3

Micromechanical Analysis of a Lamina

3.1 Introduction
• This chapter develops simple relationships for the
parameters used in chapter 2 (E, 𝜎, 𝐶𝑀𝐸, 𝐶𝑇𝐸) in terms of
the stiffnesses, strengths, coefficients of thermal and
moisture expansion of the individual constituents of a
composite, fiber volume fraction, packing geometry, etc.,
which is called Micromechanics of Lamina.

• This helps the designer to select the constituents of a

composite material for use in a laminated structure.

• A unidirectional lamina is not homogeneous. However, one

can assume the lamina to be homogeneous by focusing on
the average response of the lamina to mechanical and
hygrothermal loads. The lamina is looked at as a material
whose properties are different in various directions but not
different from one location to another.

Nonhomogeneous lamina Homogeneous lamina

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 3.2 Volume and Mass Fractions, Density, and Void
Content
𝒗𝒄,𝒇,𝒎 = volume of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively.
𝝆𝒄,𝒇,𝒎 = density of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively.
𝒘𝒄,𝒇,𝒎 = mass of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively.

➢ Volume fractions
• Fiber volume fraction (Vf)

• Matrix volume fraction (Vm)

➢ Mass fractions
• Fiber mass fraction (Wf)

• Matrix mass fraction (Wm)

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From the definition of density:
𝑤𝑐 = 𝜌𝑐 𝑣𝑐
𝑤𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑣𝑓
𝑤𝑚 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑣𝑚

Thus,

➢ Density
The derivation of the density of the composite in terms of volume
fractions is found as follows.

𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑓 𝑤𝑚
= +
𝜌𝑐 𝜌𝑓 𝜌𝑚

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➢ Void content
• During the manufacture of a composite, voids are
introduced in the composite, which causes the theoretical
density of the composite to be higher than the actual
density.
• The void content of the composite is detrimental to its
mechanical properties. These detriments include lower
- Shear stiffness and strength
- Compressive strengths
- Transverse tensile strengths
- Fatigue resistance
- Moisture resistance
• A decrease of 2 to 10% in the preceding matrix-dominated
properties generally takes place with every 1% increase in
the void content.

The volume fraction of voids (Vv)

Volume of voids

Then,

Experimental density of
the composite

Theoretical density of
the composite

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 3.3 Evaluation of the Four Elastic Moduli
➢ Strength of Materials Approach
RVE
.

From a unidirectional lamina, take a representative volume

element (RVE) that consists of the fiber surrounded by the matrix.
This (RVE) can be further represented as rectangular blocks.
The fiber, matrix, and the composite are assumed to be of the same
width, h, but of thicknesses tf , tm, and tc, respectively.

The area of the fiber (Af)

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 The area of the matrix (Am)

The area of the composite (Ac)

The following assumptions are made in the strength of materials

approach model:
- The bond between fibers and matrix is perfect.
- The elastic moduli, diameters, and space between fibers
are uniform.
- The fibers are continuous and parallel.
- The fibers and matrix follow Hooke’s law (linearly elastic).
- The fibers possess uniform strength.
- The composite is free of voids.

• Longitudinal Young’s Modulus

A longitudinal stress applied to the representative

volume element to calculate the longitudinal

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Under a uniaxial load Fc on the composite RVE, the load is shared
by the fiber Ff and the matrix Fm so that

𝐹𝑓 𝜎𝑓 𝐴𝑓 𝐸𝑓
= = 𝑉
𝐹𝑐 𝜎𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝐸1 𝑓

But the strains in the composite, fiber and matrix are equal, thus

The role of mixture

• Transverse Young’s Modulus

A transverse stress applied to a representative volume

element used to calculate transverse.

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The fiber, the matrix, and composite stresses are equal. Thus,

The transverse extension in the composite 𝛥𝑐 is

𝜎𝑐 𝜎𝑓 𝜎𝑚
𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑡𝑚
𝐸2 𝐸𝑓 𝐸𝑚

• Major Poisson’s Ratio (υ12)

The negative of the ratio of the normal strain in the transverse
direction to the normal strain in the longitudinal direction, when
a normal load is applied in the longitudinal direction.

A longitudinal stress applied to a representative volume element to calculate

Poisson’s ratio of

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Assume a composite is loaded in the direction parallel to the fibers

−𝑡𝑐 𝜐12 𝜀𝑐𝐿 = −𝑡𝑐𝑓 𝜐𝑓 𝜀𝑓𝐿 − 𝑡𝑚 𝜐𝑚 𝜀𝑚

𝐿

Assuming (𝜀𝑐𝐿 = 𝜀𝑓𝐿 = 𝜀𝑚

𝐿
), then

Remember:

• In-Plane Shear Modulus

An in-plane shear stress applied to a

representative volume element for finding in-
plane shear.

