Computer System

Architecture
8086
8088
80286
80386
80486
P5
Dual Core
Core2Duo
Quadra core
Octa core
Real Mode & Protected Mode
Addressing modes
Instruction codes
Difference between DX & SX of different
microprocessor
#8086-
The Intel 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor, introduced in 1978. It was
the first member of the x86 family of processors, which eventually
became one of the most successful CPU architectures in the history
of computing. The 8086 architecture laid the foundation for the x86
family of processors, which continues to be widely used in desktops,
laptops, servers, and embedded systems.

Here are some key aspects of the 8086 architecture:

1. Register: The 8086 has several 16-bit registers:
- AX, BX, CX, DX: General-purpose registers, each of which can be
used as two 8-bit registers (AH, AL, BH, BL, CH, CL, DH, DL).
- SI (Source Index) and DI (Destination Index): Used for string
operations.
- SP (Stack Pointer) and BP (Base Pointer): Used for stack and base
addressing.
- IP (Instruction Pointer): Points to the next instruction to be
executed.
- CS (Code Segment), DS (Data Segment), SS (Stack Segment), ES
(Extra Segment): Segment registers used for memory addressing.

2. Memory Segmentation: The 8086 uses a segmented memory

model, where memory addresses are composed of a segment value
shifted left by four bits and an offset value. This allows the processor
to access up to 1 MB of memory.
3. Instruction Set: The 8086 instruction set includes a variety of
instructions for data movement, arithmetic and logic operations,
control transfer, string manipulation, and I/O operations.

4. Interrupts: The 8086 supports both hardware and software

interrupts. Hardware interrupts are triggered by external devices,
while software interrupts are invoked using software instructions.
The processor handles interrupts by transferring control to an
interrupt service routine.

5. Clock Speed: The original 8086 operated at a clock speed of 5

MHz, though later versions and variants operated at different
frequencies.

6. Modes of Operation: The 8086 supports two modes of operation:

- Real Mode: In this mode, the processor operates with 16-bit
segmented memory addressing, similar to its original design.
- Protected Mode: Introduced with later x86 processors, this mode
provides support for features like virtual memory, paging, and
privilege levels.

7. Instruction Execution: The 8086 executes instructions in a

pipelined fashion, with several stages including instruction fetch,
instruction decode, operand fetch, execute, and write-back.

8. Peripheral Support: The 8086 can interface with various

peripherals such as keyboards, displays, storage devices, and
communication interfaces through I/O ports and memory-mapped
I/O.

#8088-
The Intel 8088 is a microprocessor closely related to the 8086. It was
released in 1979, shortly after the 8086, and shares many
architectural features with it. The 8088 is essentially a less expensive
and slightly slower version of the 8086, with a narrower external data
bus. Despite this limitation, it was widely used in early personal
computers, including the IBM PC, due to its compatibility with
existing software written for the 8086 and its lower cost.

Here are the key aspects of the 8088 architecture:

1. 16-bit Data Bus, 8-bit External Bus: Unlike the 8086, which has a
16-bit external data bus, the 8088 has an 8-bit external data bus. This
means it can only transfer 8 bits of data at a time between the
processor and external memory or peripherals.

2. Registers: The 8088 has the same set of registers as the 8086,
including the general-purpose registers AX, BX, CX, DX, SI, DI, SP, and
BP, as well as the segment registers CS, DS, SS, and ES, and the
instruction pointer IP.

3. Memory Segmentation: Like the 8086, the 8088 uses a segmented

memory model, where memory addresses are composed of a
segment value shifted left by four bits and an offset value. This allows
access to up to 1 MB of memory.

4. Clock Speed: The original 8088 typically operated at a clock speed

of 4.77 MHz, though later versions and variants operated at different
frequencies.

5. Modes of Operation: The 8088 supports the same modes of

operation as the 8086, including real mode and protected mode.

