LECTURE NOTE

(MTS 102 )

2011/2012 SESSION
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA,
NIGERIA

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Course Code MTS 102
Course Title CALCULUS AND TRIGONOM-
ETRY
Number of Units 3 units
Course Duration 3 Hours per week for 3 Weeks

Course Lecturer Professor J. A. Oguntuase

E-mail: [email protected]

O¢ ce Room B308, COLNAS

Course Outline:
The derivative as a limit of rate of change. Techniques of Di¤erentiation
of elementary functions. Applications
of derivatives to errors and approximation, Minima and Maxima, Curve
sketching.
Prerequsite: Good WAEC/NECO result in Mathematics

Textbooks
1. Robert A. Adams; Calculus, 4th Edition, Addison-Wesley Longman
Ltd., Ontario, Canada

What is expected of the Student:

Students are expected to attend all lectures and complete all assignments
and examinations. No aids are permitted in examinations.

Evaluation of Student Performance:

1. Midsemester Examination: 20% (Date and lenght to be determined).
2. Written Assignments: 10% (Dates to be announced).
3. Final Examination: 70% (date and time to be determined and …xed
by TIMTEC).

1
0.1 THE DERIVATIVE
Calculus is the mathematics of change , and the primary tool for studying
change is a procedure called Di¤erentiation.

Rate of Change and Slope

A straight line y = mx + b has the property that its slope is the same at
all points. For any other graph, however, the slope may vary from point to
point. Thus the slope of the graph of y = f (x) at the point x is itself a
function of x. At any point x where the graph has a …nite slope we say that
f is di¤erentiable and we call the slope the derivative of f .
0
The derivative of a function is another function f de…ned by

0 f (x + h) f (x)
f (x) = lim
h!0 h
0
at all points x for which the limit exists (i.e. is a …nite real number). If f (x)
exists, we say f is di¤erentiable at x.

REMARK: The value of the derivative of f at a particular point xo can be

expressed as a limit in either of two ways

0 f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) f (x) f (x0 )

f (x0 ) = lim = lim
h!0 h x!xo x x0
In the second limit xo th is replaced by x, so that h = x x0 and h ! 0 is
equivalent to x ! x0 .
0
The process of calculating the derivative f of a given function f is called
di¤erentiation.

Example: Use the de…nition of the derivative to calculate the derivatives of

the functions

2
(a) f (x) = ax + b
(b) f (x) = x2
(c) g(x) = x1

Solution:
(a.) By the de…nition of the derivative
0 f (x + h) f (x)
f (x) = lim
h!0 h
a(x + h) + b (ax + b)
= lim
h!0 h
ah
= lim
h!0 h
0
f (x) = a
(b.) By the de…nition of the derivative
0 f (x + h) f (x)
f (x) = lim
h!0 h
(x + h)2 x2
= lim
h!0 h
2hx + h2
= lim
h!0 h
= lim (2x + h)
h!0
0
f (x) = 2x
(c.) By the de…nition of the derivative
0 g(x + h) g(x)
g (x) = lim
h!0 h
1 1
(x+h) x
= lim
h!0 h
x (x + h)
= lim
h!0 h(x + h)x
1
= lim
h!0 x(x + h)
0 1
g (x) =
x2

Derivative Notation:
0 dy df
The derivative f (x) of y = f (x) is sometimes written as dx or dx (read as
”dee y,dee x" or ”dee f, dee x"). In this notation, the value of the derivative

3
 0
at x = c [i.e f (c)] is written as

dy df
jx=c or jx=c
dx dx
.
dy
For Example , if y = x2 ; then dx = 2x and the value of this derivative at
x = 3 is
dy
jx= 3 = 2x jx= 3 = 2( 3) = 6
dx
dy
The dx notation for derivative suggests slope, xy , and can also be thought
of as ”the rate of change of y with respect to x". Sometimes it is convenient
to condense a statement such as
dy
"when y = x2 , then dx
= 2x"

by writing simply
d 2
(x )
dx
d
by writing simply dx (x2 ) = 2x. Which reads " the derivative of x with respect
to x is 2x"

Techniques of Di¤erentiation
If we had to use the limit de…nition every time we want to compute a deriv-
ative, it would be both tedious and di¢ cult to use calculus in application.
In this section, we develop the techniques that greatly simplify the process
of di¤erentiation.

