Form Two Chemistry Notes

FORM TWO CHEMISTRY NOTES
TOPIC ONE :STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

An atom is made up of smaller particles called sub-atomic particles. The sub-atomic
particles are neutrons, protons and electrons. An atom is made up of two regions
i.e. the nucleus and the region surrounding the nucleus. The nucleus consist of
protons and neutrons. The protons and neutrons are referred to as nucleons
because they are found in the nucleus. The larger region surrounding the nucleus
consist of electrons.
Example: Structure of a helium atom
Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged while neutrons have
no charge.
The number of protons is equal to the number of electrons for any given atom; hence
an atom is electrically neutral.
Atomic Number: Is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. For example,
a hydrogen atom has 1 proton in the nucleus; therefore its atomic number is 1.
Mass number is the sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom of an element.
Mass number 23
Na
11
Atomic number
F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 1

THE FIRST TWENTY ELEMENTS
Number Number Number

Atomic Mass
Element Symbol of of of
Number Number
Electrons Protons Neutrons
Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 4
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 7
Beryllium Be 4 4 4 4
Boron B 5 11
Carbon C 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7
Oxygen O 8 16
Fluorine F 9 19
Neon Ne 10 20
Sodium Na 12 11
Magnesium Mg 12 12
Aluminium Al 13 14
Silicon Si 14 28
Phosphoru
P 15 16
s
Sulphur S 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 18
Argon Ar 18 18 40
Potassium K 19 20
Calcium Ca 20 20

Isotopes
Are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different
mass numbers.
Examples
Element Isotope Isotopic Representation
1
Hydrogen -1 H
1
Hydrogen 2
Hydrogen -2 H
1
3
Hydrogen -3 H
1
12
Carbon -12 C
6
Carbon
14
Carbon -14 C
6
16
Oxygen -16 O
8
17
Oxygen Oxygen -17 O
8
18
Oxygen -18 O
8
35
Chlorine -35 Cl
17
Chlorine
37
Chlorine -37 Cl
17

Energy Levels and Electron Arrangement
Electrons occupy regions around the nucleus called energy levels. The first energy
level can hold a maximum of two electrons, the second energy level can hold a
maximum of 8 electrons. For the first twenty elements, the third energy level
accommodates a maximum of eight electrons.
Examples
Electron Arrangement for the First Twenty Elements
Hydrogen 1 1
Helium 2 2
Lithium 3 2.1
Beryllium 4 2.2
Boron 5 2.3
Carbon 6 2.4
Nitrogen 7 2.5
Oxygen 8 2.6
Fluorine 9 2.7
Neon 10 2.8
Sodium 11 2.8.1
Magnesium 12 2.8.2
Aluminium 13 2.8.3
Silicon 14 2.8.4
Phosphorus 15 2.8.5
Sulphur 16 2.8.6
Chlorine 17 2.8.7
Argon 18 2.8.8
Potassium 19 2.8.8.1
Calcium 20 2.8.8.2
The Periodic Table

Elements with the same number of occupied energy levels belong to the same period.
Examples;
i) Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne belong to period 2 because they have two occupied energy
levels.
ii) Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar belong to period 3 because they have three occupied
energy levels.
iii) K, Ca belong to period 4 because they have four occupied energy levels.
Elements with the same number of electrons in the outermost energy level belong to
the same group.
Examples;
i) Li, Na, K belong to group I
ii) Be, Mg, Ca belong to group II
iii) B, Al, belong to group III
iv) F, Cl, Br belong to group VII
I II III IV V VI VII VIII

H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca
Between group II and group III lies a group of elements referred to as Transition
metals.
Relative Atomic Mass(R.A.M) of an Element

Is the average mass of an atom of the element compared with an atom of carbon -12,
the mass of which is 12.000 (a.m.u)
R.A.M = average mass of one atom of an element

1
mass of an atom of carbon -12
12
R.A.M is measured using an instrument called mass spectrometer. R.A.M has no
units, because it’s a ratio.
The R.A.M is closest in value to the mass of the most abundant isotope of the
element.
Examples
i) Chlorine -35 forms 75% of the total mass of chlorine and chlorine -37 forms 25%.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.

