C 2.

2 Neural Signaling
“How are electrical signals generated
and moved within neurons?”

“How can neurons interact with other cells?”

Learning Objectives
Students should understand that cytoplasm and a nucleus form the cell
Neurons as cells within the
body of a neuron, with elongated nerve fibres of varying length projecting
C2.2.1 nervous system that carry
from it. An axon is a long single fibre. Dendrites are multiple shorter
electrical impulses
fibres. Electrical impulses are conducted along these fibres.
Students should understand how energy from ATP drives the pumping of
Generation of the resting potential
sodium and potassium ions in opposite directions across the plasma
by pumping to establish and
C2.2.2 membrane of neurons. They should understand the concept of a
maintain concentration gradients
membrane polarization and a membrane potential and also reasons that
of sodium and potassium ions
the resting potential is negative.
Nerve impulses as action Students should appreciate that a nerve impulse is electrical because it
C2.2.3 potentials that are propagated involves movement of positively charged ions.
along nerve fibres
Compare the speed of transmission in giant axons of squid and smaller
Variation in the speed of nerve
C2.2.4 non-myelinated nerve fibres. Also compare the speed in myelinated and
impulses
non-myelinated fibres.
Synapses as junctions between Limit to chemical synapses, not electrical, and these can simply be
C2.2.5 neurons and between neurons and referred to as synapses. Students should understand that a signal can
effector cells only pass in one direction across a typical synapse.
Release of neurotransmitters from Include uptake of calcium in response to depolarization of a presynaptic
C2.2.6
a presynaptic membrane membrane and its action as a signalling chemical inside a neuron.
Include diffusion of neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft and
Generation of an excitatory binding to transmembrane receptors. Use acetylcholine as an example.
C2.2.7
postsynaptic potential Students should appreciate that this neurotransmitter exists in many
types of synapse including neuromuscular junctions.
Neurons as cells within the nervous system that carry
electrical impulses
The nervous system consts of nerve cells called neurons. The neurons
help with internal communication by transmitting nerve impulses.
Neurons as cells within the nervous system that carry

https://alienhippy.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/cognifit-neurons.jpg
electrical impulses

Neurons transmit information along nerve fibers in the form of electrical

impulses. The electrical impulse is not like an electrical current that flows
along wires. An impulse is a momentary reversal in electrical potential
difference in the membrane – a change in the position of charged ions
between the inside and outside of the membrane of the nerve fibres.
Neurons as cells within the nervous system
Can you annotate the structures of the neuron?

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma_%28biology%29
• The neuron is the basic functional unit of the nervous system.
• Neurons have a cell body with cytoplasm and a nucleus, as well as a long
narrow outgrowth called nerve fibers along which nerve impulses travel.
• Two kinds of fibers exist: Dendrites (short branches) and Axons (long fibers)
Generation of the resting potential
A nerve impulse is a result of a change in
concentration of sodium (Na+) and
potassium (K+) ions along the cell membrane.
Depending on the
membrane potential
(voltage), we can distinguish
between a resting potential
and an action potential.
Resting potential: this is the potential
difference across a nerve cell membrane
when it is not stimulated. It is at
approximately -70mV.

Action potential: This is the reversal

(depolarisation) and restoration
(repolarisation) of the electrical
potential across a plasma membrane as
a nerve impulse passes along a neuron.
Neurons as cells within the nervous system
Generation of the resting potential
All cells have a measurable membrane
potential (voltage), which is established
by the imbalance of ions inside and
outside of a cell. The membrane
potential in neurons is – 70mV.

3 factors contribute to this value:

1
Sodium-potassium pumps

2
Leakage of ions back across the
membrane by simple diffusion
3
Negatively charged proteins
inside the nerve fibre.
Generation of the resting potential
Sodium-potassium pumps in the membrane transfer Na+
out of the neuron and K+ into the neuron. This is active
transport and requires ATP. The number of ions pumped is
inequal – three Na+ go out, two K+ ions go in. This causes
an imbalance of ions and concentration gradients for both.
 Generation of the resting potential
Leakage of potassium and
sodium ions also contributes to
https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/981/flashcards/598981/jpg/restingpotential1312003529468.jpg

the imbalance of ions across

the membrane. The axon
membrane has a higher
permeability of K+, which leaks
out of the cell through its
membrane channels faster
than Na+ leaks in through its
Na+ protein channels.
Generation of the resting potential
Due to this unequal distribution
of ions, and the abundance of
negatively charged proteins
inside the axon fibre, the
membrane potential is found to
be at ca. -70mV.

http://www.highlands.edu/academics/divisions/scipe/biology/faculty/harnden/2121/images/restingpotent.jpg
Nerve impulses as action potentials
An Action potential is composed of two subsequent stages:
Depolarization: The cell membrane's charge becomes positive.
This is caused by positive sodium ions going into the cell.
Repolarization: The cell membrane's charge returns to negative.
This is caused by positive potassium ions moving out of the cell.

http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/rburkett/A&P1_m30.jpg
Nerve impulses as action potentials
Depolarization Repolarization
A stimulus causes sodium ions (Na+) to Towards the end of the action potential the
flow into the cytoplasm of the axon, flow of sodium ions stopps and potassium
reversing the polarity of the axon. This channels open up. This causes the flow of
makes the membrane potential more potassium ions (K +) out of the axon, bringen
positive (from -70mV to +40mV). the membrane potential back down to -70mV.
Nerve impulses as action potentials
The action potential
then progresses along
the whole length of
the axon fiber.

https://1drv.ms/v/s!Au8ZKE_EDcrQhJhOQaRkT__Uwj7gNA?e=YOZvjz
Variation in the speed of nerve impulses

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-squid-giant-axon-The-giant-axon-is-a-very-large-up-to-1-mm-in-diameter-and-long_fig2_276491039
Signal transmission in humans is at about 1m per second. This speed is largely
due to the small diameter (1µm). Some animals have nerve fibres with larger
diameters. A bigger diameter reduces resistance and therefore increases
conduction speed.