The Constant Rule

For any constant c
d
[c] = 0
dx
i.e the derivative of a constant is zero

The Power Rule

For any real number n
d n
[x ] = nxn 1
dx

4
Example:

d
1. dx
[x7 ] = 7x7 1
= 7x6 :
d
p d 2 2 1
= 32 x 3 = 32 x
3 1
2. dx
[ x2 ] = dx
(x 3 ) 3 .
d 1 d
3. ( )
dx x5
= dx
(x 5 ) = 5x 5 1
= 5x 6 :

The Constant Multiple Rule

If c is a constant and f (x) is di¤erentiable, then so is cf (x) and

d d
[cf (x)] = c [f (x)]
dx dx
Example:
d d
1. dx
(3x4 ) = 3 dx (x4 ) = 3(4x3 ) = 12x3
1 3 3
d p7 d 1
2. dx
( x) = dx
( 7x 2 )= 7( 2
x 2 ) = 72 x 2

The Sum Rule

If f (x) and g(x) are di¤erentiable, then so is the sum S(x) = f (x) + g(x)
0 0 0
and S (x) = f (x) + g (x); that is

d d d
[f (x) + g(x)] = [f (x)] + [g(x)]
dx dx dx
Example: Di¤erentiate the following polynomials

1. y = 5x3 4x2 + 12x 8

2. y = 2x5 3x 7

Solution:
(1) Di¤erentiating y we have

dy d
= [5x3 4x2 + 12x 8]
dx dx
d d d d
= [5x3 ] + [ 4x2 ] + [12x] + [ 8]
dx dx dx dx
= 15x2 8x1 + 12x0 + 0
= 15x2 8x + 12

5
(2) Di¤erentiating y we have

dy d
= [2x5 3x 7 ]
dx dx
d d
= [2x5 ] + [ 3x 7 ]
dx dx
= 10x4 + 21x 8

The Product Rule

If f (x) and g(x) are di¤erentiable, then so is their product P (x) = f (x)g(x)
and that is
d d d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x) [g(x)] + g(x) [f (x)]
dx dx dx
0 0 0
or equivalently (f g) = f g + gf

Example of Product p Rule p

dy
(a) Find dx if y = (2 x + x3 )(3 x 2
x
)

Solution: Applying the Product Rule with f (x) and g(x) being the two
functions enclosed in the large parenthesis, we obtain

dy d p 3 p 2
= 2 x+ 3 x
dx dx x x
1 3 p 2 p 3 3 2
= p 2
3 x + 2 x+ p + 2
x x x x 2 x x
5 12
= 6 3 +
2x 2 x3
0
(b) Let y = uv be the product of the functions u and v. Find y (2) if u(2) = 2,
0 0
u (2) = 5, v(2) = 1, and v (2) = 3

Solution: From the product Rule we have

0 0 0 0
y = (uv) = u v + uv

Therefore
0 0 0
y (2) = u (2)v(2) + u(2)v (2)
= ( 5)(1) + (2)(3)
= 5+6
= 1

6
The product rule can be extended to products of any number of factors, for
instance
0 0 0
(f gh) (x) = f (x)gh(x) + f (x)(gh) (x)
0 0 0
= f (x)g(x)h(x) + f (x)g (x)h(x) + f (x)g(x)h (x)

In general, the derivative of a product of n functions will have n terms; each

term will be the same product but with one of the factors replaced by its
derivatives
0 0 0 0
(f1 f2 f3 fn ) = f1 f2 f3 fn + f1 f2 f3 fn + + f1 f2 f3 fn

The Reciprocal Rule

1
If f (x) is di¤erentiable and f (x) 6= 0, then f (x)
is di¤erentiable and
0 0
1 f (x)
(x) =
f (f (x))2

Example: Di¤erentiate the function

1
1. y = x2 +1

1
2. f (t) = t+ 1t

Solution:
1. Using the Reciprocal Rule

dy d 1 2x
= =
dx dx x2 +1 (x2 + 1)2

2. Using the Reciprocal Rule

0 1 1
f (t) = 1 2 1
(t + t
) t2
2
t t2 1
=
(t + 1)2
2 t2
1 t2
=
(t2 + 1)2

The Quotient Rule

The Product Rule and the Reciprocal Rule can be combined to provide a

7
rule for di¤erentiating a quotient of two functions. Observe that

d f (x) d 1
= f (x):
dx g(x) dx g(x)
0 1 g(x)
= f (x) + f (x)
g(x) (g(x))2
0 0
g(x)f (x) f (x)g (x)
=
(g(x))2

