CHAPTER-1

THE IMORTANCE OF PROCESS CONTROL &

INSTRUMENTATION

I. INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION

 Process control instrumentation is the technology of using instruments to measure

and control manufacturing, conversion, or treating processes to create the desired
physical, electrical, and chemical properties of materials.
 Process control instrumentation measures, controls, and interacts with computer,
electrical, hydraulic, and mechanical systems.
 Individuals involved with process control instrumentation need to have some
knowledge of the other disciplines as well as an understanding of the fundamentals of
process control systems.

II. THE IMPORTANCE OF PROCESS CONTROL

 Exact solution to a particular control problem requires detailed process knowledge,
not only of the physical & chemical characteristics of the fluids, but also of the
mechanical aspects of the process-equipments (pipings, pumps, mixers, reactors, heat
exchangers, etc), piping systems and the control loop itself.

PROCESS
 Process: the methods of changing or refining raw materials to create end
products. The raw materials during process are:
 transferred,
 measured,
 mixed
 heated or cooled,
 filtered,
 stored, or handled in some other way to produce the end product
 Process control technology is the tool that enables manufacturers
 to keep their operations running within specified limits and to set more
precise limits
 to maximize profitability,
 ensure quality and safety
 Process industries include:
 sugar industry,
 chemical industry,
 food and beverage industry,
 water treatment industry,
 power industry, etc

CONTROL
 Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process.
 Precise control of level, temperature, pressure and flow is important in many process
applications.

PROCESS CONTROL
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 Process control refers to the methods that are used to control variables when
manufacturing products.
 Manufacturers control the production process for three reasons :
 Reduce variability: reduce variability in the end product ensures a consistently
high quality product
 Increase efficiency: Some process need to be maintained at a specific point to
maximize efficiency
 Ensure safety: A run away process may result if manufacturers do not maintain
precise control of all the process variables
Example: maintaining proper boiler pressure by controlling the inflow of air
used in combustion and the outflow of exhaust gasses is crucial in
preventing boiler implosions that can clearly threaten the safety of
workers.

CHAPTER-2
CONTROL THEORY BASICS

 Control loops in the process control industry require three tasks to occur:
 Measurement
 Comparison
 Adjustment
 In the figure shown below a differential level Transmitter measures the level in the tank
and transmits a signal associated with the level reading to a level controller. The
controller compares the reading to a predetermined value, in this case, the maximum
tank level established by the plant operator, and finds that the values are equal. The
controller then sends a signal to the device that can bring the tank level back to a
lower value-a value at the bottom of the tank. The value opens to let some liquid in to
the tank.

A simple control loop

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PROCESS CONTROL TERMS
 As in any field, process control has its own set of common terms that you should be
familiar with and that you will use when talking about control technology.
 Some common instrumentation terms and their definitions:
Process: The physical system we are attempting to control or measure. Examples:
Sugar production unit system, molten metal casting system, steam boiler, oil
refinery unit, power generation unit.
Setpoint: is a value for a process variable that is desired to be maintained.
In other words, the “target” value of the process variable. (It is a value for a
process variable that is desired to be maintained.)
Process Variable: is a condition of the process fluid that can change the
manufacturing process in some way.
Examples: pressure, level, temperature, flow, electrical conductivity, pH,
position, speed, vibration.
Measured variable is the condition of the process fluid that must be kept at the
designated setpoint.
Manipulated variable is the factor that is changed to keep the measured variable at
setpiont. (It is the signal commanding (“manipulating”) the final control element to
influence the process)

Primary Sensing Element: A device that directly senses the process variable and
translates that sensed quantity into an analog representation (electrical voltage,
current, resistance; mechanical force, motion, etc.). Examples: thermocouple,
thermistor, bourdon tube, microphone, potentiometer, electrochemical cell,
accelerometer.
Transducer: A device that converts one standardized instrumentation signal into
another standardized instrumentation signal, and/or performs some sort of
processing on that signal.
Examples: I/P converter (converts 4-20 mA electric signal into 3-15 PSI pneumatic
signal).
Note:- In general science, a “transducer” is any device that converts one form of
energy into another, such as a microphone or a thermocouple.
- In industrial instrumentation, however, we generally use “primary
sensing element” to describe this concept and reserve the word
“transducer” to specifically refer to a conversion device for standardized
instrumentation signals.
Transmitter: A device that translates the signal produced by a primary sensing
element into a standardized instrumentation signal such as 3-15 PSI air
pressure, 4-20 mA DC electric current, Fieldbus digital signal packet, etc., which
may then be conveyed to an indicating device, a controlling device, or both.
Lower- and Upper-range values: the values of process measurement deemed to be 0%
and 100% of a transmitter’s calibrated range.

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 For example, if a temperature transmitter is calibrated to measure a range of
temperature starting at 300 degrees Celsius and ending at 500 degrees Celsius,
300 degrees would be the LRV and 500 degrees would be the URV.
Zero and Span: alternative descriptions to LRV and URV for the 0% and 100% points
of an instrument’s calibrated range. “Zero” refers to the beginning-point of an
instrument’s range (equivalent to LRV), while “span” refers to the width of its
range (URV − LRV).
Example, if a temperature transmitter is calibrated to measure a range of
temperature starting at 300 degrees Celsius and ending at 500 degrees Celsius,
its zero would be 300 degrees and its span would be 200 degrees.
Controller: A device that receives a process variable signal from a primary sensing
element or transmitter, compares that signal to the desired value for that process
variable (called the setpoint), and calculates an appropriate output signal value to
be sent to a final control element such as an electric motor or control valve.
Final Control Element: A device that receives the signal from a controller to directly
influence the process.
Example: control valve, variable-speed electric motor, electric heater.
Automatic mode: When the controller generates an output signal based on the
relationship of process variable to the setpoint.
Manual mode: When the controller’s decision-making ability is bypassed to let a
human operator directly determine the output signal sent to the final control
element.
Load Disturbance: it is undesired change in one of the factors that can affect the
process variable
Offset: Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the setpoint.
Error: Error is the difference between the measured variable and the setpoint
 It can be either positive or negative.
 The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate error.
 Any error can be seen as having three major components.
 Magnitude: the magnitude of the error is simply the deviation between
the values of the setpoint and the process variable.
 Duration: duration refers to the length of time that an error condition has
existed.
 Rate of change: the rate of change is shown by the slope of the error plot.

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CONTROL ALGORITHM
 A control algorithm is a mathematical expression of a control function. The
relationship in control algorithm can be expressed as:
V = f(±e)
 The valve position (V) is a function (f) of the sign (positive or negative) of the error.

 Control algorithms can be used to calculate the requirements of much more complex
control loops than the one described here.
 In more complex control loops, questions such as:
 “How far should the valve be opened or closed in response to a given change in
setpoint?” and
 “How long should the valve be held in the new position after the process variable
moves back toward set point?” need to be answered.

MANUAL & AUTOMATIC CONTROL

 Control operations that involve human action to make an adjustment are called
Manual Control systems.
 Control operations in which no human intervention is required, such as an automatic
valve actuator that responds to al level controller, are called automatic Control systems

CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL VERSUS OPEN-LOOP CONTROL

CONTROL PRINCIPLES
 In this article the commonly measured process variable temperature is used for the
basis of discussion.
 A control loop is a control system in which information is transferred from a primary
element to the controller, from the controller to the final element, and from the final
element to the process.

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OPEN-LOOP CONTROL
 An open loop is a control system that sends a control signal to a final element but does
not verify the results of that control. An open loop exists if the feedback is absent or
disabled, such as when the control element is operated manually.
 Open-loop control can be used where:
 Relatively simple & noncritical applications processes,
 The relationship between the control variable and process variable is well
understood,
 Major process upsets are unlikely to occur,
 A minimum of operator attention is required,
 Any process conditions occur slowly and in small increments.
 In the case of manual control an operator may periodically read the process temperature
and adjust the heating or cooling input up or down in such a direction as to drive the
temperature to its desired value.
 An auto-manual transfer switch is provided to allow manual adjustment of the
manipulated variable in case the process or the control system is not performing
satisfactorily.

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 Fig. 1: Manual Temperature control of a process

CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL
 A closed loop is a control system that provides feedback to the controller on
the state of the process variable due to changes made by the final control
element.
 In a closed loop control, measurement and adjustment are made automatically
on a continuous basis.
 In the more typical situation, changes may be too rapid for operator reaction,
making automatic control mandatory (Fig. 2). The controlled variable
(temperature) is measured by a suitable sensor, such as a thermocouple, a
resistance temperature detector (RTD), a thermistor, or an infrared pyrometer.
The measurement signal is converted to a signal that is compatible with the
controller. The controller compares the temperature signal with the desired
temperature (set point) and actuates the final control device. The latter alters
the quantity of heat added to or removed from the process. Final control
devices, or elements, may take the form of contactors, blowers, electric-motor or
pneumatically operated valves.

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 A closed-loop system uses the measurement of one or more process variables to
move the manipulated variable to achieve control.
 Closed-loop systems may include feed-forward, feedback, or both.

Fig 2: Automatic temperature control of a process

FEEDBACK & FEEDFORWARD CONTROL COMPUTER CONTROL

Feedback Control
 A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output and the
reference input by comparing them and using the difference as a means of
control is called a feedback control system.
 In a feedback control loop, the controlled variable is compared to the set point
R, with the difference, deviation, or error e acted upon by the controller to move
m in such a way as to minimize the error. This action is specifically negative
feedback, in that an increase in deviation moves m so as to decrease the
deviation.

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 Figure 2: Feedback Control Block Diagram

Feed-forward Control
 A feed-forward system uses measurements of disturbance variables to position
the manipulated variable in such a way as to minimize any resulting deviation.
 Feedforward control is usually combined with feedback control to eliminate any
offset resulting from inaccurate measurements and calculations and
unmeasured load components. The feedback controller can either bias or
multiply the feedforward calculation.
 A process is shown in Fig. 8-1 with a manipulated input M, a load input L, and
a controlled output C, which could be flow, pressure, liquid level, temperature,
composition, or any other inventory, environmental, or quality variable that is
to be held at a desired value identified as the set point R. The load may be a
single variable or aggregate of variables acting either independently or
manipulated for other purposes, affecting the controlled variable much as the
manipulated variable does. Changes in load may occur randomly as caused by
changes in weather, diurnally with ambient temperature, manually when
operators change production rate, stepwise when equipment is switched in or
out of service, or cyclically as the result of oscillations in other control loops.
Variations in load will drive the controlled variable away from set point,
requiring a corresponding change in the manipulated variable to bring it back.
The manipulated variable must also change to move the controlled variable
from one set point to another.

Fig. 8-1: Block diagram for feedrorward and feedback control

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 CHAPTER-3
COMPONENTS OF A CONTROL LOOPS & ISA SYMBOLOGY

 Control loop components include:

1. Primary elements/sensors
2. Transmitters
3. signals
4. Indicators
5. Recorders
6. Controllers
7. Final control elements & regulators

1. Primary elements/sensors
 Primary elements are devices that cause some change in their property with
changes in process fluid conditions that can then be measured.
 Because sensing devices are the first element in the control loop to measure the
process variable, they are so called primary elements. Examples of primary
elements include:
 pressure sensing diaphragms, strain-gages, capacitance cells
 resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
 thermocouples
 orifice plates
 pitot tubes
 venturi tubes
 magnetic flow tubes
 coriolis flow tubes
 ultrasonic emitter & receiver
 annubar flow elements

TRANSDUCERS
 A transducer is a device that translates a mechanical signal in to an electrical signal.
Example: inside a capacitance pressure device, a transducer converts changes in
pressure in to a proportional change in capacitance.

CONVERTERS
 A converter is a device that converts one type of signal into another type of signal.
Example: A converter may convert current into voltage or an analog signal into a
digital signal.
 In process control, a converter used to convert a 4-20mA current signal into a 3-15psi
pneumatic signal is called a current-to-pressure converter.