6. Instruction Set: The 8088 instruction set is compatible with that of

the 8086, meaning software written for the 8086 can run on the 8088
without modification. It includes instructions for data movement,
arithmetic and logic operations, control transfer, string manipulation,
and I/O operations.
7. Peripheral Support: Like the 8086, the 8088 can interface with
various peripherals such as keyboards, displays, storage devices, and
communication interfaces through I/O ports and memory-mapped
I/O.
The Basic Architecture of the Intel 8088-

Below is a block diagram of the organizational layout of the Intel 8088

processor. It includes two main sections: the Execution Unit (EU) and the
Bus Interface Unit (BIU). The EU takes care of the processing including
arithmetic and logic. The BIU controls the passing of information between
the processor and the devices outside of the processor such as memory,
I/O ports, storage devices, etc.
#80286-
The Intel 80286, often referred to as the 286, is a 16-bit
microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1982. It was the successor to
the Intel 8086 and was the first of Intel's x86 processors to support
protected mode operation. The 80286 was a significant improvement
over the 8086, introducing features that laid the groundwork for
modern operating systems and paving the way for more powerful x86
processors in the future.

Here are some key aspects of the 80286 architecture:

1. Registers: The 80286 has several 16-bit registers similar to the
8086:
- AX, BX, CX, DX: General-purpose registers, each of which can also
be accessed as two 8-bit registers.
- SI, DI, SP, BP: General-purpose index and stack pointers.
- IP: Instruction Pointer.
- CS, DS, SS, ES: Segment registers, used for memory addressing in
the segmented memory model.

2. Memory Segmentation: Like the 8086, the 80286 uses a

segmented memory model. However, it introduced a feature called
protected mode, which allowed for more advanced memory
management and larger addressable memory space. In real mode, it
could access up to 16 MB of memory.

3. Protected Mode: The 80286 introduced protected mode, which

provided features like memory protection, multitasking, and virtual
memory. This mode allowed the processor to use features such as
paging and privilege levels to enhance system stability and security.

4. Instructions and Addressing Modes: The 80286 extended the

instruction set of the 8086 and introduced new addressing modes to
support the new features such as protected mode. It also added new
instructions to improve performance and functionality.

5. Clock Speed: The original 80286 processors operated at clock

speeds ranging from 6 to 12.5 MHz.

6. Compatibility: The 80286 was designed to be backward

compatible with software written for the 8086 and 8088 processors,
allowing it to run older DOS-based software in real mode.

7. Interrupt Handling: Like its predecessor, the 80286 supports both

hardware and software interrupts. However, in protected mode, it
provides more sophisticated interrupt handling mechanisms to
support multitasking environments.

8. Addressing Capability: The 80286 can address up to 16 MB of

physical memory in protected mode, although in real mode it still
operates within the limitations of the 20-bit address space of its
predecessors.
#80386-
The Intel 80386, also known as the i386, is a 32-bit microprocessor
introduced by Intel in 1985. It is part of the x86 family of processors
and is the third generation of the x86 architecture. The Intel 80386
architecture significantly advanced the capabilities of x86-based
systems, paving the way for modern operating systems and
applications that require multitasking, virtual memory, and enhanced
security features.

Here are some key aspects of the 80386 architecture:

1. 32-bit Architecture: The 80386 is a 32-bit processor, meaning it
can process data and addresses in 32-bit chunks. This allows for
larger addressable memory space and more complex calculations
compared to its predecessors.
2. Protected Mode: The 80386 introduced a new operating mode
called Protected Mode. In this mode, the processor provides support
for features such as virtual memory, paging, multitasking, and
privilege levels. Protected Mode allows the processor to isolate and
protect applications from each other and the operating system.

3. Virtual 86 Mode: The 80386 also introduced Virtual 86 Mode,

which allows multiple real-mode 8086 or 80286 programs to run
simultaneously in protected mode, providing backward compatibility
with older software.

4. Segmentation and Paging: The 80386 retains the segmented

memory model of its predecessors but introduces paging, which
allows the memory to be divided into fixed-size blocks called pages.
Paging enables the processor to manage memory more efficiently,
providing benefits such as virtual memory support and memory
protection.

5. Registers: The 80386 has several 32-bit general-purpose registers

(EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX, ESI, EDI, ESP, EBP), which can also be accessed as
16-bit and 8-bit registers. It also has segment registers (CS, DS, SS, ES,
FS, GS) and control registers (CR0, CR1, CR2, CR3).