If f (x) and g(x) are di¤erentiable at x, and if g(x) 6= 0 then the quotient
f (x)
g(x)
is di¤erentiable at x and
0 0 0
f g(x)f (x) f (x)g (x)
(x) =
g (g(x))2

Example: Find the derivatives of

1 x2
1. y = 1+x2

a+b
2. f ( ) = m+n

Solution:
a.) Using Quotient rule we have:

dy (1 + x2 )( 2x) (1 x2 )(2x) 4x
= =
dx (1 + x2 )2 (1 + x2 )2

b.) Using Quotient rule we have:

0 (m + n )(b) (a + b )(n) mb na
f ( )= =
(m + n )2 (m + n )2

The Chain Rule

If y = f (u) is a di¤erentiable function of u and u = g(x) is in turn a
di¤erentiable function of x, then the composite function y = f (g(x)) is a
di¤erentiable function of x whose derivative is given by the product
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
or equivalently by
dy 0 0
= f (g(x))g (x)
dx

8
 dy
Example: a.) Find dx
if y = (x2 + 2)3 3(x2 + 2)2 1

Solution: Note that y = u3 3u2 + 1, where u = (x2 + 2).

dy
Thus dx = 3u2 6u and dudx
= 2x and according to the chain rule.

dy dy du
=
dx du dx
= (3u2 6u)(2x)
= [3(x2 + 2)2 6(x2 + 2)](2x)
= 6x(x2 + 2)[(x2 + 2) 2]
= 6x(x2 + 2)x2
= 6x3 (x2 + 2)
u
b.) Consider the function y u+1 , where u = 3x2 1

dy (u + 1)(1) u(1)
=
du (u + 1)2
1
=
(u + 1)2

and
du
= 6x
dx
According to the chain rule, it follows that
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
1
= 6x
(u + 1)2
6x
=
(u + 1)2
6x
= 2
(3x 1 + 1)2
6x
=
(3x2 )2
2
= 3
x
= 2x 3 :

9
Derivatives Of Trigonometric Functions
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
d
(cos x) = sin x
dx
d
(tan x) = sec2 x
dx
d
(cot x) = csc2 x
dx
d d 1
(sec x) =
dx dx cos x
= sec x tan x
d d 1
(csc x) =
dx dx sin x
= csc x cot x

Example: Di¤erentiate the following.

x
1. y = 3x + cot 2
3
2. y = sin 2x

Solution:
x
1.) Di¤erentiating y = 3x + cot 2
we have

dy d h x i
= 3x + cot
dx dx 2
1h 2 x i
= 3+ csc
2 2
1 x
= 3 csc2
2 2
3
2.) Di¤erentiating y = sin 2x
we have

dy d 3
=
dx dx sin 2x
d
= [3 csc(2x)]
dx
= (2)3( csc(2x) cot(2x))
= 6 csc(2x) cot(2x)

10
Di¤erentiation of Exponential Function
The derivative of the exponential function
d x
(e ) = ex
dx
for every real number x. If u(x) is a di¤erentiable function of x, then

d u(x) du
(e ) = eu(x)
dx dx

2 +1
Example: Di¤erentiate the function f (x) = ex .

Solution: Using the Chain rule with u = x2 + 1, we …nd

0 2 +1 d 2 2
f (x) = ex (x + 1) = 2xex +1
dx

Di¤erentiation of Logarithm Function

The derivative of ln x
d 1
(ln x) =
dx x
for x > 0. If u(x) is di¤erentiable function of x, then

d 1 du
[ln u(x)] =
dx u(x) dx

Example: Di¤erentiate the function f (x) = ln(2x3 + 1).

Solution: Let f (x) = ln u, where u(x) = 2x3 + 1

0 1 du
f (x) =
u dx
1 d
= 3
(2x3 + 1)
2x + 1 dx
3x2
= 2 3
2x + 1
6x2
=
2x3 + 1

11
Logarithmic Di¤erentiation
Sometimes you can simplify the work involved in di¤erentiating a function if
you …rst take its logarithm. This techniques is called Logarithmic di¤erenti-
ation.