Griant axons in squids have

diameters of up to 500 µm.
How does this help the squid
as an adaptation to life?
Variation in the speed of nerve impulses
Mylination is another factor which affects the speed at which nerve
impulses are transmitted. The axon fibres of neurons can be mylinated
or unmylinated. This refers to a lipid-rich substance surrounding the
nerve fibre.

This coating is provided by a series of

Schwann cells with gaps between called
nodes of Ranvier. In mylinated nerve fibers
the transmission can be up to 100m/s.
Variation in the speed of nerve impulses
The presence of a myelin sheath surrounding the axon fibre increases the speed
of transmission of the action potential. Only at the junctions in the sheath
(nodes of Ranvier) the axon membrane exposed. Elsewhere along the fibre, the
electrical resistance of the myelin sheath prevents depolarization of the nodes.

http://classroom.sdmesa.edu/eschmid/F09.07.L.150.jpg
unmyelinated myelinated

The action potentials actually ‘jump’ from node to node (this is called saltatory
conduction, meaning ‘to leap’)This greatly speeds up the rate of transmission.
Variation in the speed of nerve impulses
Read the article and answer the questions on your sheet.

https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/myelin-a-specialized-membrane-for-cell-communication-14367205/
Variation in the speed of nerve impulses
Use the website below to investigate the effect of axon diameter and myelination
on velocity of signal transmission. Carry out the simulation with unmyelinated
fibres. What is the effect of axon diameter on speed? Then repeat the experiment
with myelinated fibers. What is the effect of myelination on speed? Suggest why,
for very small axon diameters, there is little benefit of myelinated velocity.

https://ilearn.med.monash.edu.au/physiology/action-potentials/axon-diameter#simulation
Synapses as junctions between neurons
A synapse is the link point between neurons. A synapse consists of the swollen
tip (synaptic knob) of the axon of one neuron (pre-synaptic neuron) and the
dendrite or cell body of another neuron (post-synaptic neuron). At the
synapse, the neurons are extremely close but they have no direct contact.
Instead there is a tiny gap, called a synaptic cleft, about 20 nm wide

Pre-synaptic neuron
Post-synaptic neuron

Synaptic cleft

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Synapses as junctions between neurons
There are 3 main types of synapses:
Synapses between
neurons, in both
the brain and
spinal cord.

Synapses between
neurons and muscle
fibres (effectors).

Synapses between
neurons and
glands (effectors).
https://kypho.com/types-of-synapse.html
Synapses as junctions between neurons
Another (4th type) of synapse can be found between neurons and
sensory receptors of sense organ (e.g. sense organ of the skin)…
Synapses as junctions between neurons
An action potential
cannot cross the synaptic
cleft between neurons –
the nerve impulse is
carried by chemical
transmitter substances
called neurotransmitters.

These chemicals are

made in the Golgi
apparatus of the cell that
is sending the impulse
(the pre-synaptic neuron)
and stored in vesicles at
the end of the axon.
Synapses as junctions between neurons
Watch the two video clips on synaptic transmission and complete the
annotations of the diagram in your booklet

https://1drv.ms/v/s!Au8ZKE_EDcrQhJhHbdKijYgDy0bCEw?e=mbdN1T https://1drv.ms/v/s!Au8ZKE_EDcrQhJhNP93-uqLVunVcBw?e=VfJ8CA
Release of neurotransmitters from a presynaptic
membrane 1. A nerve impulse (action
potential) reaches the
terminal end of the pre-
synaptic neuron.

2. Depolarisation causes
voltage gated calcium
channels to open. Ca2+
rushes into the neuron.

3. Ca2+ causes synaptic

vesicles containing a
neurotransmitter to
move to the
membrane and fuse.
Generation of an excitatory postsynaptic potential
4. Neurotransmitters (e.g.
acetylcholine), that were stored
in the synaptic vesicle now diffuse
(from high to low concentration)
rapidly across the synaptic gap.

5. The neurotransmitter
binds with the neuroreceptor
(protein channels) in the
post-synaptic membrane.

6. The proteins channels of the

receptors open upon binding,
allowing the influx of Na+ ions.
An excitatory action potential
is initiated, and the nerve
impulse is propagated along
the post-synaptic neuron.
Generation of an excitatory postsynaptic potential
Neuroreceptors are protein

https://www.quora.com/What-happens-first-when-a-neurotransmitter-binds-to-a-postsynaptic-neuron
channels embedded in the cell
membrane of the postsynaptic
synapse. Upon binding of the
neurotransmitter to the binding
side of the receptor protein Na+
rushes into the neuron.

Acetylcholine is one of
the most common
neurotransmitters and is
used at many synapses,
including neuromuscular
junctions.
Acetylcholine - Secretion and Reabsorption
Acetylcholine is an organic molecule
composed of acetyl CoA and choline. It acts
as a neurotransmitter for both, PNS and CNS.
In the PNS, it is the main neurotransmitter in
the autonomic nervous system where it is
responsible for activating muscles.
The transmitter substance on the
receptors is immediately inactivated
by enzyme action to avoid
overstimulation.

The enzyme Acetylcholinesterase

(AChE) hydrolyses ACh to choline and
ethanoic/acetic acid, which are
inactive as transmitters.

As a consequence, the ion channel of

the receptor protein closes, and the
resting potential in the post-synaptic
neuron is re-established.