Types of transducers
A. Temperature Transducers
i. Thermocouples
ii. RTDs

B. Pressure Transducers
i. Bourdon Tube
ii. Piston type

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 iii. Capsule & bellows
iv. Diaphragms

C. Speed Transducers
i. Magnetic pickups
ii. Tachometers (Shaft Encoders)

D. Flow Transducers
i. Orifice Plate
ii. Venture Tube
iii. Pitot Tube
iv. Annubar
v. Electromagnetic flow meters
vi. Coriolis flow meter

E. Chemical Transducers
i. pH meter

F. Mass (Weight) measurement

i. Electronic Load Cells

2. Transmitters
 Transmitter is a device that converts a reading from a sensor or transducer into a
standard signal and transmits that signal to a monitor or controller.
 Transmitter types include:
 Pressure transmitters
 Flow
 Temperature
 Level
 Analytic (O2, CO, & pH transmitters)

3. Signals
 There are three kinds of signals that exist for the process industry to transmit the
process variable measurement from the instrument to a centralized control system.
 Pneumatic signal
 Analog signal
 Digital signal

Pneumatic signals
 Pneumatic signals are signals produced by changing the air pressure in a signal pipe in
proportion to the measured change in a process variable.
 The common industry standard pneumatic signal range is 3-15 psi. The 3
corresponds to the lower range value & the 15 corresponds to the upper range value.

Analog signals
 The most common standard electrical signal is the 4-20 mA current signal.
 Other common standard electrical signals include the 1-5V signal and the pulse output.

Digital signals

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 Digital signals are discrete levels or values that are combined I specific ways to
represent process variables and also carry other information, such as diagnostic
information.

4. Indicators
 An indicator is a human-readable device that displays information about the process.
 Indicator may be as simple as a pressure or temperature gauge or more complex, such
as a digital read-out device.
 Some indicators simply display the measured variable, while others have control buttons
that enable operators to change settings in the field.

5. Recorders
 A recorder is a device that records the output of measurement devices.
 Manufacturers often use recorder to gather data for trend analyses.
 Recorders that create charts or graphs are called Chart Recorders.

6. Controllers
 A controller is a device that receives data from a measurement instrument, compares
that data to a programmed setpoint, and. if necessary, signal a control element to take
corrective action
 Lacal controllers are usually oe of the three types:
 Pneumatic,
 Electronic or
 Programmable
 Controllers always have an ability to receive input, to perform a mathematical function
with the input, and to produce an output signal.
 Common examples of controllers include:
 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)- PLCs are usually computers
connected to a set of input/output (I/O) devices. The computers are programmed
to respond to inputs by sending outputs to maintain all process at setpoint.
 Distributed Control System (DCS)- DCSs are controllers that, in addition to
performing control functions, provide readings of the status of the process,
maintain database and advanced man-machine-interface.

7. Final Control Elements/Correcting Elements

 The final control element is the part of the control system that acts to physically change
the manipulated variable.
 The most common final control element are valves, motors, solenoids, and other
devices.
 Final control elements are typically used to increase or decrease fluid flow.

8. Actuators
 An actuator is the part of a final control device that causes a physical change in the
final control device when signaled to do so.
 The most common example of an actuator is a valve actuator, which opens or closes a
valve in response to control signals from a controller.
 Actuators are often powered pneumatically, hydraulically, or electrically.

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 Diaphragms, bellows, springs, gears, hydraulic pilot valves, pistons, or electric motors
are often parts of an actuator system.

ISA SYMBOLOGY
 The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society (ISA) is one of the leading
process control trade and standards organizations.
 The ISA had developed a set of symbols for use in engineering drawings and designs
of control loops.

PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS (P & ID)

 Instrumentation, like many other fields, has a common language of symbols used to
describe instruments.
 A commonly accepted way to communicate details of instrumentation systems is
through piping and instrumentation diagrams.
 A piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) is a schematic diagram of the relationship
between instruments, controllers, piping, and system equipment.
 A P&ID typically includes the:
 instrumentation and designations;
 all valves and their designations;
 mechanical equipment;
 flow direction;
 control inputs and outputs and interlocks; and
 details of the pipe connections, sample lines, and other fittings
 Each instrument and related piece of equipment is identified with a balloon that
contains identifying information.
 One of the best ways of learning how to read and use instrument symbols is by
studying actual P&ID drawings. A drawing includes many standard symbols and
labels.

SYMBOLS

1. Circles (Discrete instruments)

 In a P & ID, a circle represents individual measurement instruments, such as
transmitters, sensors, and detectors.
 A single horizontal line running across the center of the shape indicates that the
instrument or function is located in a primary location (E.g. a Control Room)

 A double line indicates that the function is in an auxiliary location (E.g. an

instrument rack)

 The absence of a line indicates that the function is field mounted

 A dotted line indicates that the function or instrument is inaccessible (E.g. located
behind a panel board)

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2. Square (Shared instruments)
 A square with a circle inside represents instruments that both display
measurement readings and perform some control function.

Field mounted Main control panel front-mounted

Main control panel rear-mounted Auxiliary control panel front-mounted

3. Hexagon (Computer function)

 A hexagon represents computer functions, such as those carried out by a controller.

Field mounted Main control panel front-mounted

Main control panel rear-mounted Auxiliary control panel front-mounted

4. Square (Logic)
 A square with a diamond inside represents PLCs

Field mounted Main control panel front-mounted

Main control panel rear-mounted Auxiliary control panel front-mounted

Valves
 Two triangles with their apexes contacting each other (a “bow tie” shape) represent a
valve in the piping.
 An actuator is always drawn above the valve

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 Pneumatic valve Manual valve Electric valve

Solenoid Piston

Pumps
 Directional arrow showing the flow direction represents a pump

Piping & connections

 Piping and connections are represented with several different symbols
 A heavy solid line represents piping
 A thin solid line represents process connections to instruments (E.g. impulse piping)
 A dashed line represents electrical signals (E.g. 4-20 mA connections)
 A slashed line represents pneumatic signal tubes
 A line with circles on it represents data links

Line types

 Piping

 Process connection (process flow line)

 Electrical signal or

 Pneumatic signal

 Data link

 Capillary tubing for filled systems

 Hydraulic signal line

 Sonic or other wave

INSTRUMENT IDENTIFICATION TAGS

 Each instrument within an instrumented facility should have its own unique
identifying tag consisting of a series of letters describing that instrument’s function, as
well as a number identifying the particular loop it belongs to.

1. IDENTIFICATION LETTERS
 Identification letters on the ISA symbols (E.g. TT for temperature transmitter) indicate:
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  The variable being measured (E.g. flow, pressure, temperature)
 Device’s function (E.g. transmitter, switch, valve, sensor, indicator)
 Some modifiers (E.g. high, low, multifunction)
 The initial letter indicates the measured variable. The second letter indicates a
modifier, readout, or device function. The third letter usually indicates either a device
function or a modifier.
Example:- “FIC” on an instrument tag represents a flow indicating controller.
- “PT” represents a pressure transmitter.

 Some additional examples of instrument tag letters are shown in the following list:
 AIT = Analytical Indicating Transmitter (e.g. an oxygen concentration analyzer
with a built in display of oxygen percentage)
 ESL = Voltage Switch, Low (e.g. a switch used to detect an under-voltage condition
in an electrical power system)
 FFI = Flow Ratio Indicator (e.g. a device indicating the ratio between air and fuel
for a large industrial engine)
 FIC = Flow Indicating Controller (i.e. a controller designed to indicate flow to a
human operator)
 HC = Hand Controller (i.e. a device allowing a human operator to set a control
signal to some desired level, usually to operate a valve or other final control
element)
 JQR = Power Totalizing Recorder (e.g. a watt-hour recorder, tracking total energy
used)
 LSHH = Level Switch, High-High (e.g. a level-sensing switch designed to detect a
dangerously high liquid level and initiate an automatic shutdown in that event)
 LT = Level Transmitter (i.e. a device sensing liquid level and reporting that level in
some analog or digital form)
 PIT = Pressure Indicating Transmitter (e.g. a Rosemount model 3051 pressure
transmitter with a built-in display of measured pressure)
 PDT = Pressure Differential Transmitter (i.e. a pressure transmitter built and
installed to sense the difference of pressure between two points in a fluid system)
 PV = Pressure Valve (i.e. a control valve installed in a loop where the process
variable is pressure)
 TE = Temperature Element (i.e. a sensing element used to directly detect the
temperature of a process material; e.g. a thermocouple, thermistor, filled-bulb,
bimetallic spring)
 TKAH = Temperature Rate-of-change Alarm, High (i.e. a device alarming when the
rate of temperature change exceeds a pre-set limit)
 TV = Temperature Valve (i.e. a control valve installed in a loop where the process
variable is temperature)
 TY = Temperature Converter (e.g. an I/P transducer in a temperature loop)
 VSH = Vibration Switch, High (i.e. a switch used to detect a high level of vibration
on a piece of machinery)
 ZXI, ZYI, and ZZI = Position Indicators for X, Y, and Z axes respectively (e.g.
indicators showing the three axis positions for a CNC machine tool)

2. TAG NUMBERS
 Numbers on P & ID symbols represent instrument tag numbers.
 Often these numbers are associated with a particular control loop.

Identification letters
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 Tag number

Fig. Identification Letters & Tag Number

CHAPTER-4
PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS
 Because in some processes many variable must be controlled, and each variable can
have an impact on the entire system, control systems must be designed to respond to
disturbances at any point in the system and to mitigate the effect of those disturbances
throughout the system.
 Control loops can be divided into two categories:
 Single variable loops and
 Multi-variable loops

FEEDBACK CONTROL
 A Feedback loop measures a process variable and sends the measurement to a
controller for comparison to setpoint. If the process variable is not at setpoint, control
action is taken to return the process variable to setpoint.

Fig.: Feedback Loop

 The advantage of a feedback loop is that it directly controls the desired process
variable.
 The disadvantage to feedback loops is that the process variable must leave set point for
action to be taken.
FEEDFORWARD CONTROL

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 Feedforward control is a control system that anticipates load disturbances and controls
them before they can impact the process variable.

PRESSURE CONTROL LOOP

 Pressure control loops vary in speed-that is, they can respond to changes in load or to
control action slowly or quickly.
 The speed required in a pressure control loop may be dictated by the volume of the
process fluid.
 High-volumes (e.g. large natural gas storage facilities) tend to change more slowly than
low-volume systems

FLOW CONTROL LOOPS

 Generally, flow control loops are regarded as fast loops that respond to changes
quickly. Therefore, flow control equipment must have fast sampling and response
times.
 Because flow transmitters tend to be rater sensitive devices, they can produce rapid
fluctuations or noise in the control signal. To compensate for noise, many flow
transmitters have a damping function that filters out noise. Sometimes filters are
added between the transmitter and the control system.
 Typically, a flow sensor, transmitter, a controller and a valve or pump are used in flow
control loops.

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LEVEL CONTROL LOOPS
 The speed of changes in a level control loop largely depends on the size and shape of
the process vessel (e.g., large vessels take longer to fill than smaller ones)
 Manufacturers may use one of many different measurement technologies to determine
level, including Radar, Ultrasonic, Float gauge, and Pressure measurement.
 The final control element in a level control loop is usually a valve on the input and /or
outflow connections to the tank
 Because it is often critical to avoid tank overflow, redundant level control systems are
sometimes employed.

TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOPS

 Because of the time required to change the temperature of a process fluid, temperature
loops tend to be relatively slow.

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 Feedforward vontrol strategies are often used to increase the speed of the temperature
loop response.
 RTDs or thermocouplesaare typical temperature sensors.
 Temperature transmitter and controllers are used, although it is common to see
temperature sensors wired directly to the input interface of a controller.
 The final control element for a control loop is usually the fuel valve to a burner or a
viale to some kind of heat exchanger.

CHAPTER-5
PRINCIPLE OF PARAMETER MEASUREMENT
1. Principle of pressure measurement

General Theory
 Pressure is probably one of the most commonly measured variables in the power
plant. It includes the measurement of steam pressure; feed water pressure,
condenser pressure, lubricating oil pressure and many more.

 Pressure is actually the measurement of force acting on area of surface. We could

represent this as:

Pressure= Force/ Area or P= F/ A

 The units of measurement are either in :

 pounds per square inch (PSI) in British units or
 Pascals (Pa) in metric. As one PSI is approximately 7000 Pa, we often use kPa
and MPa as units of pressure.