ii) An element X, consi0st of three isotopes with mass number of 22, 24 and 25 with
percentage abundance of 89.6%, 6.4% and 4.0% respectively. Find the relative
atomic mass of element X.
Ion Formation
Atoms with an electron configuration of 2, 2.8, 2.8.8 are said to be stable.
Atoms without this electron configuration tend to attain this stability by either losing
or gaining electrons.
Examples;
i)
ii)
iii)

iv)
Na → Na+ + e-
Cl+ + e- → Cl-
Mg→ Mg2+ + 2e-
O + 2e-→ O2-
Ion:
Definition: an ion is a charged particle of an element.
Are formed when an atom of an element either loses or gains electrons.
The charge on the ion is usually indicated as a superscript to the right of the
chemical symbol.
Ions are of two types:
 Cations
 Anions
Cations:
Are positively charged ions.
Are formed when atoms lose electrons resulting into the number of protons being
higher than the number of electrons.
Are mostly ions of metallic elements since most metals react by electron loss.
Examples:
(i). Mg2+
(ii). Na+
Anions:
Are negatively charged ions.

Are formed when atoms gain electrons resulting into the number of electrons being
higher than the number of protons.
Are mostly ions of non-metallic elements since most non-metals ionize (react) by
electron gain.
Examples.
(i) Cl-
(ii) O2-
Valency
Valency is the combining power of an element.
It refers to the number of electrons an atom loses or gains during a chemical
reaction.
Examples:
Calcium, with electron arrangement 2.8.8.2 loses 2 electrons during chemical
reactions and hence has a valency of 2.
Oxygen with electron arrangement 2.6 gains 2 electrons during chemical reactions
and thus has a valency of 2.
Phosphorus with electron arrangement 2.8.5 has gains 3 electrons during chemical
Aluminium, with electron arrangement 2.8.3 loses 3 electrons during chemical
Note: Some elements have variable valencies and are usually termed the transitional
elements (metals)
Examples:
- Iron can have valency 2 or 3;
- Copper can have valency 1 or 2
- Lead can have valency 2 or 4.
Summary on valencies of common elements
Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency 3

Metals Sodium Calcium Aluminium
Potassium Barium Iron
Magnesium
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Copper
Non-metals Nitrogen Nitrogen Nitrogen
Chlorine Oxygen Phosphorus
Fluorine Sulphur
Hydrogen

Radicals
Are groups of atoms with a net charge that exist and react as a unit during chemical
reactions.
The valency of a radical is the same as the value of its charge.
Summary on valencies of some common radicals.
Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency 3

Radicals Ammonium (NH4+) Carbonate (CO32-) Phosphate (PO43-)
Hydroxide (OH-) Sulphate (SO42-)
Nitrate (NO3-) Sulphite (SO32-)
Hydrogen carbonate
(HCO3-)
Hydrogen sulphate
(HSO4-)
Oxidation number
Refers to the number of electrons an atom loses or gains during a chemical reaction.
Examples:
Atom E. arrangement Ion Valency Oxidation
formula number
Sodium 2.8.1 Na+ 1 +1
2+
Magnesium 2.8.2 Mg 2 +2
Aluminium 2.8.3 Al3+ 3 +3
3-
Nitrogen 2.5 N 3 -3
2-
Sulphur 2.8.6 S 2 -2
Chlorine 2.8.7 Cl- 1 -1
Further examples:
Particle Oxidation
number
Copper metal, Cu 0
2+
Lead (II) ion, Pb +2
-
Bromide ion, Br -1
Aluminium ion, +2
Al2+
Sulphide ion, S2- -2
Magnesium metal, 0
Mg
Hydrogen, H 0

TOPIC TWO : CHEMICAL FAMILIES; PATTERNS AND PROPERTIES
Elements are classified and hence positioned in the periodic table based on the
number of valence electrons and the number of energy levels.
The number of valence electrons is equal to the group to which the element belongs;
while the number of energy levels is equal to the period to which the element
belongs.
Elements in the same group are said to belong to the same chemical family.
- Thus a chemical family refers to a group of elements with the same number of
valence electrons and hence in the same group of the periodic table.
Characteristics of a chemical family:

 Have same number of valence electrons;
 Show a uniform gradation in physical properties;
 Have similar chemical properties;
Main chemical families.