6. Instruction Set: The 80386 supports a rich set of instructions,

including arithmetic and logic operations, data movement, control
transfer, string manipulation, and system management instructions. It
also introduced new instructions to support 32-bit operations and
protected mode features.
7. Clock Speed: The original 80386 processors operated at clock
speeds ranging from 12 MHz to 33 MHz, though later versions and
variants operated at higher frequencies.

8. Coprocessor Support: The 80386 can work with an optional

floating-point coprocessor, the Intel 80387, which provides hardware
support for floating-point arithmetic operations.

#80486-
The Intel 80486, commonly known as the i486 or just 486, is the
fourth generation of Intel's x86 microprocessor architecture. It was
introduced in 1989 and represented a significant advancement over
its predecessor, the 80386. The Intel 80486 architecture represented
a significant step forward in the evolution of x86 microprocessors,
offering increased performance, improved features, and broader
compatibility with existing software. It remained a popular choice for
desktop computers and servers throughout the early 1990s.
Here are the key aspects of the 80486 architecture:
1. 32-bit Architecture: Like its predecessor, the 80486 is a 32-bit
microprocessor, capable of processing data and addresses in 32-bit
chunks. This allows for larger memory addressing and more complex
calculations compared to earlier 16-bit processors.

2. Instruction Set: The 80486 maintains compatibility with previous

x86 processors while adding new instructions and enhancements. It
includes a wide range of instructions for arithmetic and logic
operations, data movement, control flow, and system management.

3. Clock Speed: The 80486 was available in a range of clock speeds,

starting from around 20 MHz and later reaching up to 100 MHz or
more in high-end versions and later revisions. This made it
significantly faster than the 80386.

4. Pipelining: The 80486 introduced deeper instruction pipelining

compared to its predecessors, allowing for more efficient instruction
execution. It had a five-stage pipeline, which improved performance
by overlapping the execution of multiple instructions.

5. Cache Memory: The 80486 featured built-in cache memory, which

helped improve performance by reducing the average memory
access time. Early versions of the 80486 had a unified level 1 (L1)
cache, while later versions introduced separate instruction and data
caches.
6. Floating-Point Unit (FPU): The 80486 included a floating-point unit
on the same chip as the main processor in some models. This
provided hardware support for floating-point arithmetic operations,
improving performance for tasks involving mathematical calculations.

7. Power Management: Some variants of the 80486 introduced

power management features to reduce power consumption when
the processor was idle or under low load. This helped improve energy
efficiency in portable devices and desktop computers.

8. Address Translation and Protection: The 80486 continued to

support the protected mode introduced in the 80386, providing
features such as virtual memory, paging, and memory protection.
This allowed for more robust multitasking and improved system
stability.
#P5-
The P5, also known as the Pentium, is a microprocessor architecture
developed by Intel and released in 1993. It represents the fifth
generation of Intel's x86 architecture. The Pentium architecture
marked a significant milestone in the evolution of x86-based
microprocessors, offering improved performance, enhanced
instruction set capabilities, and better support for multimedia
applications compared to earlier generations.

Here are the key aspects of the P5 architecture:

1. Superscalar Architecture: The Pentium introduced a superscalar
architecture, allowing it to execute multiple instructions
simultaneously. It had two pipelines, which enabled it to execute two
instructions per clock cycle under certain conditions.

2. 32-bit Architecture: Like its predecessor, the 80386 and 80486, the
Pentium is a 32-bit processor. It supports 32-bit data and addresses,
allowing for larger memory addressing and data processing
capabilities compared to earlier x86 processors.

3. Floating Point Unit (FPU): The Pentium included an integrated

floating-point unit (FPU), which improved performance for floating-
point arithmetic operations. This was a significant enhancement over
earlier x86 processors, which required an external math coprocessor
for floating-point calculations.
4. Instruction Set Extensions: The Pentium introduced several new
instructions and extensions to the x86 instruction set architecture
(ISA), including SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) instructions
known as MMX (MultiMedia Extensions). MMX instructions were
designed to accelerate multimedia and communication applications.

5. Branch Prediction: The Pentium introduced a branch prediction

mechanism to improve instruction execution efficiency by predicting
the outcome of conditional branches. This helped to reduce the
performance impact of branch instructions, which can cause pipeline
stalls if mispredicted.