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Pressure Scales
 Pressure varies depending on altitude above sea level, weather pressure fronts and
other conditions.
 The measure of pressure is relative and pressure measurements are stated as
either:
 gauge or
 absolute.

Gauge Pressure
 Gauge pressure is pressure measured with atmospheric pressure as the zero point of
the scale.
 Gauge pressure is the unit we encounter in everyday work (e.g., tire ratings are in
gauge pressure).
 Gauge pressure is referenced to atmospheric pressure
 When measuring gauge pressure, the units increase as the pressure increases.
 Negative gauge pressure is gauge pressure that is less than atmospheric pressure.
 Negative gauge pressure indicates the presence of a partial vacuum.
 The only difference between absolute pressure and gauge pressure is the zero point of
the scale.

Absolute Pressure
 Absolute pressure is pressure measured with a perfect vacuum as the zero point of
the scale.
 Absolute pressure includes the effect of atmospheric pressure with the gauge pressure.
It is denoted by an (a) at the end of the pressure unit [e.g., kPa (a)].
 When measuring absolute pressure, the units increase as the pressure increases.
 Absolute measurements tend to be used where pressures are below atmosphere.
Typically this is around the condenser and vacuum building.
 Absolute pressure cannot be less than zero and is unaffected by changes in
atmospheric pressure.
 Absolute zero pressure is a perfect vacuum. Absolute zero pressure cannot be reached
in practice.
Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

Vacuum Pressure
 Vacuum pressure is pressure less than atmospheric pressure measured with
atmospheric pressure as the zero point of the scale.
 When measuring vacuum, the units increase as the pressure decreases.
 The differences between absolute pressure and vacuum pressure are the zero point and
direction of the scale.
 Vacuum pressure measurement is used when a process is maintained at less than
atmospheric pressure.

Differential Pressure
 Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two measurement points in a
process.
 The actual pressure at the different points may not be known and there is no reference
pressure used.

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 Pressure drop is a pressure decrease that occurs due to friction or obstructions as an
enclosed fluid flows from one point in a process to another.

Figure 9-6: Absolute pressure, gauge pressure, and vacuum pressure are different
pressure measurement scales.

Pressure Measurement
 The object of pressure sensing is to produce a dial indication, control operation or a
standard (4 - 20 mA) electronic signal that represents the pressure in a process. To
accomplish this, most pressure sensors translate pressure into physical motion
that is in proportion to the applied pressure.

MECHANICAL PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS

MANOMETERS
 A manometer is a device for measuring pressure with a liquid-filled tube.
 A manometer is the simplest device for measuring pressure.
 In a manometer, a fluid under pressure is allowed to push against a liquid in a
tube. The movement of the liquid is proportional to the pressure.
 Water is the most common liquid used in manometers. Other liquids may be used
as long as the densities are known.
 The common types of manometers are:
 the U-tube manometer and
 the barometer

U-Tube Manometers
 A U-tube manometer is a clear tube bent into the shape of an elongated letter U.
 Many U-tube manometers have a graduated scale placed in the center between the
vertical columns, or legs, with the scale markings increasing above and below the
zero point.
 Liquid is poured into the tube of the manometer until the level in both vertical
columns is at the middle of the scale or zero.

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  In operation, a pressure is applied to one of the columns and the other column is
left open to atmospheric pressure. The level in the higher-pressure side decreases
and the level in the lower-pressure side increases.

 The difference in the height of the two liquid columns represents the applied
pressure.

Barometers
 A barometer is a manometer used to measure atmospheric pressure.
 Barometric pressure is a pressure reading made with a barometer. The earliest
barometer was a long vertical glass tube that had been sealed at the bottom and filled
with mercury. The open end was then turned upside down into a container of mercury
without allowing any air into the tube. See Figure 10-4.
 The mercury in the tube falls to a level where the head of the mercury is equal to the
atmospheric pressure. When the atmospheric pressure changes, the level of the
mercury changes. A scale along the tube indicates the height of the column of mercury,
equal to the barometric pressure, measured in inches or millimeters.

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MECHANICAL PRESSURE SENSORS
 Most of the mechanical sensors are elastic deformation pressure elements.
 An elastic deformation element is a device consisting of metal, rubber, or plastic
components such as diaphragms, capsules, pressure springs, or bellows that flex,
expand, or contract in proportion to the pressure applied within them or against them.
 Some elements are combined with electrical components that convert the deformation
into signals for indication, transmission, and control.
 In mechanical designs, the movement of the pressure element is transferred through a
mechanical linkage that moves a pointer in a gauge.
 In electrical systems, a transducer converts the movement of the pressure element to
an electrical signal that can be used for control.

Diaphragms
 A diaphragm is a mechanical pressure sensor consisting of a thin, flexible disc that
flexes in response to a change in pressure.
 Pressure-sensing diaphragms are commonly made of steel, stainless steel, titanium,
beryllium copper, bronze, rubber, or other materials.
 A spring acting on the center of the diaphragm may be used to provide the
counteracting force to the applied pressure.
 Diaphragms vary in thickness and area and may be flat or convoluted to provide
greater displacement. The larger ones are made of thinner materials for lower
pressures and the smaller ones are made of thicker materials for higher pressures. See
Figure 10-5.

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 Figure 10-5: Diaphragm Gauges

 A diaphragm flexes in response to an applied pressure. The flexing motion moves a

pointer.

Capsules
 A capsule has two diaphragms attached together to provide an empty chamber between
them. Capsules may be stacked to amplify the movement.
 A capsule is a mechanical pressure sensor consisting of two convoluted metal
diaphragms with their outer edges welded, brazed, or soldered together to provide an
empty chamber between them.
 One of the diaphragms is connected at its center to metal tubing that admits fluid to
the chamber. The other diaphragm is fitted with a mechanical connection to the
indicator, or fitted with a transducer. Capsules may be used singly or stacked to
provide greater travel. See Figure 10-6.

Figure 10-6: A capsule gauge

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Pressure Springs
 A pressure spring is a mechanical pressure sensor consisting of a hollow tube formed
into a helical, spiral, or C shape.
 The spring is welded, brazed, or flanged to metal tubing that admits the pressurized
fluid from the process.
 The Bourdon tube is the original pressure spring and is named after its inventor
 A Bourdon tube is a C-shaped tube that is flattened into an elliptical cross section.
 As the tube is filled with pressurized fluid, the increasing pressure tends to return the
spring to its original circular cross section. This straightens the tube and causes
movement of the end of the spring.
 A pressure spring can easily be used as a pressure switch by adding a linkage to a
switching device. See Figure 10-7.

Figure 10-7: A Bourdon tube pressure switch

 A Bourdon tube pressure switch activates a circuit at a pressure setpoint.

Bellows
 A bellows is a mechanical pressure sensor consisting of a one-piece, collapsible,
seamless metallic unit with deep folds formed from thin-wall tubing with an enclosed
spring to provide stability, or with an assembled unit of welded sections. See Figure
10-9.
 A bellows is an elastic deformation element that flexes with changes in pressure.

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 Figure 10-9: A bellows

 The deflection of a bellows is dependent on its diameter, its thickness, and the
material. The free end of the bellows is attached to a linkage that moves a pointer, or it
is linked to a transducer.

ELECTRICAL PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS

ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
 An electrical transducer is a device that converts input energy into output electrical
energy.
 A pressure transducer is often used to convert the mechanical displacement of a
diaphragm caused by a change in applied external force into an electrical signal.
 A secondary converter, such as an analog to digital converter, converts the analog
electrical signal to a digital signal. A pressure transmitter is a pressure transducer with
a power supply and a device that conditions and converts the transducer output into a
standard analog or digital output.

Resistance
 A resistance pressure transducer is a diaphragm pressure sensor with a strain gauge
as the electrical output element.
 Resistance pressure transducers are the most widely used electrical pressure
transducers.
 A strain gauge is a transducer that measures the deformation, or strain, of a rigid
body as a result of the force applied to the body. See Figure 11-1.

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 Figure 11-1: A strain gauge

 The amount of resistance change depends on the wire material and diameter and the
configuration of the strain gauge.
 The grid is attached to a diaphragm and is stretched or distorted when a pressure is
applied to the diaphragm. An unbounded strain gauge has a part of the gauge that
moves with the force applied, with wires connecting the moving parts. The movement
changes the resistance of the wires by stretching them, as in a bonded strain gauge,
creating a voltage differential proportional to the applied force.
 A strain foil gauge is a strain gauge that has the wire grid impressed on nonmetallic foil
and then the assembly is mechanically bonded to the metal diaphragm.
 A thin-film strain gauge is a strain gauge that has the wire grid sputter-deposited on
the diaphragm surface.
 It is important that the strain gauge be affected only by the distortion due to applied
pressure and not by other effects like the heat of the wire.

Capacitance
 A capacitance pressure transducer is a diaphragm pressure sensor with a capacitor as
the electrical element.
 A basic capacitor consists of two small, thin electrically conductive plates of equal area
that are parallel to one another and separated by a dielectric material. The capacitive
plates are typically constructed of stainless steel, but other alloys are used in highly
corrosive service. See Figure 11-3.
 In a typical industrial capacitive pressure sensor, part of the diaphragm is one
plate and the mounting surface is the other.
 When pressure distorts the diaphragm and alters the distance between the plates,
the capacitance of the sensor changes.
 Capacitive transducers are used in high frequency bridge circuits.
 The change in the capacitance of the sensor causes a variation in the impedance
that varies with the applied pressure.

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 Figure 11-3. A capacitance pressure transducer

Differential Pressure Cells.

 A differential pressure cell uses a diaphragm with a capacitance circuit to measure
differential pressure.
 A differential pressure (d/p) cell converts a differential pressure to an electrical output
signal.
 A differential pressure transmitter sends the output of a d/p cell to another location
where the signal is used for recording, indicating, or control.
 Many electronic d/p cells consist of a diaphragm surrounded by silicone oil where the
process pressure is applied to one side of the diaphragm. Another process pressure or
atmospheric pressure is applied to the other side of the diaphragm. See Figure 11-4.

Figure 11-4. Differential Pressure Cells

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 The center diaphragm is a stretched spring element that deflects in response to a
differential pressure applied across it. Two capacitor plates measure the position of the
center diaphragm. The differential capacitance between the center diaphragm and the
plates is converted to a digital or 4 mA to 20 mA analog signal. An absolute pressure
cell converts an absolute pressure measurement into an electrical output signal. It is
similar to a differential pressure cell except that one side is a sealed vacuum instead of
a second process pressure.

Inductance
 An inductance pressure transducer is a bellows or diaphragm pressure sensor with
electrical coils and a movable iron core as the electrical element. The core moves
inside the coils to change the electrical output.
 Inductance is the property of an electric circuit that opposes a changing current flow.
See Figure 11-5.

Figure 11-5: Inductance Pressure Transducers

Piezoelectric
 A piezoelectric pressure transducer is a diaphragm pressure sensor combined with a
crystalline material that is sensitive to mechanical stress in the form of pressure.
 This type of transducer produces an electrical output proportional to the pressure on
the diaphragm. No external power is needed.
 As the crystal is compressed, a small electric potential is developed across the
crystal. The potential produced by the crystal can be amplified and conditioned to be
proportional to the applied pressure. Temperature compensation is often included as
part of the circuitry. See Figure 11-8.

Figure 11-8: Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers

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 Piezoelectric pressure transducers are not appropriate for measuring static pressures
because the signal decays rapidly.
 Piezoelectric pressure transducers are used to measure rapidly changing pressure that
results from explosions, pressure pulsations, or other sources of shock, vibration, or
sudden pressure change.

2. Principles of level measurement

Level gauges (sightglasses)

 Level gauges are often found in industrial level-measurement applications, even when
another level-measuring instrument is present, to serve as a direct indicator for an
operator to monitor in case there is doubt about the accuracy of the other instrument.
 The level gauge or sightglass is a very simple and effective technology for direct visual
indication of process level.
 In its simplest form, a level gauge is nothing more than a clear tube through which
process liquid may be seen. The following photograph shows a simple example of a
sightglass:
 A functional diagram of a sightglass shows how it visually represents the level of liquid
inside a vessel such as a storage tank:

Float
 A float is a device that rides on the surface of the fluid or solid within the storage
vessel.
 The float itself must be of substantially lesser density than the substance of interest
and it must not corrode or otherwise react with the substance.
 A simpler version of this technique uses a spring-reel to constantly tension the cable
holding the float, such that the float continuously rides on the surface of the liquid in
the vessel:

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 One of the potential disadvantages of tape-and-float level measurement systems is
fouling of the tape (and guide wires) if the substance is sticky or unclean.

