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MODULE – 4
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

INTRODUTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

An embedded system is an electronic/ electro-mechanical system designed to perform a specific function
and is a combination of both hardware and firmware (software).
Every embedded system is unique, and the hardware as well as the firmware is highly specialized to the
application domain. Embedded systems are becoming an inevitable part of any product or equipment in
all fields including household appliances, telecommunications, medical equipment, industrial control,
consumer products, etc.
Characteristics of Embedded Systems:
✓ Embedded Systems must be highly reliable and stable.
✓ Embedded Systems have minimal or no user interface.
✓ Embedded Systems are usually feedback oriented or reactive.
✓ Embedded Systems are typically designed to meet real time constraints.
✓ Embedded Systems have limited memory and limited number of peripherals.
✓ Embedded Systems are typically designed for specific application or purpose.
✓ Embedded Systems are designed for low power consumption, as they use battery power.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS versus GENERAL COMPUTING SYSTEMS:

General Computing System Embedded System
1. A combination of generic hardware and a General 1. A combination of special purpose hardware
Purpose Operating System (GPOS) for executing a embedded OS for executing a specific set of
variety of applications. applications.
2. Applications are alterable (programmable) by the 2. The firmware is pre-programmed and it is non-
user. alterable by the end-user (there may be
exceptions).
3. Performance is the key deciding factor in the 3. Application-specific requirements (like
selection of the system. Always, ‘Faster is Better’. performance, power requirements, memory usage,
etc.).
4. Less/ not at all tailored towards reduced operating 4. Highly tailored to take advantage of the power
power requirements. saving modes supported by the hardware and the
operating system.
5. Need not be deterministic in execution behavior; 5. Execution behavior is deterministic for certain
response requirements are not time critical. types of embedded systems like ‘Hard Real Time’
systems.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

Classification Based on Generation:
Generation with Example Description
First Generation (1G) ✓ 8-bit microprocessor and 4-bit microcontroller like 8085 and Z80
- Digital telephone was used in 1G.
keypads ✓ Hardware circuit was simple.
- Stepper motor ✓ Assembly code is used for developing firmware.
Second Generation (2G) ✓ Uses 16-bit microprocessor and 8-bit microcontroller.
- Data acquisition ✓ They are more complex and powerful than 1G microprocessor
systems like ADC, and microcontroller.
SCADA system
Third Generation (3G) ✓ Uses 32-bit microprocessor and 16-bit microcontroller.
- Robotics ✓ Domain specific processor and controllers are used.
Fourth Generation (4G) ✓ Uses 64-bit microprocessor and 32-bit microcontroller.
- Smart phones ✓ The concept of system on chips, multi-core processors evolved.
✓ Highly complex and very powerful.

Classification Based on Complexity and Performance:

1. Small-Scale Embedded Systems:
o Embedded systems which are simple in application needs and the performance
parameters are not time critical (E.g.: Electronic toy).
o Small-scale embedded systems are usually built around low performance and low cost 8
or 16 bit microprocessors/ microcontrollers.
o It may or may not contain an operating system for its functioning.
2. Medium-Scale Embedded Systems:
o Embedded systems which are slightly complex in hardware and firmware (software)
requirements.
o Medium-scale embedded systems are usually built around medium performance, low cost
16- or 32-bit microprocessors/ microcontrollers or digital signal processors.
o They usually contain an embedded operating system (general purpose/ real-time).
3. Large-Scale Embedded Systems/ Complex Systems:
o Embedded systems which involve highly complex hardware and firmware. They are
employed in mission critical applications demanding high performance.
o Large-scale embedded systems are commonly built around high performance 32- or 64-
bit RISC processors/ controllers or Reconfigurable System on Chip (RSoC) or multi-core
processors and programmable logic devices.
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o They usually contain a high-performance Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) for task
scheduling, prioritization, and management.

MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

Embedded systems play a vital role in our day-to-day life, starting from home to computer industry.
Embedded technology has acquired a new dimension from its first-generation model, the Apollo
Guidance Computer, to the latest radio navigation system combined with in-car entertainment technology
and wearable computing devices (Apple watch, Microsoft band, Fitbit fitness trackers, etc.).
The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are countless. A few of the important
domains and products are listed below:
1. Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.
2. Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, fridge, microwave oven, etc.
3. Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, intruder detection alarms,
closed circuit television cameras, fire alarms, etc.
4. Automotive Industry: Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), engine control, ignition systems,
automatic navigation systems, etc.
5. Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset multimedia applications, etc.
6. Computer Peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
7. Computer Networking Systems: Network routers, switches, hubs, firewalls, etc.
8. Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines, etc.
9. Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, digital CROs, logic analyzers PLC
systems, etc.
10. Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines (ATM) and currency counters, point of sales (POS).
11. Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.
12. Wearable Devices: Health and fitness trackers, Smartphone screen extension for notifications,
etc.
13. Cloud Computing and Internet of Things (IoT).

THE TYPICAL EMBEDDED SYSTEM

A typical embedded system (shown in Figure 4.1) contains a single chip controller, which acts as the
master brain of the system.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Figure 4.1: Typical Embedded System

The controller can be
✓ a Microprocessor (Intel 8085) or
✓ a Microcontroller (Atmel AT89C51) or
✓ a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) device (Xilinx Spartan) or
✓ a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) (Blackfin® Processors from Analog Devices) or
✓ an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)/
✓ Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP) (ADE7760 Single Phase Energy Metreing IC from
Analog Devices for energy metering applications).

Embedded hardware/ software systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable or to
manipulate the state of some devices by sending some control signals to the Actuators or devices
connected to the O/P ports of the system, in response to the input signals provided by the end users or
Sensors which are connected to the input ports. Hence an embedded system can be viewed as a reactive
system.
Key boards, push button switches, etc. are examples for common user interface input devices where as
LEDs, liquid crystal displays, piezoelectric buzzers, etc. are examples for common user interface output
devices for a typical embedded system.
The Memory of the system is responsible for holding the control algorithm and other important
configuration details.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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CORE OF THE EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

Embedded systems are domain and application specific and are built around a central core. The core of
the embedded system falls into any one of the following categories:
1) General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors
a. Microprocessors
b. Microcontrollers
c. Digital Signal Processors
2) Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
3) Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
4) Commercial off-the-shelf Components (COTS)

Microprocessor versus Microcontroller:

A Microprocessor is a silicon chip representing a central processing unit (CPU), which is capable of
performing arithmetic as well as logical operations. In general, the CPU contains the Arithmetic and
Logic Unit (ALU), control unit and working registers. A microprocessor is a dependent unit and it
requires the combination of' other hardware like memory, timer unit, and interrupt controller, etc., for
proper functioning.
A Microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM, special and general-
purpose register arrays, on chip ROM/ FLASH memory for program storage, timer and interrupt control
units and dedicated I/O ports. Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of microprocessors. Since
a microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent working, they found greater
place in the embedded domain in place of microprocessors. Apart from this, they are cheap, cost effective
and are readily available in the market.
Microprocessors Microcontrollers
Microprocessors generally does not have RAM, Microcontroller is ‘all in one’ processor, with
ROM and I/O pins. RAM, I/O ports, all on the chip.
Microprocessors usually use its pins as a bus to
interface to RAM, ROM, and peripheral devices. Controlling bus is internal and not available to the
Hence, the controlling bus is expandable at the board designer.
board level.
Microprocessors are generally capable of being Microcontrollers are usually used for more
built into bigger general-purpose applications. dedicated applications.
Microcontrollers have power saving system, like
Microprocessors, generally do not have power
idle mode or power saving; mode so overall it uses
saving system.
less power.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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The overall cost of systems made with Microcontrollers are made by using complementary
Microprocessors is high, because of the high metal oxide semiconductor technology; so they are
number of external components required. far cheaper than Microprocessors.
Processing speed of general microprocessors is
Processing speed of Microcontrollers is about 8
above 1 GHz; so, it works much faster than
MHz to 50 MHz.
Microcontrollers.
Microprocessors are based on von-Neumann Microcontrollers are based on Harvard architecture;
model; where, program and data are stored in same where, program memory and data memory are
memory module. separate.