Example: Di¤erentiate the function

p
3
x+1
f (x) =
(1 3x)4

Solution: Quotient rule and Chain rule could be used but the resulting
computation could be tedious. A more e¢ cient approach is to take the
logarithm of both sides of the expression of f
p3
x+1
ln f (x) = ln
(1 3x)4
p
= ln 3 x + 1 ln(1 3x)4
1
ln f (x) = ln(x + 1) 4 ln(1 3x)
3
Using chain rule for logarithm to di¤erentiate both side.
0
f (x) 1 1 3
= 4
f (x) 3 x+1 1 3x
1 1 12
= +
3 x+1 1 3x
0 1 1 12
f (x) = f (x) +
3 x+1 1 3x
p3
0 x+1 1 1 12
f (x) = +
(1 3x)4 3 x+1 1 3x
Implicit Di¤erentiation
The functions of the form y = f (x) in which the dependent variable y on the
left is given explicitly by an expression on the right involving the independent
variable x. A function in this formp is said to be in explicit form.
2
Example y = x + 3x + 1 , y = 1 + x2

But equation such as x2 y 3 = 5y 3 + x , x2 y + 2y 3 = 3x + 2y is said to de…ne

y implicitly as a function of x and in such function y is said to be implicit
form.

12
 dy
To compute the dx of this function, we use a simple techniques based on the
dy
chain rule that you can use to …nd dx without …rst solving for y explicitly.
This technique, known as Implicit di¤erentiation, consists of di¤erentiating
both sides of given equation with respect to x and then solving algebraically
dy
for dx .
dy
Example: Find dx if x2 y + y 2 = x3
Solution: Let y = f (x)

d 2 d 3
[x f (x) + (f (x))2 ] = (x )
dx dx
df d df
x2 + f (x) (x2 ) + 2f (x) = 3x2
dx dx dx
df df
x2 + f (x)(2x) + 2f (x) = 3x2
dx dx
df df
x2 + 2f (x) = 3x2 2xf (x)
dx dx
df
x2 + 2f (x) dx = 3x2 2xf (x)
df 3x2 2xf (x)
=
dx x2 + 2f (x)
Finally, replace f (x) by y to get

dy 3x2 2xy
= 2
dx x + 2y

Maximal and Minimal

Increasing and Decreasing Function: Let f (x) be a function de…ned on
the interval a < x < b, and let x1 and x2 be two numbers in the interval.
Then f(x) is increasing on the interval if f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) whenever x2 > x1 .
f (x) is decreasing on the interval if f (x2 ) < f (x1 ) whenever x2 > x1

13
(a.) f (x) is increasing on a < x < b

(b.) f (x) is decreasing on a < x < b

0
A function is said to be increasing when f (x) > 0 and it’s said to be de-
0
creasing when f (x) < 0 .
The graph of the function f (x) is said to have a relative maximum at x = c
if f (c) f (x) for all x in an interval a < x < b containing c. Similarly, the
graph has a relative minimum at x = c if f (c) f (x) on such an interval.
Collectively, the relative maximal and minimal of f are called
Relative Extrema. A number c in the domain of f (x) is called a critical
0
number if either f (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist. The corresponding point
(c; f (c)) on the graph of f (x) is called a Critical Point.

Conditions for Maximal and Minimal

1. Let f (x) be maximal at x = c. Now just before the maximal value i.e.

14
 at x = c, the function is increasing (see Fig a). Therefore,

0 dy
f (x) = = +ve
dx
Just after the maximum value i.e. at x = c the function is decreasing
(see …g a). Therefore
0 dy
f (x) = = ve
dx
Thus in passing through a maximum value at x = c the derivative
changes its sign from +ve to ve. Therefore
0 dy
f (x) = dx
= 0 at x = c
dy
2. Again if y = f (x) is maximal at x = c then dx
changes from +ve to
ve as it passes through x = c. Therefore
dy
dx
is a decreasing function
dy
So the derivative of dx
should be negative at x = c or

d2 y
= ve
dx2
at x = c

Here are the two conditions for maximal

dy
1. dx
=0
d2 y
2. dx2
= ve

Similarly conditions for minimal

dy
1. dx
=0
d2 y
2. dx2
= +ve

Example
Find the points at which the function y = x3 + 6x2 15x + 5 has maximum
and minimum values
Solution

y = x3 + 6x2 15x + 5
dy
= 3x2 + 12x 15
dx
15
 dy
For maximal and minimal dx
=0

3x2 + 12x 15 = 0
x2 + 4x 5 = 0
x = 1 or 5

After di¤erentiating (ii) we have

00 d2 y
f (x) = = 6x + 12
dx2
2
d y
1. When x = 1 , dx 2 = 6x + 12 = +ve.