6. Cache Architecture: The Pentium featured on-chip cache memory,

including separate instruction and data caches. The introduction of
cache memory on the processor chip helped to reduce memory
access latency and improve overall system performance.

7. Clock Speed: Initial Pentium processors were available at clock

speeds ranging from 60 MHz to 200 MHz. Later iterations of the
Pentium architecture reached higher clock speeds.

8. Socket Compatibility: Pentium processors initially used Socket 4,

later transitioning to Socket 5 and Socket 7. These sockets were used
on motherboards designed for the Pentium processor family.
#Dual Core-
Dual-core architecture refers to a CPU design where a single
integrated circuit (IC) contains two separate processor cores, each
capable of executing instructions independently. Dual-core
architecture represents a significant advancement in CPU design,
offering improved performance, multitasking capabilities, and power
efficiency compared to traditional single-core processors.

Here are the key aspects of dual-core architecture:

1. Two Processor Cores: Dual-core processors consist of two
individual processor cores on a single chip. Each core has its own set
of execution units, registers, and cache memory.

2. Parallel Execution: With dual-core architecture, the processor can

execute multiple tasks or threads simultaneously by distributing the
workload across the two cores. This allows for improved multitasking
performance and responsiveness.

3. Shared Resources: While each core operates independently, they

typically share certain resources such as the system bus, memory
controller, and cache hierarchy. This shared architecture allows for
efficient communication between the cores and reduces overall
system complexity.

4. Symmetric Multi-Threading (SMT): Some dual-core processors

support symmetric multi-threading, also known as hyper-threading
(in Intel processors), which allows each core to execute multiple
threads simultaneously. This further enhances multitasking
performance by providing more execution resources for parallel
workloads.

5. Operating System Support: Modern operating systems are

designed to take advantage of multi-core processors, including dual-
core architectures. They can schedule tasks and threads to run on
different cores, optimizing performance and resource utilization.

6. Increased Performance: Dual-core architecture typically offers

improved performance compared to single-core processors,
especially for multitasking scenarios and applications that can benefit
from parallel execution.

7. Power Efficiency: Dual-core processors can often achieve better

power efficiency compared to single-core processors, as they can
distribute the workload across multiple cores while operating at
lower clock speeds or entering low-power states when idle.

8. Scalability: Dual-core architecture serves as a building block for

further scalability in multi-core designs. Manufacturers can develop
processors with more than two cores (e.g., quad-core, hexa-core,
octa-core) by incorporating additional cores on the same die.

#Core2Duo-
The Core 2 Duo processor architecture, introduced by Intel,
represents a significant advancement in dual-core CPU design. The
Core 2 Duo processor architecture represents a balance of
performance, power efficiency, and scalability, making it suitable for
a wide range of computing tasks, including desktops, laptops, and
small servers. Its dual-core design offers improved multitasking
capabilities and performance compared to single-core processors,
making it a popular choice for mainstream computing applications.

Here's an overview of the Core 2 Duo processor architecture:

1. Core Components: The Core 2 Duo processor consists of two
identical CPU cores, each with its own execution units, registers, and
cache memory. These cores share certain resources such as the front-
side bus (FSB), memory controller, and cache hierarchy.

2. Execution Units: Each CPU core contains multiple execution units

responsible for performing arithmetic and logic operations, including
integer and floating-point calculations. These units work in parallel to
execute instructions efficiently.

3. Cache Hierarchy: The Core 2 Duo architecture includes multiple

levels of cache memory to reduce memory latency and improve
performance. Each CPU core typically has its own dedicated L1 cache
(instruction and data caches), while a shared L2 cache is accessible to
both cores. The shared L2 cache allows for efficient data sharing and
reduces cache misses.

4. Front-Side Bus (FSB): The FSB serves as the communication

pathway between the processor cores, memory subsystem, and
other system components such as the chipset and peripherals. The
FSB speed determines the maximum data transfer rate between the
CPU and other system components.

5. Memory Controller: In the Core 2 Duo architecture, the memory

controller is integrated into the chipset rather than being located on
the CPU die. This architecture allows for flexibility in memory
configurations and facilitates support for various memory types and
speeds.

6. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): The Core 2 Duo processor

architecture is based on the x86 ISA, compatible with previous
generations of x86 processors. It includes support for a wide range of
instructions for general-purpose computing, multimedia processing,
and system management.