Echo
 A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a
traveling wave off the surface of the liquid – typically from a location at the top
of the vessel – using the time-of-flight for the waves as an indicator of distance, and
therefore an indicator of liquid height inside the vessel.
 Modern electronic design and instrument manufacturing practices are making
echo-based level instruments more and more practical for industrial applications.

1. Ultrasonic level measurement

 Ultrasonic level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter (located at
some high point) to the surface of a process material located farther below using
reflected sound waves. The frequency of these waves extends beyond the range of
human hearing, which is why they are called ultrasonic.
 The time-of-flight for a sound pulse indicates this distance, and is interpreted by the
transmitter electronics as process level.
 These transmitters may output a signal corresponding either to the fullness of the
vessel (fillage) or the amount of empty space remaining at the top of a vessel (ullage).

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 The instrument itself consists of an electronics module containing all the power,
computation, and signal processing circuits; plus an ultrasonic transducer to send and
receive the sound waves.
 This transducer is typically piezoelectric in nature, being the equivalent of a very
high-frequency audio speaker. The following photographs show a typical electronics
module (left) and sonic transducer (right):

Ultrasonic sensors
 An ultrasonic sensor is a level measuring instrument that uses ultrasonic sounds to
measure level.
 Transit time is the time it takes for a transmitted ultrasonic signal to travel from the
ultrasonic level transmitter to the surface of the material to be measured and back to
the receiver. The electronic circuitry in the receiver measures the transit time and
calculates the distance. See Figure 15-2.

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 Figure 15-2. Ultrasonic Sensors

2. Radar level measurement

 Radar level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter (located at some
high point) to the surface of a process material located farther below in much the same
way as ultrasonic transmitters – by measuring the time-of-flight of a traveling wave.
 Radar level measurement instrument uses radio waves.
 Radio waves are electromagnetic in nature (comprised of alternating electric and
magnetic fields), and very high frequency (in the microwave frequency range – GHz).
 Some radar level instruments use waveguide “probes” to guide the electromagnetic
waves to and from the process liquid while others send electromagnetic waves out
through open space to reflect off the process material.
 The instruments using waveguides are called guided-wave radar instruments, whereas
the radar instruments relying on open space for signal propagation are called non-
contact radar.

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 Non-contact radar transmitters are always mounted on the top side of a storage vessel.
 Modern radar transmitters are quite compact, as this photograph shows:

 Non-contact radar devices suffer much more signal loss than guided-wave radar
devices, due to the natural tendency of electromagnetic radiation to spread out over
space. Waveguides combat this signal loss by focusing the radio energy along a
straight-line path.

RADAR
 Radar level sensors use very high frequency (about 10 GHz) radio waves. These radio
waves are aimed at the surface of the material in the storage vessel. The radio waves
are reflected off the material in the vessel and returned to the emitting source.
 Common types of radar systems are pulsed, frequency modulated continuous wave,
and guided wave radar.

Pulsed Radar
 A pulsed radar level sensor is a level measuring sensor consisting of a radar generator
that directs an intermittent pulse with a constant frequency toward the surface of the
material in a vessel.
 It measures the transit time from the transmitter to the surface of the material to
determine level.
 The time it takes for the pulse to travel to the surface of the material, reflect off the
material, and return to the source is a function of the distance from the sensor to the
material surface. See Figure 15-4.

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 Figure 15-4. Pulsed Radar

3. Laser level measurement

 The least-common form of echo-based level measurement is laser, which uses pulses of
laser light reflected off the surface of a liquid to detect the liquid level.
 Applications of this technology include motion control on large machines, where a laser
points at a moving reflector, the laser’s electronics calculating distance to the reflector
based on the amount of time it takes for the laser “echo” to return.

LASERS
 A laser measures the transit time of reflected light to determine level.
 Laser beams are intense, narrow light beams that can travel long distances.
 A crystal-emitted pulsing laser beam with a wavelength of about 900 nm is directed
at the surface of the process material. The laser beam is reflected back to the
emitter where a very accurate timing device measures the out-and-back interval.
The travel time varies with the level. See Figure 15-7.

Figure 15-7: Laser Level Measurement

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3. Principles of temperature measurement

i. THERMAL EXPANSION THERMOMETERS

LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS
 A liquid-in-glass thermometer is a thermal expansion thermometer consisting of a
sealed, narrow-bore glass tube with a bulb at the bottom filled with a liquid. Liquid-
inglass thermometers are commonly called glass-stem thermometers.

Figure 5-3: Industrial Thermometers

BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS
 The principle of differential thermal expansion is the basis of operation for some
thermometers such as bimetallic expansion thermometers.
 A bimetallic thermometer is a thermal expansion thermometer that uses a strip consisting of
two metal alloys with different coefficients of thermal expansion that are fused together and
formed into a single strip, and a pointer or indicating mechanism calibrated for
temperature reading.
 A bimetallic element is a bimetallic strip that is usually wound into a spiral, helix, or coil
and allows movement for a given change in temperature.
 Industrial bimetallic elements can be wound in a variety of shapes to fit special
requirements. When the helix or spiral is heated, it unwinds because the alloy with the
greater coefficient expands more than the other alloy. A pointer can be attached to the helix
by a shaft that moves as the helix unwinds and indicates the temperature on a calibrated
circular temperature scale. See Figure 5-4.

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 Figure 5-4: Bimetallic Thermometers

 Bimetallic thermometers work through differential thermal expansion and can be used
as switches to activate circuits.

PRESSURE-SPRING THERMOMETERS
 A pressure-spring thermometer is a thermal expansion thermometer consisting of a
filled, hollow spring attached to a capillary tube and bulb where the fluid in the bulb
expands or contracts with temperature changes. See Figure 5-5.

Figure 5-5: Bourdon tubes can be manufactured in C-shape, spiral, and helix
configurations.

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Liquid-Filled Pressure-Spring Thermometers
 A liquid-filled pressure-spring thermometer is a pressure-spring thermometer that is
filled with a liquid under pressure.
 When the bulb is immersed in a heated substance, the liquid expands. This causes the
pressure spring to unwind. The indicating, recording, and controlling mechanisms are
attached to the pressure spring and are actuated by its movements. See Figure 5-6.

Figure 5-6. Liquid-Filled Pressure-Spring Thermometer

ii. ELECTRICAL THERMOMETERS

THERMOCOUPLES
 A thermocouple is an electrical thermometer consisting of two dissimilar metal wires
joined at one end and a voltmeter to measure the voltage at the other end of the two
wires. See Figure 6-1.
 RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an
externally-sourced electric current in order to function as temperature sensors.

Figure 6-1: A thermocouple creates an electrical potential when the junction is at

an elevated temperature.
 A thermocouple junction is the point where the two dissimilar wires are joined.

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 The hot junction, or measuring junction, is the joined end of the thermocouple that is
exposed to the process where the temperature measurement is desired.

 When the hot junction is at a different temperature than the cold junction, a
measurable voltage is generated across the cold junction.
 The cold junction, or reference junction, is the end of a thermocouple used to provide a
reference point.

Thermocouple Operating Principles

Phenomena that govern the behavior of a thermocouple are the Seebeck effect.

Seebeck Effect.
The Seebeck effect is a thermoelectric effect where continuous current is generated in a
circuit where the junctions of two dissimilar conductive materials are kept at different
temperatures. When the circuit is opened at the coldjunction, an electrical potential
difference (the Seebeck voltage) exists across the two dissimilar wires at that junction. The
voltage produced by exposing the measuring junction to heat depends on the composition
of the two wires and the temperature difference between the hot junction and the cold
junction. See Figure 6-2.

Figure 6-2: The Seebeck effect causes an electrical potential when two dissimilar wires are
joined and the end is heated.

Thermocouple Wires
 Thermocouple wires are available as precision, standard, and extension grade wires.

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  Precision grade wires have an error rating of ±0.5% of reading or 1°C,
whichever is greater.
 Standard grade wires have an error rating of ±0.75% of reading or 2°C,
whichever is greater.
 Extension grade wires have an error rating of ±1% of reading or 4°C, whichever
is greater.
 There are several types of thermocouple wires. The choice of the wire pair depends on
the application.
 The most common thermocouple wires are combinations of iron/constantan, Type J;
copper/constantan, Type T; Chromel/Alumel, Type K; Chromel/ constantan, Type E;
and platinum-rhodium/ platinum, Type R and Type S.

Thermocouple types
 Thermocouples exist in many different types, each with its own color codes for the
dissimilar-metal wires. Here is a table showing the more common thermocouple types
and their standardized colors, along with some distinguishing characteristics of the
metal types to aid in polarity identification when the wire colors are not clearly visible:

 Note how the negative (−) wire of every thermocouple type is color-coded red.

Temperature sensor accessories

 One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a
pressure-tight sheath known as a thermowell. This may be thought of as a thermally
conductive protrusion into a process vessel or pipe that allows a temperature-sensitive
instrument to detect process temperature without opening a hole in the vessel or pipe.
 Thermowells are critically important for installations where the temperature element
(RTD, thermocouple, thermometer, etc.) must be replaceable without de-pressurizing
the process.
 Thermowells may be made out of any material that is thermally conductive, pressure-
tight, and not chemically reactive with the process. Most thermowells are formed out of
either metal (stainless steel or other alloy) or ceramic materials.
 A simple diagram showing a thermowell in use with a temperature gauge is shown
here:

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 A photo of a complete RTD assembly (connection head, RTD, and thermowell) appears
in the next photograph:

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs)

 A resistance temperature detector (RTD) is an electrical thermometer consisting of a
high-precision resistor with resistance that varies with temperature, a voltage or
current source, and a measuring circuit.
 RTDs are accurate and reliable temperature sensors especially for low temperatures
and small ranges.
 They are generally more expensive than thermocouples and are not used for high
temperatures or corrosive measuring environments.
 Thermocouples are often used in situations where the use of an RTD is not appropriate
because of high temperatures or a corrosive measuring environment.
 RTDs are devices made of pure metal wire (usually platinum or copper) which always
increase in resistance with increasing temperature.

RTD Operating Principles

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 An RTD increases its resistance when it is exposed to heat. This gives the RTD a
positive temperature coefficient (PTC).
 A protective sheath material covers the RTD wires, which are coiled around an
insulator that serves as a support. See Figure 6-19.
 Unlike a thermocouple, an RTD does not generate its own voltage. An external source
of voltage or current must be incorporated into the circuit.
 The voltage drop across an RTD provides a much larger output than the Seebeck
voltage of a thermocouple, allowing an RTD to be more precise over a small
temperature range.

Figure 6-19. A resistance temperature detector (RTD) contains a resistor with a resistance
that varies with temperature.

Proper RTD sensor connections

 Proper connections for 2-wire, 3-wire, and 4-wire RTD sensor to a
userconfigurable transmitter are shown in the following illustrations:

 It is critically important to note that the common connections shown by the symbols
for 3- and 4-wire RTD sensors represent junction points at the sensor ; not terminals
jumpered by the technician at the time of installation, and not internal jumpers inside
the transmitter.
 The whole purpose of having 3-wire and 4-wire RTD circuits is to eliminate errors due
to voltage drop along the current-carrying wires, and this can only be realized if the
“sensing” wire(s) extend out to the RTD itself and connect there.

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 If the transmitter’s sensing terminal(s) are only jumpered to a current carrying
terminal, the transmitter will sense voltage dropped by the RTD plus voltage dropped
by the current-carrying wire(s), leading to falsely high temperature indications.
 Always bear in mind the purpose of a 3-wire or a 4-wire RTD connection: to avoid
inaccuracies caused by voltage drops along the current-carrying wires. The only way to
do this is to ensure the sensing (non-current-carrying) wire(s) extend from the
transmitter terminal(s) all the way to the sensor itself. This way, the transmitter is able
to “look past” the voltage drops of the current-carrying wires to “see” the voltage
dropped only by the RTD itself.
 The following illustrations show both correct and incorrect ways to connect a 2-wire
RTD to a 3- or 4-wire transmitter:

 Jumpers placed at the transmitter terminals defeat the purpose of the transmitter’s 3-
wire or 4-wire capabilities, downgrading the performance to that of a 2-wire system.