Figure 4.2: Microprocessor versus Microcontroller

RISC versus CISC Processors/ Controllers:

The term RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computing. As the name implies, all RISC processors/
controllers possess lesser number of instructions, typically in the range of 30 to 40.
CISC stands for Complex instruction Set Computing. From the definition itself it is clear that the
instruction set is complex and instructions are high in number.
From a programmer’s point of view RISC processors are comfortable, since s/ he needs to learn only a
few instructions, whereas for a CISC processor s/ he needs to learn a greater number of instructions
and should understand the context of usage of each instruction.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Atmel AVR microcontroller is an example for a RISC processor and its instruction set contains only 32
instructions. The original version of 8051 microcontroller (e.g.AT 89C51) is a CISC controller and its
instruction set contains 255 instructions.
Remember it is not the number of instructions that determines whether a processor/ controller is CISC or
RISC. There are some other factors like pipelining features, instruction set type, etc., for determining the
RISC/ CISC criteria. Some of the important criteria are listed below:
CISC RISC
1. Complex instructions, taking multiple clock 1. Simple instructions, taking single clock
2. Emphasis on hardware, complexity is in the 2. Emphasis on software, complexity is in the
micro-program/processor complier
3. Complex instructions, instructions executed by 3. Reduced instructions, instructions executed by
micro-program/processor hardware
4. Variable format instructions, single register set 4. Fixed format instructions, multiple register sets
and many instructions and few instructions
5. Many instructions and many addressing modes 5. Fixed instructions and few addressing modes
6. Conditional jump is usually based on status 6. Conditional jump can be based on a bit
register bit anywhere in memory
7. Memory reference is embedded in many 7. Memory reference is embedded in
instructions LOAD/STORE instructions

SENSORS AND INTERFACING

Sensors provide a means of generating signals that can be used as inputs to electronic circuits. Sensors
are, in fact, a subset of a larger family of devices known as transducers.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS:

Figure 4.3 shows the arrangement of an instrumentation system.
The physical quantity to be measured (e.g. temperature) acts upon a sensor that produces an electrical
output signal. This signal is an electrical analogue of the physical input. Since the output produced by the
sensor may be small or may suffer from the presence of noise (i.e. unwanted signals) further signal
conditioning will be required before the signal will be at an acceptable level and in an acceptable form for
signal processing, display and recording. Signal processing may use digital rather than analogue signals
an additional stage of analogue-to-analogue conversion may be required.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Figure 4.3: An Instrumentation System

Figure 4.4 shows the arrangement of a control system.

Figure 4.4: A Control System

The circuit uses negative feedback in order to regulate and stabilize the output. A comparator is used to
sense the difference in these two signals (input and feedback) and where any discrepancy is detected the
input to the power amplifier is adjusted accordingly. This signal is referred to as an error signal (it should
be zero when the output exactly matches the demand). The controlled device can take many forms (e.g. a
d.c. motor, linear actuator, heater, etc.).

TRANSDUCERS:
Transducers are devices that convert energy in the form of sound, light, heat, etc., into an equivalent
electrical signal, or vice versa. Transducers may be used both as inputs to electronic circuits and outputs
from them.
Example: A loudspeaker is a transducer that converts low frequency electric current into audible sounds.
Thus, a loudspeaker is an output transducer designed for use in conjunction with an audio system.
A microphone, on the other hand, is a transducer that performs the reverse function, i.e., that of
converting sound pressure variations into voltage or current. Thus, a microphone is an input transducer
designed for use with a recording or sound reinforcing system.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Loudspeakers and microphones can thus be considered as complementary transducers. There are many
different types of transducers and the following Tables provide some examples of transducers that can be
used to input and output three important physical quantities; sound, temperature and angular position.