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By applying a pure shear stress 𝜏𝑐 to a lamina

Assuming (𝜏𝑐 = 𝜏𝑓 = 𝜏𝑚 ), then

➢ Semi-Empirical Models
The values obtained for transverse Young’s modulus and in-plane
shear modulus through previous equations do not agree well with
the experimental results. This establishes a need for better
modeling techniques. These techniques include numerical
methods, such as finite element and finite difference, and
boundary element methods, elasticity solution, and variational
principal models. Unfortunately, these models are available only
as complicated equations or in graphical form. Due to these
difficulties, semi-empirical models have been developed for
design purposes.

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 Halphin and Tsai Model
Halphin and Tsai developed their models as simple
equations by curve fitting to results that are based on
elasticity.
• Longitudinal Young’s Modulus
E1, is the same as that obtained through the strength
of materials approach.

Reinforcing
• Transverse Young’s Modulus factor

The reinforcing factor and depends on the following

-Fiber geometry
1⁄
- Packing geometry 𝑑 2√3𝑉𝑓 2
=( )
1⁄ - Loading conditions 𝑠 𝜋
𝑑 4𝑉𝑓 2
=( )
𝑠 𝜋

(a) square packing geometry and (b) hexagonal packing geometry. s :

fiber to fiber spacing, d: fiber diameter

ξ = 2 for a fiber geometry of circular fibers in a packing

geometry of a square array.
ξ = 2 (a/b) For a rectangular fiber cross section of length a and
width b in a hexagonal array, where a is in the direction of loading.

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 • Major Poisson’s Ratio
𝜈12 is the same as that obtained using the strength of
materials approach.

• In-Plane Shear Modulus

ξ = 1 for a fiber geometry of circular fibers in a packing

geometry of a square array. gives reasonable results only for fiber
volume fractions of up to 0.5, so the suggested equation is
Hewitt and Malherbe
formula

ξ = √3 log 𝑒 (𝑎⁄𝑏) For a rectangular fiber cross section of length

a and width b in a hexagonal array, where a is in the direction of
loading.

➢ Elasticity Approach
• The elasticity models described here are called
composite cylinder assemblage (CCA) models.
• The composite can be considered to be made of
repeating elements called the representative volume
elements (RVEs).
• The RVE is considered to represent the composite and
respond the same as the whole composite does.

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Composite cylinder assemblage (CCA) model used for predicting elastic moduli of
unidirectional composite.

• Longitudinal Young’s Modulus

By applying an axial load, P, in direction 1

• Major Poisson’s Ratio

• Transverse Young’s Modulus

The CCA model only gives lower and upper bounds of the
transverse Young’s modulus of the composite. However,
the result from a three-phase model is summarized. This
model yields an exact solution for the transverse shear
modulus, G23.

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 Three-phase model of a composite.

K* is the bulk modulus, K*, of the composite under longitudinal plane

strain.

Kf,m is the bulk modulus of the fiber and the matrix

respectively.

• Transverse shear modulus

To get G23, we use

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where

• Axial Shear Modulus(G12)

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➢ Elastic Moduli of Lamina with Transversely Isotropic
Fibers
Transversely isotropic fibers are those that have five elastic
moduli, with L represents the longitudinal direction and T
represents the plane of isotropy perpendicular to the
longitudinal direction, then

EfL = longitudinal Young’s modulus.

EfT = Young’s modulus in plane of isotropy.
𝝂𝒇𝑳 = Poisson’s ratio characterizing the contraction
in the plane of isotropy when longitudinal tension
is applied.
𝝂𝒇𝑻 = Poisson’s ratio characterizing the contraction
in the longitudinal direction when tension is
applied in the plane of isotropy.
GfT = in-plane shear modulus in the plane
perpendicular to the plane of isotropy.

The elastic moduli using strength of materials approach for lamina

with transversely isotropic fibers are

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 3.4 Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional Lamina
The five ultimate strength parameters are
(𝝈𝑻𝟏 )𝒖𝒍𝒕 =Ultimate longitudinal tensile strength (in direction 1),
(𝝈𝒄𝟏 )𝒖𝒍𝒕 = Ultimate longitudinal compressive strength (in direction 1),
(𝝈𝑻𝟐 )𝒖𝒍𝒕 = Ultimate transverse tensile strength (in direction 2),
(𝝈𝒄𝟐 )𝒖𝒍𝒕 =Ultimate transverse compressive strength (in direction 2),
(𝝉𝟏𝟐 )𝒖𝒍𝒕 =Ultimate in-plane shear strength (in plane 12).