7. Power Management: Core 2 Duo processors feature advanced

power management capabilities to optimize energy efficiency and
reduce power consumption. This includes dynamic voltage and
frequency scaling, as well as various sleep states (C-states) to
minimize power consumption during idle periods.

8. Performance Enhancements: The Core 2 Duo architecture

incorporates various performance enhancements, including
improved branch prediction, out-of-order execution, and advanced
instruction scheduling techniques. These optimizations contribute to
higher overall performance and efficiency.

#Differences between Dual Core and Core2Duo

processor architecture-
# Quadra core-
The architecture of a quad-core processor is similar to that of a dual-
core processor, but with four separate CPU cores integrated onto a
single chip. Quad-core processor architecture offers increased
computational power and multitasking capabilities compared to dual-
core processors, making them suitable for a wide range of computing
tasks, including gaming, multimedia editing, virtualization, and server
applications.
Here's an overview of the architecture of a typical quad-core
processor:
1. Four CPU Cores: A quad-core processor contains four individual
CPU cores, each capable of executing instructions independently.
These cores share certain resources such as cache memory and the
front-side bus (FSB) for communication with other system
components.

2. Execution Units: Each CPU core includes multiple execution units

responsible for performing arithmetic and logic operations. These
execution units work in parallel to execute instructions efficiently,
allowing for increased throughput and performance compared to
dual-core processors.

3. Cache Hierarchy: Similar to dual-core processors, quad-core

processors typically have multiple levels of cache memory to reduce
memory latency and improve performance. Each CPU core may have
its own dedicated L1 cache (instruction and data caches), while a
shared L2 cache is accessible to all cores. Some quad-core processors
may also feature a shared L3 cache to further enhance performance
and reduce cache misses.

4. Front-Side Bus (FSB) or Interconnect: The FSB or interconnect

serves as the communication pathway between the CPU cores,
memory subsystem, and other system components such as the
chipset and peripherals. The speed and bandwidth of the FSB or
interconnect influence the overall performance and scalability of the
quad-core processor.

5. Memory Controller: Like dual-core processors, the memory

controller in quad-core processors may be integrated into the CPU
chip itself or located in the chipset. The memory controller is
responsible for managing data transfers between the CPU cores and
system memory, ensuring efficient access to memory resources.

6. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): Quad-core processors are based

on the x86 ISA, compatible with previous generations of x86
processors. They support a wide range of instructions for general-
purpose computing, multimedia processing, and system
management.

7. Power Management: Quad-core processors feature advanced

power management capabilities to optimize energy efficiency and
reduce power consumption. This includes dynamic voltage and
frequency scaling, as well as various sleep states (C-states) to
minimize power consumption during idle periods.

8. Performance Enhancements: Quad-core processors incorporate

various performance enhancements, such as improved branch
prediction, out-of-order execution, and advanced instruction
scheduling techniques. These optimizations contribute to higher
overall performance and efficiency, particularly in multithreaded and
parallel computing workloads.

#Octa Core-
An octa-core processor architecture is similar in many ways to dual-
core and quad-core architectures but features eight individual CPU
cores on a single integrated circuit (IC). The architecture of an octa-
core processor is designed to provide high computational
performance, efficient multitasking, and scalability for a wide range
of computing tasks, including gaming, content creation, scientific
simulations, and server applications.

Here's an overview of the architecture of an octa-core processor:

1. Multiple CPU Cores: An octa-core processor consists of eight
separate CPU cores, each capable of executing instructions
independently. These cores are typically identical in design and
functionality.

2. Symmetric Multi-Processing (SMP): The architecture employs

symmetric multiprocessing, where all CPU cores have equal access to
the system resources such as memory, cache, and I/O devices. This
allows tasks to be divided among the cores for parallel execution,
improving overall performance and responsiveness.

3. Shared Resources: While each core operates independently, they

often share certain resources such as the system bus, memory
controller, and cache hierarchy. This shared architecture enables
efficient communication between the cores and reduces system
complexity.

4.Cache Hierarchy: Octa-core processors usually feature multiple

levels of cache memory, including L1, L2, and sometimes L3 caches.
These caches are used to store frequently accessed data and
instructions, reducing memory latency and improving performance.