THERMISTORS
 Thermistor is a contraction of a term “thermal resistor”.
 Thermistors are temperature dependent resistors. They are made of semiconductor
material which have negative temperature coefficient of resistivity i.e. their
resistance decreases with increase of temperature.

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 Figure 6-21. Thermistors are available in a variety of shapes and sizes.

 Thermistors have much higher resistance than RTDs.

 Thermistors are typically available with resistances ranging from 100 Ω to 100 MΩ.

INFRARED RADIATION THERMOMETERS

 An IR thermometer is a thermometer that measures the infrared radiation (IR) emitted
by an object to determine its temperature. Infrared radiation is that part of the
electromagnetic spectrum with longer wavelengths than visible light.
 An IR thermometer can be used in areas where it is very difficult to use a contact
thermometer.

PRINCIPLES OF FLOW MEASUREMENT

CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUID FLOW

 Fluid flow is the movement of liquids in pipes or channels, and gases or vapors
in pipes or ducts.
 It is often more convenient to measure the flow of a fluid by measuring some
other characteristic that varies in a predictable and reliable way with the rate of
flow, such as a drop in pressure caused by a restriction in a pipeline.

Flow Rate and Total Flow

 The two types of flow measurements are:
 flow rate and
 total flow
 Flow rate is the quantity of fluid passing a point at a particular moment. Total
flow is the quantity of fluid that passes a point during a specific time interval.
 The flow rate of liquids is expressed in volumetric or mass units.
 The flow rate of gases and vapors is usually expressed in volumetric units.

Laminar Flow
 Laminar flow is smooth fluid flow that has a flow profile that is parabolic in
shape with no mixing between the streamlines.

Turbulent Flow
 Turbulent flow is fluid flow in which the flow profile is a flattened parabola, the
streamlines are not present, and the fluid is freely intermixing.

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PRIMARY FLOW ELEMENTS
 To measure the rate of flow by the differential pressure method, some form of
restriction is placed in the pipeline to create a pressure drop.
 Since flow in the pipe must pass through a reduced area, the pressure before
the restriction is higher than after or downstream. Such a reduction in pressure
will cause an increase in the fluid velocity because the same amount of flow
must take place before the restriction as after it.
 The point of maximum developed differential pressure is between the pressure
upstream of the restriction and the pressure downstream of the restriction, at
the point of highest velocity.
 Velocity will vary directly with the flow and as the flow increases a greater
pressure differential will occur across the restriction.
 Sy measuring the differential pressure across a restriction, one can measure
the rate of flow.
 A primary flow element is a pipeline restriction that causes a pressure drop
used to measure flow.
 The some common primary flow elements:
 orifice plate
 flow nozzles,
 venturi tubes and
 pitot tubes

Orifice Plate
 The orifice plate is the most common form of restriction that is used in flow
measurement.
 An orifice plate is basically a thin metal plate with a hole bored in the center.
The upstream side of the orifice plate usually has a sharp, edge.


Fig: Orifice plate

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 Fig 1 A Typical Orifice Plate

 When an orifice plate is installed in a flow line (usually clamped between a pair
of flanges), increase of fluid flow velocity through the reduced area at the orifice
develops a differential pressure across the orifice. This pressure is a function of
flow rate.
 With an orifice plate in the pipe work, static pressure increases slightly
upstream of the orifice (due to back pressure effect) and then decreases sharply
as the flow passes through the orifice, reaching a minimum at a point called the
vena contracta where the velocity of the flow is at a maximum. Beyond this
point, static pressure starts to recover as the flow slows down.

Fig 2 Orifice Plate Installation with Pressure Profile

 On observing Figure 2, one can see that the measured differential pressure
developed by an orifice plate also depends on the location of the pressure
sensing points or pressure taps.

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 The point where the fluid flow profile constricts to a minimum cross-sectional area
after flowing through the orifice is called the vena contracta, and it is the area of
minimum fluid pressure

Flow Nozzles
 A flow nozzle is a primary flow element consisting of a restriction shaped like a
curved funnel that allows a little more flow than an orifice plate and reduces the
straight run pipe requirements.
 The nozzle is mounted between a pair of standard flanges.
 The pressure-sensing taps are located in the piping a fixed distance upstream
and downstream of the flow nozzle. See Figure 19-2.

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Venturi Tubes
 A venturi tube is a primary flow element consisting of a fabricated pipe section
with a converging inlet section, a straight throat, and a diverging outlet section.
 For applications where high permanent pressure loss is not tolerable, a venturi
tube (Figure 6) can be used. Because of its gradually curved inlet and outlet
cones, almost no permanent pressure drop occurs.
 This design also minimizes wear and plugging by allowing the flow to sweep
suspended solids through without obstruction.

Fig 6 Ventruri Tube Installation

 Venturi tubes are much more expensive than orifice plates but are more
accurate and recover 90% or more of the differential pressure. This reduces the
burden on pumps and the cost of power to run them.
 Venturi tubes are frequently used to measure large flows of water. For even
higher energy efficiency, a low-loss flow tube can be used.

Pitot Tubes
 A pitot tube is a flow element consisting of a small bent tube with a nozzle
opening facing into the flow.
 The Pitot tube senses pressure as the fluid stagnates (comes to a complete stop)
against the open end of a forward-facing tube.

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  Most pitot tubes actually consist of two tubes. One, the low-pressure tube
measures the static pressure in the pipe. The second, the high-pressure tube
is inserted in the pipe in such a way that the flowing fluid is stopped in the
tube.
 The pressure in the high-pressure tube will be the static pressure in the
system plus a pressure dependant on the force required stopping the flow.

Fig 9 Pitot Tube

 A more common form of Pitot tube seen in industry is the averaging Pitot tube
consisting of several stagnation holes sensing velocity at multiple points across the
width of the flow:

 Pitot tubes are more common measuring gas flows than liquid flows.
 Pitot tubes are commonly used to measure air velocity.
Example: Pitot tubes are used for measuring air velocity in ducts and for
measuring the airspeed of planes. See Figure 19-4.

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 Figure 19-4: Standard Pitot Tube

Annubar
 An annubar is very similar to a pitot tube. The difference is that there is
more than one hole into the pressure measuring chambers.
 The pressure in the high-pressure chamber represents an average of the
velocity across the pipe.
 Annubars are more accurate than pitots as they are not as position sensitive
or as sensitive to the velocity profile of the fluid.

Fig 10 Annubar

Annubar flow element

 An “Annubar” is an averaging pitot tube consolidating high and low pressure sensing
ports in a single probe assembly:

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 What appears at first glance to be a single, square-shaped tube inserted into the pipe is
actually a double-ported tube with holes on both the upstream and downstream edges:

 A section of Annubar tube clearly shows the porting and dual chambers, designed to
bring upstream (stagnation) and downstream pressures out of the pipe to a differential
pressure-sensing instrument:

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MAGNETIC FLOWMETERS
 Magnetic flowmeters use a magnetic field to measure the flow of a conducting fluid.
 A fundamental principle of electromagnetism states that a voltage is generated when a
conductor moves relative to a magnetic field. As a flowing conductive liquid moves
within the nonconductive tube and passes through the magnetic field of the coils, a
voltage is induced and detected by the electrodes. The amount of voltage depends on
the strength of the magnetic field, the distance between the electrodes, and the
conductivity and velocity of the liquid.
 A magmeter has no moving parts other than the flowing liquid.
 Magmeters have no flow-restricting components,
 They are designed for many corrosive fluids, and they are not adversely affected by
complicated piping configurations.
 They have been applied in many water supply and wastewater facilities and are
somewhat immune to internal buildups.

Figure 21-1: Magnetic flowmeters

 Consider water flowing through a pipe, with a magnetic field passing perpendicularly
through the pipe:

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 The direction of liquid flow cuts perpendicularly through the lines of magnetic flux,
generating a voltage along an axis perpendicular to both. Metal electrodes opposite
each other in the pipe wall intercept this voltage, making it readable to an electronic
circuit.
 Magnetic flowmeters are fairly tolerant of swirl and other large-scale turbulent fluid
behavior.
 Electrical conductivity of the process liquid must meet a certain minimum value, but
that is all.
 Motional EMF is strictly a function of physical dimensions, magnetic field strength, and
fluid velocity.
 Proper grounding of the flowtube is very important for magnetic flowmeters. The
motional EMF generated by most liquid flowstreams is very weak (1 millivolt or less!),
and therefore may be easily overshadowed by noise voltage present as a result of stray
electric currents in the piping and/or liquid. To combat this problem, magnetic
flowmeters are usually equipped with grounding conductors placed to shunt (bypass)
stray electric currents around the flowtube so the only voltage intercepted by the
electrodes will be the motional EMF produced by liquid flow, and not voltage drops
created by stray currents through the resistance of the liquid.
 The following photograph shows a Rosemount model 8700 magnetic flowtube, with two
braided-wire grounding straps clearly visible:

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ULTRASONIC FLOWMETERS
 An ultrasonic flowmeter is a flowmeter that uses the principles of sound transmission
in liquids to measure flow.
 They use either the change in frequency of sound reflected from moving elements or
measure the change in the speed of sound in a moving liquid.
 Ultrasonic flowmeters measure fluid velocity by passing high-frequency sound waves
along the fluid flow path. Fluid motion influences the propagation of these sound
waves, which may then be measured to infer fluid velocity.
 Two major sub-types of ultrasonic flowmeters exist:
 Doppler and
 transit-time
 Both types of ultrasonic flowmeter work by transmitting a high-frequency sound wave
into the fluid stream (the incident pulse) and analyzing the received pulse.
 Doppler flowmeters exploit the Doppler effect, which is the shifting of frequency
resulting from waves emitted by or reflected by a moving object.
 A Doppler flowmeter bounces sound waves off of bubbles or particulate material in the
flow stream, measuring the frequency shift and inferring fluid velocity from the
magnitude of that shift.
 Transit-time flowmeters, sometimes called counterpropagation flowmeters, use a pair of
opposed sensors to measure the time difference between a sound pulse traveling with
the fluid flow versus a sound pulse traveling against the fluid flow. Since the motion of
fluid tends to carry a sound wave along, the sound pulse transmitted downstream will
make the journey faster than a sound pulse transmitted upstream:

MASS FLOWMETERS
 A mass flowmeter is a flowmeter that measures the actual quantity of mass of a flowing
fluid.
 Mass flow measurement is a better way to determine the quantity of material than
volumetric flow measurement.

Coriolis flowmeters
 A Coriolis meter is a mass flowmeter consisting of specially formed tubing that is
oscillated at a right angle to the flowing mass of fluid.

 Coriolis mass meters use the vibrations and twist of a tube to measure flow.
 Coriolis meter is the common type of mass flowmeters
 The Coriolis mass flowmeter provides a very accurate measurement of the flow of either
liquids or gases.

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 It is an expensive meter but it has become more widely used because of its accuracy.

Coriolis Meter Operation

 Put into very simple terms, a Coriolis flowmeter works by shaking one or more tubes
carrying the flowing fluid, then precisely measuring the frequency and phase of that
shaking.
 The back-and-forth shaking is driven by an electromagnetic coil, powered by an
electronic amplifier circuit to shake the tube(s) at their mechanical resonant frequency.
Since this frequency depends on the mass of each tube, and the mass of the tubes
depends on the density of the fluid filling the fixed volume of the tubes, the resonant
frequency becomes an inverse indication of fluid density, whether or not fluid is flowing
through the tubes.
 As fluid begins to move through the tubes, the inertia of the moving fluid adds another
dimension to the tubes’ motion: the tubes begin to undulate, twisting slightly instead of
just shaking back and forth. This twisting motion is directly proportional to the mass
flow rate, and is internally measured by comparing the phase shift between motion at
one point on the tube versus another point on the tube: the greater the undulation, the
greater the phase shift between these two points’ vibrations.
 The sine waves are in phase when there is no flow through the tubes. When there is
flow, the tubes twist in opposite directions, resulting in the sine waves being out of
phase. The degree of phase shift varies with the mass flow through the meter.