Four main chemical families will be studied in this section.
i) The Alkali metals
ii) The Alkaline earth metals
iii) The halogens
iv) The noble gases
The Alkali metals

Are the elements with one valence electron and hence in group I of the periodic
table.
All are metallic in nature.
The members of the family in order down the group is as follows:
Elements Electron arrangement

Lithium 2.1
Sodium 2.8.1
Potassium 2.8.81
Gradation in properties of alkali metals

Atomic radius.
Refers to the distance between the centre of the nucleus of an atom and the
outermost energy level occupied by an electron(s)
Ionic radius:
Refers to the distance between the centre of the nucleus of an ion and the outermost
energy level occupied by electron(s)
Trend:
The ionic radius and the atomic radius of alkali metals increase down the group.
Reason:
This is due to increase in the number of occupied energy levels down the group.

Illustration:
Lithium (2.1) has only 2 energy levels; sodium (2.8.1) has 3 energy levels while
potassium (2.8.8.1) has 4 energy levels.
Thus the outermost electron in potassium is further from the nucleus than the
outermost electron in sodium and lithium.
Atomic and ionic radius of the same element

For the same alkali metals the atomic radius is larger than the ionic radius.
Reason:
Alkali metals form ions by losing the valence electron, leading to the loss of an entire
outermost energy level. Thus the atoms have more energy levels than the
corresponding ion hence a larger atomic radius than ionic.
Question: Compare atomic radius of potassium with its ionic radius. Explain your
answer.
Potassium atom has electron arrangement of 2.8.8.1 hence 4 energy levels.
During ion formation potassium reacts by losing the single valence electron to
acquire a new electron arrangement of 2.8.8 hence 3 energy levels.
Thus the ion has a smaller radius than the atom.
Summary: changes in atomic and ionic radius among alkali metals

Element Symbo Atomic Atomic radius Ionic radius (nm)
l number (nm)
Lithium Li 3 0.133 0.060
Sodium Na 11 0.157 0.095
Potassium K 19 0.203 0.133
Physical properties of alkali metals

1. Appearance.
Alkali metals have metallic luster when freshly cut. This refers to a shiny
appearance on the cut surface.
This surface however tarnishes due to reaction with oxygen on exposure to air.
2. Ease of cutting.
They are soft and easy to cut.
The softness and ease of cutting increase down the group.
Explanation:
The increase in atomic radius down the group leads to decrease in the strength of
the forces holding the atoms together hence ease of cutting and softness.
3. They have relatively low melting and boiling points (in comparison to other
metals).
Explanation: they have relatively weaker metallic bonds.
The melting and boiling points decrease down the group.

Reason: - The size of the atoms increase down the group due to increasing number
of energy levels hence decrease in the strength of the metallic bonds
(down the group).

4. Electrical conductivity.
Alkali metals are good conductors of heat ad electricity.
Reason: they have delocalized electrons in the outermost energy level.
The electrical conductivity is similar for all alkali metals.
Reason: all alkali metals have the same number of delocalized electron
(a single electron) in the outermost energy level.
Note:
In metals the electrons in the outermost energy level do not remain in one fixed
position. They move randomly throughout the metallic structure and are thus said
to be delocalsised.
5. Ionization energy.
Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from
the outermost energy level of an atom in its gaseous state.
The first ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove the first
electron from the outermost energy level of an atom in its gaseous state.
The first ionization among alkali metals decreases down the group.
Reason:
The effective force of attraction of electron on the outermost electron by the positive
nucleus decreases with increasing atomic size and distance from the nucleus.
Note that the atomic radius increases down the group due to increase in the number
of occupied energy levels.
Summary on physical properties of Alkali metals.
Element Appearanc Ease of Melting Boiling Electrical Atomic Ionic
e cutting point point conductivi radius radius
(oC) (oC) ty (nm) (nm)
Lithium Silver Slightly 180 1330 Good 0.133 520
white hard
Sodium Shiny Easy 98 890 Good 0.157 496
white
Potassiu Shiny grey Easy 64 774 Good 0.203 419
m
Chemical properties of alkali metals.