5. Interconnect: The cores in an octa-core processor are

interconnected through a communication network that facilitates
data exchange and coordination between cores. This interconnect
ensures efficient communication and synchronization among the
cores during parallel execution of tasks.

6. Memory Subsystem: Octa-core processors typically support a

high-speed memory subsystem to provide sufficient bandwidth for
data transfer between the processor cores and system memory. This
ensures that the processor cores are not starved for data, thereby
maximizing performance.

7. Power Management: Octa-core processors incorporate advanced

power management features to optimize energy efficiency and
reduce power consumption. This includes dynamic voltage and
frequency scaling, as well as various sleep states (C-states) to
minimize power consumption during idle periods.

8. Operating System Support: Modern operating systems are

designed to take advantage of multi-core processors, including octa-
core architectures. They can schedule tasks and threads to run on
different cores, optimizing performance and resource utilization.

#Real Mode and Protected Mode-

Real Mode and Protected Mode are two distinct operating modes in
the x86 architecture, which includes processors like the Intel 8086,
80286, 80386, and their successors. Real Mode provides a simple and
direct interface to hardware resources but lacks modern memory
management and protection features. Protected Mode, on the other
hand, introduces advanced memory management, protection
mechanisms, and multitasking capabilities, making it suitable for
modern operating systems and applications.

Here's an overview of each mode:

1. Real Mode:
- Real Mode is the operating mode that closely resembles the
original architecture of the Intel 8086 processor.
- In Real Mode, the processor operates using a segmented memory
model. Memory addresses are composed of a 16-bit segment value
and a 16-bit offset value, resulting in a 20-bit physical address space.
- Segmentation allows the processor to access up to 1 MB of
memory. However, accessing memory beyond the 1 MB boundary
requires special techniques like segmentation overrides.
- Real Mode provides direct and unrestricted access to hardware
resources and memory, allowing software to manipulate system
resources without any protection or privilege levels.
- Because of its simplicity and direct hardware access, Real Mode is
often used during system boot-up before transitioning to more
advanced operating modes.

2. Protected Mode:
- Protected Mode is a more advanced operating mode introduced
with the Intel 80286 processor and later expanded in the Intel 80386
and subsequent processors.
- In Protected Mode, the processor supports features such as virtual
memory, memory protection, multitasking, and privilege levels.
 - Protected Mode uses a flat memory model, where memory is
addressed linearly using 32-bit addresses, allowing access to up to 4
GB of physical memory.
- Memory protection mechanisms prevent one program from
accessing or modifying the memory used by another program,
enhancing system stability and security.
- Privilege levels (also known as protection rings) are introduced in
Protected Mode to restrict access to certain system resources based
on privilege levels. The x86 architecture defines four privilege levels
(0 to 3), with the highest privilege level (0) having full access to
system resources and the lowest privilege level (3) having the least
privilege.
- Virtual memory support allows the operating system to use disk
storage as an extension of physical memory, enabling larger and
more efficient memory management.
- Multitasking support allows multiple programs to run
simultaneously, with each program running in its own protected
memory space.

#Addressing Modes-
Addressing modes in computer architecture define how instructions
specify the operands or data for operations. Different addressing
modes provide flexibility and efficiency in accessing memory or
registers. These addressing modes provide flexibility in accessing
operands from memory or registers, allowing programmers to write
efficient and concise assembly code for various computational tasks.
Different processors may support a subset or variation of these
addressing modes based on their architecture and instruction set.
Here are some common addressing modes:
1. Immediate Addressing: The operand is specified directly within
the instruction. For example, `MOV AX, 10H` moves the immediate
value `10H` (16 in decimal) into register AX.

2. Direct Addressing: The operand's memory address is specified

directly in the instruction. For example, `MOV AX, [5000H]` moves
the value stored at memory address `5000H` into register AX.

3. Indirect Addressing: The instruction contains the memory address

of a memory location that holds the operand. For example, `MOV AX,
[BX]` moves the value stored at the memory address specified by the
contents of register BX into register AX.

4. Register Addressing: The operand is specified by a register. For

example, `MOV AX, BX` moves the value in register BX into register
AX.