Practical Coriolis flowmeter construction

 Two identical Utubes are built next to each other and shaken in complementary
fashion (always moving in opposite directions). Tube twist is measured as relative
motion from one tube to the next, not as motion between the tube and the stationary
housing of the flowmeter.

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WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

LOAD CELLS
 Weighing a vessel containing either liquids or solids is a very accurate method of
determining level. Weighing a vessel and its contents calls for the installation of load
cells.
 A load cell is a device used to weigh large items and typically consists of either piston-
cylinder devices that produce hydraulic output pressure or strain gauge assemblies
that provide electrical output proportional to the applied load. See Figure 16-2.

Figure 16-2. The most common configurations for load cells are compression and
tension.
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Strain Gauge Load Cells
 A strain gauge load cell typically has a beam, column, or other stress member
with strain gauges bonded to it. When a weight load is impressed against a
member, the strain gauge is deformed and its electrical resistance changes. The
balance of the bridge provides an output that is proportional to the force acting
upon the load cell.
 Compression load cell applications require the use of stay rods to stabilize the
vessel.
 A compression-type electronic load cell measures the applied stress to a
compressive strain gauge to determine weight. See Figure 16-4.

Figure 16-4: A compression-type electronic load cell

 Compression load cells are not restrained at the top or bottom ends and thus
cannot keep the vessel from moving laterally. Horizontal, lateral, and lengthwise
stay rods are used to prevent the vessel fixed end from moving in any direction.
Lateral stay rods are used at the movable end of the vessel so that only
lengthwise movement is allowed.
 Individual load cells are sized for different maximum applied loads. If four load
cells are to be used, the maximum total weight of the vessel is divided by four.

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 CHAPTER-6

FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

CONTROL VALVES
REGULATORS & DAMPERS
ACTUATORS & POSITIONERS

CONTROL VALVES
 The control valve, or final control element, is the last device in the control loop. It takes
a signal from the process instruments and acts directly to control the process fluid.
 Control valves maintain process variables such as pressure, flow, temperature, or level
at their desired value, despite changes in process dynamics and load.
 Control valves are the most common type of final element.
 A throttling control valve is a valve and actuator assembly that is able to modulate fluid
flow at any position between fully open and fully closed in response to signals from a
controller.
 The capability of throttling control valves to precisely adjust the flow of the controlled
fluid is vital for accurate control. See Figure 39-1.

Figure 39-1: Throttling Control Valves

 Control valves are used to regulate the flow of materials and energy into and out of a
process. Throttling control valves are a very common type of final element.
 Valves, such as ball, plug, and diaphragm valves, were originally designed primarily as
ON/OFF valves, but were modified to provide throttling service.
 Butterfly valves were originally designed for ON/OFF service, but they perform well in
throttling services without any modification.
 A normally closed (NC) valve is a valve that does not allow pressurized fluid to flow out
of the valve in the spring-actuated (de-energized) position.
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 A normally open (NO) valve is a valve that allows pressurized fluid to flow out of the
valve in the spring actuated (de-energized) position.

General Categories of Control Valves

 The two general categories of control valves are:
a. Sliding stem valves
b. Rotary shaft valves
 Typical sliding-stem valves are straight-pattern valves (sometimes called globe valves)
and angle pattern valves.
 Rotary valves include ball and butterfly valves.

A. SLIDING STEM VALVES

 A sliding stem control valve is a throttling valve that has a stem (shaft) attached
to a plug or disc at one end and an actuator at the other end.
 The valve is opened and closed by the stem movement moving the plug relative
to the port inside the valve body.

Figure 39-7: Sliding Stem Control Valves

 A sliding stem control valve uses the linear motion of the stem to open or close the
valve.
 A valve stem is a valve component that consists of a metal shaft that transmits
the force of the actuator to the valve plug. The stem passes through a section called
a bonnet that fastens to the valve body. See Figure 39-7.

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 Fig: a) Single-ported globe valve b) Double-ported globe valve

 A valve bonnet is a packing enclosure that is bolted or threaded to the top of the
valve body. The bonnet contains the valve packingand provides lubrication and
leak protection.
 A valve body is a casting or forging with an enclosed port and integral threaded
or flanged inlet and outlet openings.
 A valve plug is a machined disc or shaped piece that regulates the flow of a
material by changing the size of the valve opening.

i. Globe Valves.
 A globe valve is a throttling valve where fluid flow enters horizontally, makes a
turn through the plug and seat, and then makes another turn to exit the valve.
 The body of a globe valve is a single casting with one or two integral ports plus
an opening for the bonnet.
 A single-port globe valve is a globe valve that consists of a single valve plug and
seat ring through which a fluid flows. See Figure 39-8.

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 Figure 39-8: A single-port globe valve

 Single-port valves are used in all services because they offer a wide range of
materials of construction.
 A double-port globe valve is a globe valve that consists of two plugs and seat
rings through which a fluid flows.
 The upper seat is larger than the lower one so that the one-piece stem and plugs can
be removed from the body.
 A photograph of a three-way globe valve mixing hot and cold water to control
temperature is shown here:

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Gate valves
 Gate valves work by inserting a dam (“gate”) into the path of the flow to restrict it, in a
manner similar to the action of a sliding door.
 Gate valves are more often used for on/off control than for throttling.

Fig: Gate valve

 The following set of photographs shows a hand-operated gate valve (cut away and
painted for use as an instructional tool) in three different positions, from full closed to
full open (left to right):

ii. Split Body Valves.

 A split body valve is a valve that consists of a two-piece body, with the lower half of the
body being the inlet and the upper half of the body being the outlet, and a single-port
assembly sandwiched between them.

Figure 39-12: A split body valve

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 A construction design using separable flanges makes a split body valve better suited
than other types of valves to the use of exotic materials for use in severely corrosive
environments.

iii. Diaphragm Valves.

 A diaphragm valve is a throttling control valve consisting of a one piece body
incorporating an internal weir and a flexible diaphragm with a molded elastomer
backing attached to the valve stem.
 Diaphragm valves are sometimes referred to as Saunders Patent valves.
 When fully open, the flow through a diaphragm valve is almost straight except for
passing over the weir. See Figure 39-13.

Figure 39-13: A diaphragm valve

 A diaphragm valve provides for tight shutoff by compressing the diaphragm against the
weir.
 When closed, the stem and compressor act against the diaphragm and press the
diaphragm against the top of the weir. Because the open flow area is narrow,
diaphragm valves have a limited throttling control range.
 The principle advantages of a diaphragm valve are tight shutoff and corrosion
resistance.
 This form of diaphragm valve is not suited to control and should only be used for
ON/OFF services.

B. ROTARY SHAFT VALVES

 A rotary shaft valve is a throttling control valve used to change the flow of materials by
means of the movement of a rotating wafer, contoured disc, ball, or plug.
 A shaft attached to the valve internals passes through a seal or packing to the actuator
linkage.
 Throttling service works best with the shaft connected with a rack and pinion or crank
arm to a spring and diaphragm or sliding stem piston actuator.
 Rotary valves have stem seals instead of bonnets.

i. Butterfly Valves
 A butterfly valve is a valve with a disc that is rotated perpendicular to the valve
body. See Figure 39-14.

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 Figure 39-14: A butterfly valve

 A butterfly valve has a disc that rotates to modulate flow.

 Butterfly valves are usually supplied with wafer-style bodies. Wafer-style bodies are
those without their own flanges and are inserted between flange pairs and secured by
through-bolts.

Fig: Butterfly valve

 A conventional butterfly valve has an effective operational range for throttling services
of 20° to 60° open. There are special butterfly designs that can handle throttling
services for a range of 20° to 90° open.
Note: Butterfly valves should not be allowed to throttle at less than 20°
open.

ii. Ball Valves.

 A ball valve is a throttling valve consisting of a straight-through valve body enclosing a
ball with a hole through the center.
 The ball is rotated by a shaft attached to the top of the ball that connects it to an
actuator. See Figure 39-15.

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 Figure 39-15: A ball valve

 A ball valve works best for ON/OFF service.

 Most ball valves have a hole in the ball that is smaller than the valve size. A full port
ball valve is one with a hole matching the inlet and outlet diameter of the valve body.

Fig: ball valve

Direct-Acting Valves (Solenoids)

 Direct-acting valves are the simplest form of ON/OFF valves. In a direct-acting valve,
an electrical solenoid is directly attached to the moving parts controlling the fluid flow
through the valve.
Example: a two-way solenoid valve can be used to directly control the flow of a process
fluid. These types of valves are available in NO or NC forms.
 A special form of the direct acting valve is the safety shutoff valve used for burner fuel
valves. See Figure 39-20.

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 Figure 39-20: Two-way solenoid valves

 Two-way solenoid valves allow simple ON/OFF operation.

 Solenoids are usually controlled by an electrical output from a logic or sequenced
program. In this application, solenoids are used to convert an ON/OFF electrical signal
to an ON/OFF supply of fuel.

SAFETY VALVES
A safety valve is a gas- or vapor-service valve that opens very quickly when the inlet
pressure exceeds the spring setpoint pressure. See Figure 43-2.

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 Figure 43-2: A safety valve

 A safety valve uses a huddling chamber to enable quick snap-open operation.

 A huddling chamber is a recessed area in a safety valve disc that increases the surface
area and the total force applied. The smaller surface area is always exposed to the
pressure.
 When the pressure is high enough, the force due to the pressure on the smaller surface
overcomes the force of the spring and the disc is lifted off the seat. As the disc rises,
the huddling chamber is exposed to the pressure because the exiting vapors are
restricted by the special design of the disc. The lifting force increases because the
surface area is greatly increased. The sudden increase in force causes the valve to pop
open.
 While the safety valve is open, the total force on the valve disc is applied over the larger
surface area and the contents of the pressurized boiler or vessel escape out the valve.
As the pressure decreases due to the outflow through the safety valve, the force on the
disc decreases and the spring force overcomes the force on the disc and closes the
valve. As the valve closes, the force is applied only to the smaller disc area again and
the valve snaps completely closed.
 The total pressure is reduced below the original pressure setpoint because of the
contents that were removed.
 Blowdown, or blowback, is the amount of pressure drop below the pressure setpoint of
a safety valve.
 Safety valves are used for fired vessels such as boilers Safety valves are designed to
have an overpressure of 3%. Overpressure is the amount of pressure above the
setpoint of a safety valve necessary to develop the full relieving capacity and is
expressed as a percentage of the set pressure.
 The majority of safety valve applications actually use safety relief valves. This is
done because the design is suitable for either safety or relief applications.
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  Valves used for safety applications are usually provided with a testing lever arm to
help lift the disc from the seat at pressures lower than the set pressure.These valves
are used in applications where the valve must open quickly to reduce dangerous
conditions. The quick-opening action, or pop, is caused by the design of the valve
disc.

RELIEF VALVES
 A relief valve is a valve that opens in proportion to the pressure above a setpoint.
 These valves are used for unfired vessel applications, protection against
overpressure downstream of pressure regulators, protection against overpressure due
to fire, or thermal expansion protection.
 A relief valve cannot be changed to a safety valve. Most relief valves are small in size
and are used mostly for thermal expansion protection. Safety relief valves handle the
large majority of relief valve applications.

Safety Relief Valves

 A safety relief valve is a valve that is designed so that it can be set to act as either a
safety valve or a relief valve.
 Safety relief valves are usually used for unfired vessels such as compressed air
receiver vessels.
 A safety relief valve has a control ring, sometimes called a blowdown ring, that is used
to adjust the valve opening speed. The control ring adjusts the size of the huddling
chamber. See Figure 43-4.

Figure 43-4: A safety relief valve

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 When the control ring is adjusted up toward the valve disc, the exiting vapors are
restricted at this point, allowing pressure to build up in the huddling chamber.
 A safety relief valve can be used as a safety valve by adjusting the control ring. The
more pop action a safety relief valve has, the further below the setpoint the process
pressure must drop before the valve reseats.
 A safety relief valve can be used for liquids, gases, or vapors. A testing lever is required
when a safety relief valve is used for boilers.