These parameters can be found from the individual properties of

the fiber and matrix by using the mechanics of materials
approach.
➢ Longitudinal Tensile Strength
A simple mechanics of materials approach model is presented
assuming that
• Fiber and matrix are isotropic, homogeneous, and
linearly elastic until failure.
• The failure strain for the matrix is higher than for the
fiber.

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Because the fibers carry most of the load in composites, it is
assumed that, when the fibers fail, the whole composite fails. Then

Once the fibers have broken, can the composite take more load?
The stress that the matrix can take alone is given by (𝝈𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕 ) (1 – Vf).
Only if this stress is greater than(𝝈𝑻𝟏 )𝒖𝒍𝒕 , is it possible for the
composite to take more load. The volume fraction of fibers for
which this is possible is called the minimum fiber volume fraction,
(Vf)minimum,

It is also possible that, by adding fibers to the matrix, the

composite will have lower ultimate tensile strength than the
matrix. In that case, the fiber volume fraction for which this is
possible is called the critical fiber volume fraction, (Vf)critical, and is

What are the modes of failure of unidirectional lamina under a

longitudinal tensile load?
a. Brittle fracture of fibers
b. Brittle fracture of fibers with pullout
c. Fiber pullout with fiber–matrix debonding

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The mode of failure depends on the fiber–matrix bond strength
and fiber volume fraction.

➢ Longitudinal Compressive Strength

The model used for calculating the longitudinal tensile strength
for a unidirectional lamina cannot also be used for its longitudinal
compressive strength because the failure modes are different.

What are the modes of failure of a unidirectional lamina under a

longitudinal compressive load?
a. Fiber microbuckling extensional mode
b. Fiber microbuckling shear mode
c. Transverse tensile failure of matrix
d. Shear failure

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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Ultimate tensile strains in matrix failure mode:
Assuming that a longitudinal compressive stress (𝜎1 )is applied,
then

Using maximum strain failure theory, if the transverse strain

exceeds the ultimate transverse tensile strain (𝜀2𝑇 )𝑢𝑙𝑡 , the lamina is
considered to have failed in the transverse direction. Thus,

Empirical formula

Mechanics of materials
formula

Shear/extensional fiber microbuckling failure mode:

The extensional mode buckling stress (𝑺𝑪𝟏 ) is higher than the shear
mode buckling stress (𝑺𝒄𝟐 ) for most cases.

Shear stress failure of fibers mode:

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The maximum shear stress in a lamina under a longitudinal
compressive load (𝜎1𝑐 ) is (𝜎1𝑐 ) /2 at 45 to the loading axis. Thus,

➢ Transverse Tensile Strength

A mechanics of materials approach model for finding the
transverse tensile strength of a unidirectional lamina is used.
Assumptions used in this model include
• A perfect fiber–matrix bond
• Uniform spacing of fibers
• The fiber and matrix follow Hooke’s law
• There are no residual stresses

Representative volume element to calculate transverse tensile strength of a

unidirectional lamina.

The transverse deformations of the fiber, 𝛿𝑓, the matrix, 𝛿𝑚, and the
composite, 𝛿𝑐, are related by

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where 𝜀𝑐,𝑓,𝑚 = the transverse strain in the composite, fiber, and
matrix, respectively. Thus

Assuming that the stresses in the fiber and matrix are equal

Assuming that the transverse failure of the lamina is due to the

failure of the matrix

➢ Transverse Compressive Strength

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➢ In-Plane Shear Strength
Assuming applying a shear stress of magnitude ( 𝜏12 ). the shearing
deformation in the representative element is given by the sum of
the deformations in the fiber and matrix,

Assuming that the shear failure is due to failure of the matrix,

then

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3.5 Coefficients of Thermal Expansion
• When a body undergoes a temperature change, its
dimensions change.
• The coefficient of thermal expansion is defined as the
change in the linear dimension of a body per unit length per
unit change of temperature.
• For a unidirectional lamina, the dimensions changes differ
in the two directions 1 and 2. Thus,
𝜶𝟏 = linear coefficient of thermal expansion in
direction 1, m/m/C (in./in./F).
𝜶𝟐 = linear coefficient of thermal expansion in
direction 2, m/m/C (in./in./F).

3.6 Coefficients of Moisture Expansion

• When a body absorbs water, it expands.
• The coefficient of moisture expansion is defined as the
change in the linear dimension of a body per unit length per
unit change in weight of moisture content per unit weight
of the body.
𝜷𝟏 = linear coefficient of moisture expansion in direction
1, m/m/kg/kg (in./in./lb/lb).
𝜷𝟐 = linear coefficient of moisture expansion in direction
2, m/m/kg/kg (in./in./lb/lb).

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where ∆𝐶𝑓,𝑚 is the moisture concentration in the fiber and the
matrix respectively, kg/kg(Ib/Ib).

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