.1 80

2.Test Connectivity:

From an external device, try accessing the web server using the
public IP.
curl http://203.0.113.1
2. Transport Port Blocked

Symptoms:

Inability to connect to specific services.

Connections to certain ports time out.

Diagnosis:
Firewall Rules: Check firewall settings to ensure the necessary
ports are open.
# Example command to list firewall rules
sudo iptables -L -v -n

ISP Restrictions: Verify if the ISP is blocking certain ports.

Lab Example:

1.Check Firewall Rules:

Ensure port 80 (HTTP) and port 443 (HTTPS) are open on the firewall.
sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp /-dport 80 -j ACCEPT
sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp /-dport 443 -j ACCEPT
2.Test Connectivity:
Use telnet to test if ports are reachable.
telnet 192.168.1.10 80
telnet 192.168.1.10 443

3. Proxy Issues
Symptoms:
Web traffic is slow or blocked.
Authentication prompts appear unexpectedly.
Diagnosis:
Proxy Configuration: Ensure the client devices are configured to
use the correct proxy settings.
# Example of setting proxy configuration in Linux

export http_proxy="http://192.168.1.20:8080"
export https_proxy="http://192.168.1.20:8080"
Proxy Logs: Check proxy server logs for any errors or blocked requests.

# Check proxy server logs

cat /var/log/squid/access.log

Lab Example:
Configure Proxy on Client:
Set up the client device to use the proxy server at 192.168.1.20.

export http_proxy="http://192.168.1.20:8080"
export https_proxy="http://192.168.1.20:8080"

Test Web Access:

Access a web page and check proxy logs for the request.
curl http://example.com
# On the proxy server
tail -f /var/log/squid/access.log
4.VPN Issues
Symptoms:

Remote clients cannot access internal network resources.

VPN connections drop frequently.

Diagnosis:

VPN Configuration: Ensure VPN settings are correctly configured.

# Example command to check VPN server status

systemctl status openvpn

Routing Issues: Verify that the VPN server provides proper routes
to the internal network.
# Check routing tables
netstat -rn
Lab Example:

1.Check VPN Server Configuration:

Ensure the VPN server (192.168.1.30) is properly configured to assign
IP addresses and route traffic.

# Example OpenVPN server configuration snippet

server 10.0.0.0 255.255.255.0
push "route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0"
2.Test VPN Connectivity:

Connect a VPN client and verify access to the internal web server.

# On the VPN client

openvpn /-config client.ovpn
# Test access to the internal server
curl http://192.168.1.10
Summary of Common Connectivity Issues
1.NAT Problems:
Symptoms: Issues accessing internal services externally, failed
internal network connections.
Diagnosis: Check NAT configuration and port forwarding rules.
2.Transport Port Blocked:
Symptoms: Inability to connect to certain services, port timeouts.
Diagnosis: Check firewall settings and ISP restrictions.

3.Proxy Issues:
Symptoms: Slow or blocked web traffic, unexpected authentication
prompts.
Diagnosis: Verify proxy settings and check proxy server logs.
4.VPN Issues:
Symptoms: Remote client connectivity issues, frequent
VPN drops.
Diagnosis: Check VPN configuration and routing tables.

By following the outlined steps and using the lab examples,

you can systematically identify and resolve application
connectivity issues related to NAT, port blocking, proxy
configurations, and VPN setups.
6.9 Explain the impacts of network constraints on applications
Network Constraint Impact

Bandwidth
Reduced speeds, increased latency, packet loss
Limitations

Latency Real-time communication delays, slow response

Jitter Inconsistent delivery, buffering needs

Packet Loss Data integrity issues, retransmission overheads

Network Constraint Impact

Network
performance degradation, service unavailability
Congestion

Network
Topology and Distance Increased latency, reliability issues

Security Constraints Encryption overhead, access restrictions

Bandwidth Limitations
Impact:

Reduced Data Transfer Speeds: Applications that require high

data transfer rates, such as video streaming, large file downloads,
or cloud-based applications, may experience slow performance.

Increased Latency: When bandwidth is limited, the time taken

for data packets to reach their destination increases, leading
to delays in communication.
Packet Loss: Congestion due to bandwidth limitations can result
in packet loss, which affects data integrity and requires
retransmission, further reducing effective throughput.

Example: A video conferencing application may experience poor

video quality, buffering, or dropped calls due to insufficient
bandwidth.
Latency
Impact:

Real-Time Communication Delays: Applications that rely on

real-time communication, such as VoIP, online gaming, and
financial trading platforms, are particularly sensitive to
latency. High latency can cause noticeable delays and hinder
the user experience.
Slow Application Response: Interactive applications, such as
web applications or remote desktop services, may become sluggish,
impacting productivity and user satisfaction.

Example: Online multiplayer games may suffer from lag, affecting

gameplay experience and potentially causing players to lose
matches due to delayed reactions.
4. Packet Loss
Impact:

Data Integrity: Applications that transfer critical data,

such as file transfers, database replication, or IoT sensor
data, can be severely affected by packet loss, leading to
corrupted or incomplete data.

Retransmission Overheads: TCP-based applications may experience

delays due to the need for retransmission of lost packets,
reducing overall throughput and increasing latency.

Example: A file transfer application may take significantly

longer to complete, or the transferred file may be corrupted
if packet loss is high.
5. Network Congestion
Impact:

Performance Degradation: High network traffic can lead to

congestion, where the network is unable to handle the load,
resulting in slow application performance and increased latency.

Service Unavailability: In severe cases, congestion can lead

to network outages or denial of service, rendering applications
inaccessible.

Example: During peak usage times, an organization's network

may become congested, causing slow access to critical business
applications and reducing employee productivity.
6. Network Topology and Distance
Impact:
Latency Increase: The physical distance between the client
and server, as well as the number of hops in the network
path, can increase latency.

Reliability Issues: Complex network topologies with many

intermediate devices can introduce multiple points of failure,
impacting application availability and performance.

Example: A global enterprise application may experience higher

latency and occasional connectivity issues for users located
far from the central data center.
7. Security Constraints
Impact:
Encryption Overhead: Security measures such as encryption
and VPNs can introduce additional processing overhead and
latency.

Access Restrictions: Firewalls and access control lists (ACLs)

can block necessary traffic, preventing applications from
functioning correctly.

Example: An application requiring encrypted communication

over a VPN may experience slower performance due to the
added encryption/decryption overhead.

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