REGULATORS AND DAMPERS

A. REGULATORS
 A regulator is a self-operating control valve for pressure and temperature control.
 Regulators require no other source of energy than the process itself.
 The main types of regulators are:
 pressure regulators, used to control downstream pressure;
 backpressure regulators, used to control upstream pressure; and
 temperature self-operating regulators, used to automatically control
temperature

1. Pressure Regulators
 A pressure regulator is an adjustable valve that is designed to automatically control the
pressure downstream of the regulator.
 The three basic components of most regulators are:
 a loading mechanism,
 a primary or sensing element, and
 a final or control element
 The loading mechanism determines the setpoint. This is typically a spring, but may
also be a balancing air pressure.
 The primary element senses the force placed on the loading mechanism. The primary
element is typically a diaphragm. Primary elements transmit the force to the final
element.
 The control element is a valve that actually accomplishes the pressure drop.
 Regulators are commonly used to control water pressure in a distribution system that
must be held to a value that ensures supply to all sectors of the system.
 The following are types of pressure regulators discussed here under:
i. Spring-Loaded Pressure Regulators.
ii. Air-Loaded Pressure Regulators.
iii. Pilot-Operated Pressure Regulators.
iv. Differential Pressure Regulators.
v. Pressure-Relief Regulators

i. Spring-Loaded Pressure Regulators.

 A spring-loaded pressure regulator is a regulator consisting of a throttling element such
as a valve plug connected to a pressure sensing diaphragm that is opposed by a spring
and contained in a single housing. See Figure 40-1.

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 Figure 40-1: A spring-loaded pressure regulator

 A spring-loaded pressure regulator balances spring pressure against downstream

pressure to control the downstream pressure to a desired value.
 The spring pressure against the diaphragm is adjusted with a manual setting knob or
screw. The controlled downstream pressure is applied to the underside of a diaphragm
through an internal path within the valve body.
 Some regulators are designed for external pressure sensing. In addition, some types of
pressure-reducing regulators are designed to automatically vent excess pressure to
maintain more precise pressure control.
 Self-contained pressure regulators are subject to built-in operational characteristics
called droop and lockup.
 Droop is a drop in pressure below a set value when there is high flow demand.
 Lockup is an increase in pressure above a set value when there is low flow demand. An
adjusting screw is turned to compress or release the regulator spring to set the
downstream pressure. If the flow demand through the regulator increases after the
pressure is set, the compression of the spring changes to handle the additional flow
and results in a downstream pressure that is less than the original set pressure.
Reductions in flow result in lockup as the compression of the spring changes to handle
the reduced flow.

Example: An application requires 40 psig process gas pressure but the building supply is
100 psig. A pressure regulator is installed to reduce the line pressure to the
desired value. When there is no demand for the process gas, no flow is
required and the regulator valve is closed. As the demand for the process gas
begins, the regulator valve starts to open. If the demand is high enough, the
regulator valve opens completely.

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  The opening and closing of the valve is controlled by the amount of force on the
spring caused by the backpressure from downstream of the regulator. When the
flow demand decreases, the downstream pressure increases, and the increasing
pressure increases the force on the diaphragm and starts to close the valve plug.
When the flow demand increases, the reverse action occurs and the valve plug
opens. This changes the force on the spring and the setpoint changes, resulting in
droop.

ii. Air-Loaded Pressure Regulators.

 An air-loaded pressure regulator is a regulator that uses air pressure instead of the
force of a spring to oppose downstream pressure. The air must constantly flow to
the regulator and be allowed to bleed from the spring chamber to allow the set
pressure to be changed.
 An air-loaded regulator provides the capability to develop more complex control
arrangements.
 An air-loaded pressure regulator can also be used when the regulator is
inaccessible and needs to be adjusted remotely.
 A zero regulator is a special form of air-loaded pressure regulator that is used to
regulate fuel gas flow in proportion to combustion airflow for burners. The
combustion air pressure is used as a set pressure for the regulated gas pressure.
Maintaining equal gas and combustion air pressures ensures consistent air-fuel
ratios for any firing rate. See Figure 40-3.

Figure 40-3: An air-loaded pressure regulator

 An air-loaded pressure regulator can be used to maintain two flow streams in the same
ratio.

iii. Pilot-Operated Pressure Regulators.

 A pilot-operated pressure regulator is a regulator that uses upstream fluid as a pressure
source to power the diaphragm of a larger valve. See Figure 40-4.

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Figure 40-4: A pilot-operated regulator provides

 A pilot-operated regulator provides more precise pressure control by nearly eliminating

droop.
 Pilot regulators can be either external or internal to the main valve.
 The purpose of the pilot regulator is to provide more accurate pressure control by
nearly eliminating droop.
 The upstream pressurized fluid enters the inlet of the main valve and moves through
the pilot supply line to the pilot regulator. This reduces the pressure to the value set by
the pilot valve range spring adjustment.
 Loading pressure is the pressure above a main diaphragm. The force created by the
loading pressure overcomes the force of the valve spring and opens the valve plug. As
the valve plug opens, the fluid starts to flow through the main regulator valve.
 The fluid fills the area below the main diaphragm at the pressure of the downstream
fluid. The downstream pressure opposes the movement of the diaphragm and
maintains the valve plug in the correct position to maintain the desired downstream
pressure. The downstream pressure is also transferred to the pilot regulator where it
opposes the spring pressure and tends to close the pilot valve plug. The pilot regulator
adjusts the loading pressure to compensate.

iv. Differential Pressure Regulators.

 A differential pressure regulator is a regulator that controls the pressure difference
between the outlet pressure of a regulator and a fluid loading pressure supplied from
an external source.
 The output pressure applies a force through a pitot tube against the underside of a
diaphragm while the loading pressure applies its force against the top side of the same
diaphragm. A spring adds a fixed force to that created by the loading pressure. See
Figure 40-5.

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 Figure 40-5: A differential pressure regulator

 A differential pressure regulator can be used to maintain constant flow through an

orifice or a constant differential pressure across an oil seal.
 The output pressure will always be higher than the loading pressure by the amount of
pressure added by the spring. This ensures that the flow through the differential
pressure regulator is constant regardless of inlet or outlet pressure variations.

v. Pressure-Relief Regulators
 A pressure-relief regulator is a regulator that limits the pressure upstream of the
regulator.
 The function of a pressure-relief regulator is to provide relief if an overpressure
situation develops.
 A pressure-relief regulator may exhaust to the atmosphere or to a piping system.

2. Backpressure Regulators
 A backpressure regulator is a regulator that maintains the pressure upstream of the
regulator to a specified value.
 The purpose of a backpressure regulator is to control the pressure in a vessel or
pipeline to a setpoint by modulating the flow through the regulator.
 Backpressure regulators resemble pressure-reducing regulators except that the
upstream pressure acts against the underside of the diaphragm, and the plug and
seat relationship is reversed. See Figure 40-6.

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 Figure 40-6: A backpressure regulator

 A backpressure regulator is used to maintain a constant upstream pressure.

 When the upstream pressure rises, the diaphragm compresses the spring, causing the
plug to move away from the seat. As the plug moves, the opening increases the flow to
the outlet port. This acts to exhaust the added flow and lower the inlet pressure. Like a
pressure-reducing valve, a backpressure regulator has a built-in operational
characteristic that acts in the direction opposite to that of droop. When the flow
through the regulator is greater than that required to maintain the set pressure, the
inlet pressure rises, sometimes as much as 25%.

3. Temperature Self-Operating Regulators

 A temperature self-operating regulator is a regulator that is used to automatically
control a process to a defined temperature.
 A temperature self-operating regulator is a combination of a thermal filled system and
a valve. The thermal filled system consists of a temperature-sensing bulb, a length of
flexible capillary tubing, and a bellows that are assembled as a unit and filled with a
fluid that changes volume with changes in temperature. The remaining components
are the spring and the valve. See Figure 40-7.

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 Figure 40-7: A temperature regulator

 Heat acting on the bulb causes the contained fluid to expand. This applies pressure to
the bellows. The bellows applies force to the adjusting spring and moves the connected
valve plug. The spring pressure is adjusted to modify the operating temperature
setting.
 Heating service requires a temperature regulator that closes the plug with an increase
in temperature at the bulb.
 A cooling service requires a temperature regulator that opens the plug when the sensed
temperature rises.
 Temperature self-operating regulators are generally applied to systems that have large
volumes to be heated or cooled where the sensed temperature changes slowly.

ACTUATORS AND POSITIONERS

1. ACTUATORS
 By themselves, valves cannot control a process.
 An actuator is a device that provides the power and motion to manipulate the moving
parts of a valve or damper used to control fluid flow through a final element.
 Valves that must be operated remotely and automatically require special devices to
move them. These devices are called actuators.
 An actuator must respond quickly to a change in control signal and have enough power
to overcome the process pressure and mechanical friction of the moving parts.
 Valve actuators are used for direct mounting on:
 sliding stem valves,

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  rotary valves, and
 dampers
 Valve actuators are used to move the internal parts of a valve to modulate flow. Larger
valves require longer actuator strokes.
 Actuators designed for rotary valves and for dampers have longer strokes to allow a
longer crank arm to reduce the forces on the connecting linkage.
 Actuators for the largest dampers are floor mounted using a spring and diaphragm or a
spring-return piston to provide the power. These large actuators require positioners for
positive positioning.
 Manual valves require an operator to position them to control a process variable.
 Remote operation of a valve is easily managed by one of the four types of actuators.
 Pneumatic
 Hydraulic
 Solenoid
 Electric motor

i. Pneumatic Actuators
 A diaphragm-and-spring actuator uses air pressure against a diaphragm to compress a
spring and move a valve stem.

Figure 41-2: Diaphragm-and-spring Pneumatic actuator

 A simplified diagram of a pneumatic actuator is shown in Figure 35.

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 Figure 35 Pneumatic Actuator: Air-to-Close/Spring-to-Open

 The pneumatic Actuator operates by a combination of force created by air and spring
force. The actuator positions a control valve by transmitting its motion through the
stem.
 A rubber diaphragm separates the actuator housing into two air chambers. The upper
chamber receives supply air through an opening in the top of the housing. The bottom
chamber contains a spring that forces the diaphragm against mechanical stops in the
upper chamber.
 A local indicator is connected to the stem to indicate the position of the valve.
 The position of the valve is controlled by varying supply air pressure in the upper
chamber. This results in a varying force on the top of the diaphragm.
 Initially, with no supply air, the spring forces the diaphragm upward against the
mechanical stops and holds the valve fully open. As supply air pressure is increased
from zero, its force on top of the diaphragm begins to overcome the opposing force of the
spring. This causes the diaphragm to move downward and the control valve to close.
With increasing supply air pressure, the diaphragm will continue to move downward
and compress the spring until the control valve is fully closed. Conversely, if supply air
pressure is decreased, the spring will begin to force the diaphragm upward and open
the control valve. Additionally, if supply pressure is held constant at some value
between zero and maximum, the valve will position at an intermediate position.
Therefore, the valve can be positioned anywhere between fully open and fully closed in
response to changes in supply air pressure.
 For example, as the control signal increases, a valve inside the positioner admits more
supply air to the actuator. As a result, the control valve moves downward. The linkage
transmits the valve position information back to the positioner. This forms a small
internal feedback loop for the actuator. When the valve reaches the position that
correlates to the control signal, the linkage stops supply air flow to the actuator. This
causes the actuator to stop. On the other hand, if the control signal decreases, another
valve inside the positioner opens and allows the supply air pressure to decrease by
venting the supply air. This causes the valve to move upward and open. When the valve

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 has opened to the proper position, the positioner stops venting air from the actuator
and stops movement of the control valve.
 An important safety feature is provided by the spring in an actuator. It can be designed
to position a control valve in a safe position if a loss of supply air occurs. On a loss of
supply air, the actuator will fail open. This type of arrangement is referred to as "air-to-
close, spring-to-open" or simply "fail-open." Some valves fail in the closed position. This
type of actuator is referred to as "air-to-open, spring-to-close" or "fail-closed." This "fail-
safe" concept is an important consideration in nuclear facility design.

Hydraulic Actuators
 Pneumatic actuators are normally used to control processes requiring quick and
accurate response, as they do not require a large amount of motive force. However,
when a large amount of force is required to operate a valve (for example, the main
steam system valves), hydraulic actuators are normally used.
 A typical piston-type hydraulic actuator is shown in Figure 37.