The given function is minimum at x = 1

Minimum value of the function is

y = x3 + 6x2 15x + 5
= (1)3 + 6(1)2 15(1) + 5
= 1 + 6 15 + 5
= 3
d y 2
2. When x = 5, dx 2 = 6( 5) + 12 = 18 = ve.
The given function is maximum at x = 5.
Maximum value of the function is

y = x3 + 6x2 15x + 5
= ( 5)3 + 6( 5)2 15( 5) + 5
= 125 + 150 + 75 + 5
= 105

Curve Sketching:
Limit involving in…nity can be used to graphical features called asymptotes.
In particular, the graph of a function f (x) is said to have a Vertical As-
ymptote at x = c if f (x) increases or decreases without bound as x tends
toward c, from either the right or the left.
For instance, consider the rational function
x+1
f (x) =
x 2
As x approaches 2 from the left (x < 2), the functional values decreases
without bound, but they increase without bound if the approach is from the

16
right (x > 2). This behaviour is illustrated in the table and demonstrated
graphically below.

x 1.95 1.97 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.005 2.01

x+1
f (x) = x 2
-59 -99 -299 -2999 unde…ned 3001 601 301

Vertical Asymptotes The Line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph

of f (x) if either

limx!c = +1 (or 1)

or

limx!c+ = +1 (or 1)
p(x)
In general, a rational function R(x) = q(x)
has a vertical asymptotes x = c
whenever q(c) = 0 but p(c) 6= 0:

Horinzontal Asymptotes The horizontal line y = b is called a horizontal

asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if either

limx! 1 =b

or

limx!+1 = b

A General Procedure for Sketching the Graph of f (x)

1. Find the domain of f (x) (that is where f(x) is de…ned)

2. Find and plot all intercepts. The y intercept (where x = 0)and the x
intercept (where f (x) = 0)

17
3. Determine all vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the graph. Draw
the asymptotes in a coordinate plane.
0
4. Find f (x) and use it to determine the critical number of f (x) and
intervals of increase and decrease.

5. Determine all relative extrema (both coordinates). Plot each relative

maximum with a "cap"(\) and each relative minimum with a "cup"([)
00
6. Find f (x) and use it to determine intervals and points of in‡ection.
Plot each in‡ection points with a "twist" to suggest the shape of the
graph near the point.

7. You now have a preliminary graph, with asymptotes in place,intercepts

plotted, arrows indicating the direction of the graph, and "caps", "cups",
and "twist" suggesting the shape at key points. Plot additional points
if needed, and complete the sketch by joining the plotted points in
the directions indicated. Be sure to remember that the graph cross a
vertical asymptotes.

18
EXERCISE 1
Find the derivative of the following functions:
4
1. y = x
4
2. y = 3
r3
x2 2 3 1 x
3. y = 16
+ x
x2 + 3x2
+ 3

x5 4x2
4. y = x3
p
2+ t
5. g(t) = t2t+5

6. y = 31 (x5 2x3 + 1) x 1
x

t2 +2t+1
7. f (t) = t2 +3t 1

8. y = (7x 3)10
1
1 4
9. y = 3x + (2x+1)3

p
d x2 1
10. Find dx x2 +1
jx= 2

p
11. y = sinx

12. y = 2e3x + tan x cos 2x + 9sin 1 x

13. y = x5 sin x cos x

14. y = sin4 x cos3 x

dy d2 y
15. If x3 y + xy 3 3xy 2 = 8 Find dx
and dx2
at x = 3, y = 2

EXERCISE 2
Di¤erentiate the following Logarithm and Exponential Function.
2
1. L(x) = ln xx2 +2x
+2x
3
1

ex +e x
2. f (x) = ex e x

3. g(s) = (es + s + 1)(2e s + s)

p
4. g(u) = ln(u + u2 + 1)

5. y = x4 e3x tan x

19
 e3x
6. y = ln 1+x

cos x+sin x
7. y = ln cos x sin x

EXERCISE 3
Find the value of x for which the following function is a maximum, minimum.

1. y = 9x3 45x2 + 48x + 11

2. y = 11 12x + 6x2 x3

3. y = (x 2)3 (x 3)2

4. y = 3sin2 x + 4cos2 x

20