SENSORS:
A sensor is a special kind of transducer that is used to generate an input signal to a measurement,
instrumentation or control system. The signal produced by a sensor is an electrical analogy of a physical
quantity, such as distance, velocity, acceleration, temperature, pressure, light level, etc. The signals
returned from a sensor, together with control inputs from the user or controller will be used to determine
the output from the system. The choice of sensor is governed by a number of factors including accuracy,
resolution, cost and physical size.

Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive. An active sensor generates a current or voltage
output. A passive transducer requires a source of current or voltage and it modifies this in some way. The
result may still be a voltage or current but it is not generated by the sensor on its own.
Sensors can also be classed as either digital or analogue. The output of a digital sensor can exist in only
two discrete states, either ‘on’ or ‘off’, ‘low’ or ‘high’, ‘logic 1’ or ‘logic 0’, etc. The output of an

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analogue sensor can take any one of an infinite number of voltage or current levels. It is thus said to be
continuously variable.

ACTUATORS:
Actuator is a form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which converts signals to corresponding
physical action (motion). Actuator acts as an output device.
• Smart watches use Ambient Light Sensor to detect the surrounding light intensity and uses an
electrical/ electronic actuator circuit to adjust the screen brightness.
The Figure 4.5 shows the sensor to actuator flow:

Figure 4.5: Sensor to Actuator Flow

Sensors Actuators
1. Sensor is an input device 1. Actuator is an output device
2. Convert a physical parameter to an electrical
2. Convert an electrical signal to a physical output
output
3. A device that detects events or changes in the
3. A component of a machine that is responsible
environment and send the information to
for moving and controlling mechanisms
another electronic device
4. Sensor help to monitor the changes in the 4. Actuator helps to control the environment or
environment physical changes

Light Emitting Diode (LED):

LED is an important output device for visual indication in any embedded system. LED can be used as an
indicator for the status of various signals or situations.
• Typical examples are indicating the presence of power conditions like 'Device ON', 'Battery Low'
or 'Charging of Battery' for a battery operated handheld embedded devices.
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Light Emitting Diode is a p-n junction diode and it contains an anode and a cathode. For proper
functioning of the LED, the anode of it should be connected to +ve terminal of the supply voltage and
cathode to the –ve terminal of supply voltage. A resister is used in series between the power supply and
the LED to limit the current through the LED. The ideal LED interfacing circuit is shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6: LED Interfacing Circuit

LEDs can be interfaced to the port pin of a processor/ controller in two ways.
• In the first method, the anode is directly connected to the port pin and the port pin drives the
LED. In this approach, the port pin 'sources' current to the LED when the port pin is at logic High
(Logic '1').
• In the second method, the cathode of the LED is connected to the port pin of processor/ controller
and the anode to the supply voltage through a current limiting resistor. LED is turned on when the
port pin is at logic Low (Logic '0').

7-Segment LED Display:

The 7-segment LED display is an output device used for displaying alpha- numeric characters.
It contains 8 light-emitting diode (LED) segments arranged in a special form. Out of the 8 LED segments,
7 are used for displaying alpha-numeric characters and 1 is used for representing ‘decimal point'. Figure
4.7 explains the arrangement of LED segments in 7-segment LED display.

Figure 4.7: LED and Arrangement of Segments

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The LED segments are named A to G and the 'decimal point LED segment is named as DP. For
displaying the number 4, the segments F, G, B and C are lit. For displaying 3, the segments A, B, C, D, G
are lit. All these 8 LED segments need to be connected to one port of the processor/ controller for
displaying alpha-numeric digits.

The 7-segment LED displays are available in two different configurations, namely; Common Anode and
Common Cathode.
• In common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are connected commonly
• In common cathode configuration, the 8 LED segments share a common cathode line.
Figure 4.8 illustrates the Common Anode and Cathode configurations.

Figure 4.8: Common-Anode and Common-Cathode LED Configuration

By: DR. Mahesh Prasanna K.,

Dept. of ECE, VCET.
____________*********____________
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Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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