Figure 37 Hydraulic Actuator

 It consists of a cylinder, piston, spring, hydraulic supply and return line, and stem.
The piston slides vertically inside the cylinder and separates the cylinder in to two
chambers. The upper chamber contains the spring and the lower chamber contains
hydraulic oil.
 The hydraulic supply and return line is connected to the lower chamber and allows
hydraulic fluid to flow to and from the lower chamber of the actuator.
 The stem transmits the motion of the piston to a valve.
 Initially, with no hydraulic fluid pressure, the spring force holds the valve in the closed
position. As fluid enters the lower chamber, pressure in the chamber increases. This
pressure results in a force on the bottom of the piston opposite to the force caused by
the spring. When the hydraulic force is greater than the spring force, the piston begins
to move upward, the spring compresses, and the valve begins to open. As the hydraulic

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 pressure increases, the valve continues to open. Conversely, as hydraulic oil is drained
from the cylinder, the hydraulic force becomes less than the spring force, the piston
moves downward, and the valve closes.
 By regulating amount of oil supplied or drained from the actuator, the valve can be
positioned between fully open and fully closed. The principles of operation of a
hydraulic actuator are like those of the pneumatic actuator. Each uses some motive
force to overcome spring force to move the valve.

Electric Solenoid Actuators

 A typical electric solenoid actuator is shown in Figure 38. It consists of a coil,
armature, spring, and stem.

Figure 38 Electric Solenoid Actuator

 The coil is connected to an external current supply. The spring rests on the
armature to force it downward. The armature moves vertically inside the coil and
transmits its motion through the stem to the valve.
 When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field forms around the coil. The
magnetic field attracts the armature toward the center of the coil. As the armature
moves upward, the spring collapses and the valve opens.
 When the circuit is opened and current stops flowing to the coil, the magnetic field
collapses. This allows the spring to expand and shut the valve.
 A major advantage of solenoid actuators is their quick operation. Also, they are
much easier to install than pneumatic or hydraulic actuators.
 Solenoid actuators have two disadvantages. First, they have only two positions: fully
open and fully closed. Second, they don’t produce much force, so they usually only
operate relatively small valves.

Electric Motor Actuators

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 Electric motor actuators vary widely in their design and applications. Some electric
motor actuators are designed to operate in only two positions (fully open or fully
closed). Other electric motors can be positioned between the two positions.
 A typical electric motor actuator is shown in Figure 39. Its major parts include an
electric motor, clutch and gear box assembly, manual handwheel, and stem connected
to a valve.

Figure 39 Electric Motor Actuator

 The motor moves the stem through the gear assembly. The motor reverses its rotation
to either open or close the valve.
 The clutch and clutch lever disconnects the electric motor from the gear assembly and
allows the valve to be operated manually with the handwheel.
 Most electric motor actuators are equipped with limit switches, torque limiters, or both.
Limit switches de-energize the electric motor when the valve has reached a specific
position. Torque limiters de-energize the electric motor when the amount of turning
force has reached a specified value.

Current-to-Pneumatic (I/P) Transducers

 A current-to-pneumatic (I/P) transducer is a device that can convert the electronic
controller output signal, usually 4 mA to 20 mA, into the standard pneumatic output,
3 psig to 15 psig.

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 Figure 41-11: Current-to-Pneumatic Transducers

 A current-to-pneumatic transducer converts a 4 mA to 20 mA control signal into an air

pressure signal used to actuate a control valve.
 An I/P transducer can be used to provide pneumatic power to diaphragm and-
spring actuators or to provide an input signal to a pneumatic positioner.
 Most transducers are connected directly to controlled devices such as valve actuators,
damper actuators, and valves. The transducer output can often be adjusted by a
controller to match the actual spring range of the actuator.
 For special situations, an I/P transducer can be calibrated to reverse the output signal
so that a 4 mA to 20 mA input produces a 15 psig to 3 psig output. Some transducers
can also be configured for split range operation for full outputs with either 4 mA to
12 mA or 12 mA to 20 mA.

i. Air Supply
 The key to reliable pneumatic operation is the use of clean, dry air. Desiccant dryers
are the most common method used to dry instrument air.
 It is best to maintain a separate air compressor and distribution system for the
instrument air supply system to prevent possible contamination by process fluids.

ii. Flappers and Nozzles

 A flapper and nozzle arrangement is the basic element in all pneumatic devices and is
the element that initiates the pneumatic signals. See Figure 41-13.

Figure 41-13: Pneumatic Flappers and Nozzles

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 Clean air regulated to 20 psig is fed through a restriction to a nozzle.
 A flapper is a flat piece of metal installed at right angles to a nozzle tip that is held in
position a few thousandths of an inch away from the nozzle tip by a linkage to a
measurement device such as the diaphragm of a pressure gauge.
 A tubing branch between the restriction and the nozzle carries a pressure signal to a
pneumatic relay.
 The nozzle diameter is larger than the restriction diameter so when the flapper is
moved away from the nozzle the pressure drops to zero.
 The flapper and nozzle combination is used to generate a backpressure signal of 0.75
psig to 1.5 psig to the pneumatic relay.

iii. Relays
 A pneumatic relay is a pneumatic amplifier used to take a signal from a flapper and
nozzle and boost the signal to a standard range required for a process.
 The relay has an air supply, typically 20 psig that enters the supply chamber. The
opening between the supply chamber and the output signal chamber has an air supply
valve plug that limits the airflow between chambers. The size of the opening is
controlled by a relay vent plug that is connected to a diaphragm that moves in
response to the air from the flapper and nozzle. A feedback bellows using the
pneumatic transmission signal is connected to the measurement device linkages to
balance the forces and stabilize the pneumatic output. See Figure 41-14.

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 Figure 41-14: Pneumatic Relays

 A pneumatic relay takes a signal from the flapper and nozzle and boosts it to a
standard range required for the process.

2. POSITIONERS
 A positioner is a device that regulates the supply air pressure to a pneumatic actuator. It
does this by comparing the actuator’s demanded position with the control valve’s actual
position. The demanded position is transmitted by a pneumatic or electrical control
signal from a controller to the positioner.
 The pneumatic actuator in Figure 36 is with a controller and positioner. The controller
generates an output signal that represents the demanded position. This signal is sent to
the positioner.

Figure 36 Pneumatic Actuator with Controller and Positioner

 Externally, the positioner consists of an input connection for the control signal, a
supply air input connection, a supply air output connection, a supply air vent
connection, and a feedback linkage.
 Internally, it contains an intricate network of electrical transducers, air lines, valves,
linkages, and necessary adjustments.
 In Figure 36, the controller responds to a deviation of a controlled variable from setpoint
and varies the control output signal accordingly to correct the deviation. The control
output signal is sent to the positioner, which responds by increasing or decreasing the
supply air to the actuator. Positioning of the actuator and control valve is fed back to
the positioner through the feedback linkage. When the valve has reached the position

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 demanded by the controller, the positioner stops the change in supply air pressure and
holds the valve at the new position. This, in turn, corrects the controlled variable’s
deviation from setpoint.
 All positioners have a feedback link from the valve shaft, providing accurate valve
position information.
 Positioners can work with linear or rotary actuation and can be used to increase the
actuation power.
 Positioners receive an input signal either pneumatically or electronically and provide
output power, generally pneumatically, to an actuator to assure valve positioning.
 A feedback linkage between valve stem and positioner is established so that the stem
position can be noted by the instrument and compared with the position dictated by the
controller signal (Fig. 40).

FIGURE40 Electropneumatic positioners

 Electropneumatic positioners combine the function of a current-to-pressure transducer

with those of a positioner.
 The Electropneumatic positioner receives an electronic input signal and ensures valve
position by adjusting output pressure.
 Use of positioners is generally desirable to linearize the control valve plug position with
a control signal. Positioners will often improve the performance of control valve
systems.
 Positioners operate with a pneumatic input and output signal or with an electronic
input signal and pneumatic output. Some of the electronic versions accept an analog
input signal, and others accept a digital input signal.

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i. Linear Actuator Positioners
 A positioner compares the input signal from the controller to the actual valve position
and applies a pneumatic output to the actuator to ensure that the valve moves to the
proper position.
 If the valve experiences resistance to movement, the positioner continues to apply more
pressure until the valve moves to the desired position.

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 Figure 41-15: Electropneumatic Positioner

 If the signal is pneumatic, it goes directly to the bellows. If the signal is 4 mA to 20 mA,
it goes through an I/P transducer and then to the bellows. The change in air pressure
in the bellows causes the end of the bellows to move. The movement of the bellows
causes the beam to pivot on the input axis. As the beam pivots, the spacing between the
flapper and nozzle changes. This changes the nozzle back pressure to the relay, which
in turn changes the pressure being sent to the actuator diaphragm.
 As the pressure at the actuator diaphragm changes, the valve stem moves, either up or
down. There is a linkage that transfers the valve stem movement to the cam. The
movement of the cam against a roller on the back of the beam causes the beam to pivot
on the feedback axis. The bellows is mounted on the feedback axis, so movement of the
cam has no effect on the bellows. The movement of the beam changes the spacing
between the flapper and nozzle. Eventually, the forces balance and the valve stem is at
the desired position.

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ii. Rotary Actuator Positioners
 A pneumatic rotary positioner can be used to ensure the accurate position of a rotary
valve by using the location of the positioner spindle to compress a spring.
 The following photograph shows a PMV model 1500 force-balance positioner used to
position a rotary valve actuator, with the cover on (left) and removed (right):

 For a rotary positioner, a force balance method can be used. See Figure 41-16.

Figure 41-16: Rotary Positioners

 The following photograph shows a PMV model 1500 force-balance positioner used to
position a rotary valve actuator, with the cover on (left) and removed (right):

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 An increased air pressure from the controller moves the diaphragm downward and
compresses the feedback spring. The balance arm moves the cylinder in the pilot valve
and furnishes supply air to the actuator. The air to the actuator rotates the valve stem,
moving the positioner spindle. The spindle and cam rotate, causing the lower arm to
pivot upward and compressing the feedback spring. This motion continues until the
two forces are equal and the positioner is at equilibrium.

Digital Positioners
 Digital valve positioners are of three types:
1. Digital Noncommunicating—A current signal (4–20 mA) is supplied to the
positioner, which both powers the electronics and controls the output.

2. HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) communications—This is the

same as the digital noncommunicating but is also capable of two-way digital
communication over the same wires used for the analog signal.

3. Fieldbus—This type receives digital signals and positions the valve by using digital
electronic circuitry coupled to mechanical components. An all-digital control
signal replaces the analog control signal. Additionally, two-way digital
communication is possible over the same wires. The shift in field
communications technology toward a fieldbus technology benefits the user by
enabling improved control architecture, product capability, and reduced wiring.

B. DAMPERS
 A damper (otherwise known as a louvre) is an adjustable blade or set of blades used to
control large flow of air.
 Dampers are used in air handling systems to control the flow of air.
 Dampers find common application in:
 furnace and
 boiler draft control, and
 HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) systems.
 Common damper designs:
 parallel-Blade Dampers,
 opposed- Blade Dampers, and
 Radial-vane dampers

Parallel-Blade Dampers
 A parallel-blade damper is a damper in which adjacent blades are parallel and move in
the same direction with one another.
 Parallel blade dampers are often used in systems that require a damper to be either
fully open or fully closed and require less maintenance than opposed-blade dampers.
 A disadvantage of parallel-blade dampers is that they do not provide the same precise
air control that opposed-blade dampers provide.
 Many basic air handling units and packaged exhaust fans contain parallel-blade
dampers.

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Opposed-Blade Dampers
 An opposed-blade damper is a damper in which adjacent blades are parallel and move
in opposite directions from one another.
 Opposed-blade dampers are more expensive than parallel-blade dampers, but opposed-
blade dampers provide better flow characteristics than parallel-blade dampers.
 Opposed-blade dampers are used in applications that require two air streams to mix in
order to prevent cold spots and possible freeze-up.

Radial-vane dampers
 Radial-vane dampers use multiple vanes arranged like petals of a flower to throttle flow
through a circular opening.
 A photograph of a radial-vane damper is shown here (note the levers and linkages on
the periphery of the tube, synchronizing the motions of the eight vanes so they rotate
at the same angle)

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