5. Indexed Addressing: An offset value is added to a base address

specified by a register. For example, `MOV AX, [BX + SI]` moves the
value stored at the memory address calculated by adding the
contents of registers BX and SI into register AX.

6. Base-Relative Addressing: Similar to indexed addressing, but the

offset is added to a base address specified by a register. For example,
`MOV AX, [BX + 10]` moves the value stored at the memory address
calculated by adding the contents of register BX and the constant `10`
into register AX.
7. PC-relative Addressing: The operand's address is calculated
relative to the program counter (PC). This is often used for branching
instructions. For example, `JMP Label` jumps to the instruction at the
memory address calculated by adding the displacement specified by
the label to the current value of the program counter.

8. Stack-relative Addressing: The operand's address is calculated

relative to the stack pointer (SP) or base pointer (BP). This is
commonly used for accessing function parameters, local variables,
and managing the call stack.

#Instruction Codes-
Instruction codes, often referred to as opcodes, are binary patterns
that represent specific instructions in a computer's instruction set
architecture (ISA). These opcodes are interpreted by the CPU to
perform various operations, such as arithmetic calculations, data
movement, control flow, and input/output operations. Instruction
codes play a crucial role in determining the behaviour and
functionality of a computer's CPU, enabling it to execute a wide
range of tasks and programs according to the instructions provided.

Here's an overview of instruction codes and their components:

1. Opcode: The opcode is the fundamental part of an instruction
code, representing the operation to be performed. It specifies the
type of instruction, such as addition, subtraction, comparison, or
branching.
2. Operand: In many instructions, one or more operands accompany
the opcode to specify the data or address on which the operation is
performed. Operands can be immediate values (constants embedded
in the instruction), register identifiers, or memory addresses.

3. Instruction Format: Instruction codes have specific formats that

dictate how the opcode and operands are encoded within the
instruction. Common formats include fixed-length formats, variable-
length formats, and formats with fields for opcode and operands.

4. Encoding: The encoding of instruction codes depends on the CPU

architecture and instruction set. Each opcode and operand is
represented using binary digits (bits). The length of the opcode and
the number of operands can vary depending on the instruction set's
design.

5. Instruction Set: The instruction set of a processor defines the

complete set of opcodes and their corresponding operations. It
includes instructions for basic arithmetic and logic operations, data
movement, control flow, and other specialized operations supported
by the CPU.

6. Machine Language: Instruction codes are expressed in machine

language, which is the lowest level of programming language
understood by the CPU. Machine language instructions are directly
executable by the CPU without further translation.
7. Assembly Language: In assembly language programming,
mnemonics are used to represent instructions instead of binary
opcodes. Assembly language instructions are then translated into
machine language instructions by an assembler.

8. Instruction Execution: During execution, the CPU fetches

instructions from memory, decodes the opcode and operands,
performs the specified operation, and updates the processor state
accordingly.

# Difference between DX & SX of different

microprocessor-
The terms "DX" and "SX" are often used in the context of Intel's x86
microprocessors. These terms typically refer to specific models within
a processor family, particularly in the 386 and 486 series.

Here's a brief explanation of the differences:

1. DX and SX in the 80386 series:
- In the 80386 series of processors, "DX" and "SX" are not
commonly used designations.
- The primary models in this series are the 80386DX and the
80386SX.
- The 80386DX is the standard model, featuring a 32-bit external
data bus and full 32-bit processing capabilities.
- The 80386SX is a lower-cost version of the 80386DX. It typically
had a narrower data bus (usually 16 bits wide) and was intended for
use in less expensive systems. The SX model sacrificed some
performance compared to the DX model but was more affordable.

2. DX and SX in the 80486 series:

- In the 80486 series, the DX and SX designations were more
commonly used.
- The 80486DX was the standard model, featuring a full 32-bit data
bus and internal architecture.
- The 80486SX was again a lower-cost version of the 80486DX. It
typically had a narrower data bus (16 bits wide) and was intended for
budget-oriented systems. The 80486SX model offered less
performance than the DX model but at a lower price point.

In the 80386 and 80486 series of Intel microprocessors, the DX

designation typically refers to the standard model with full
capabilities, while the SX designation is used for lower-cost versions
with reduced features, often including a narrower data bus. These
designations helped provide options for different market segments,
offering varying levels of performance and cost.