1. Reaction with air(Moisture)
When exposed to air alkali metals react with atmospheric moisture to form the
corresponding metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Examples:
With moisture:
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g);
Then with carbon (IV) oxide:

2LiOH(aq) + CO2(g) → Li2CO3 + H2O(s);
With moisture:
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g);
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) → Na2CO3 + H2O(s);
With moisture:
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g);

2KOH(aq) + CO2(g) → K2CO3 + H2O(s);
2. Burning in air
Alkali metals burn in air with characteristic flame colours to form corresponding
metal oxides.
Examples:
i) Lithium burns in air to form lithium oxide as the only product.
4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s)
ii) Sodium burns in air to with a yellow flame to form sodium oxide as the only
product.
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
Note:
When burned in air enriched with oxygen or pure oxygen sodium burns with a
yellow flame to form sodium peroxide (instead of sodium oxide).
2Na(s) + O2(g) → Na2O2(s)
iii) Potassium burns in air with a lilac flame to form potassium oxide as the only
product.
4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s)
3. Reaction with water.

Alkali metals react with water to form the corresponding hydroxides and hydrogen
gas.
I) Potassium
Observations and explanations:
 The metal floats on the water surface; because it is less dense than water;
 A hissing sound is produced; due to production of hydrogen gas;
 It explosively melts into a silvery ball then disappears because reaction
between water and potassium is exothermic (produces heat). The resultant
heat melts the potassium due to its low melting point.
 It darts on the surface; due to propulsion by hydrogen;
 The metal bursts into a lilac flame; because hydrogen explodes into a flame
which then burns the small quantities potassium vapour produced during the
reaction;
The resultant solution turns blue; because potassium hydroxide solution formed is a
strong base;

Equations
i) 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g);
ii) 4K(s) + O2 (g) → 2K2O(s);
iii) K2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq)
Effect of resultant solution on litmus paper;

Litmus paper turns blue; sodium hydroxide formed is highly soluble in water;
releasing a large number of hydroxyl ions which result into alkaline conditions //
high pH;
II) Sodium.
 It vigorously melts into a silvery ball then disappears because reaction
between water and sodium is exothermic (produces heat). The resultant heat
melts the sodium due to its low melting point.
 The metal may burst into a golden yellow flame; because hydrogen may
explode into a flame which then burns the sodium;
The resultant solution turns blue; because sodium hydroxide solution formed is a
strong base;
Equations;
i) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g);
ii) 4Na(s) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O(s);
iii) Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)

high pH;
III) Lithium.
 It reacts less vigorously than sodium and des not melt since the melting point
of lithium is relatively higher.
 The gas does not ignite spontaneously;
The resultant solution turns blue; because lithium hydroxide solution formed is a
strong base;
Equations.
i) 2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g);
ii) 4Li(s) + O2 (g) → 2Li2O(s);

iii) Li2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq)

high pH;
Summary on reaction rate.

Metal Reaction rate
Lithium Vigorous
Sodium More vigorous
Potassium Explosive
4. Reaction with chlorine
All alkali metals react with chlorine to form corresponding metal chlorides.
Precautions
i) The experiment should be done in a working fume chamber or in the open. This is
because chlorine gas is poisonous.
ii) This experiment should not be attempted in the laboratory with potassium. The
reaction is too explosive and very dangerous.
Observations:
With Sodium:
i) The metal bursts into a yellow flame.
ii) White fumes of sodium chloride are formed.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
With Lithium:
i) The metal reacts less vigorously than sodium without bursting into a flame.
ii) White fumes of lithium chloride are formed.
2Li(s) + Cl2(g) → 2LiCl(s)
With Potassium:
i) The metal bursts into a lilac flame.
ii) White fumes of potassium chloride are formed.
2K(s) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl(s)
The general trend in reactivity of alkali metals

The reactivity of alkali metals increase down the group.
Reason:
Alkali metals react by losing the single valence electron. The ease of loss of the
valence electron increases down the group due to decrease in attraction of the
valence electron towards the positive nucleus. This in turn is due to the increase in
atomic radius down the group as a result of increase in number of energy levels.
Note:
Alkali metals are usually not found as free elements; but rather in their combined
states in the earth’s crust. This is because they have highly reactive.

Uses of Alkali metals and their compounds
1. Sodium is used in the manufacture of sodium cyanide for gold extraction.
2. Lithium is used in the manufacture of special high strength glasses ad ceramics.
3. Lithium compounds are used in the manufacture of dry cells for use in mobile
phones, laptops, stopwatches, and zero emission electric vehicles.
4. A molten mixture of sodium and potassium is used as a coolant in nuclear
reactors.
5. Sodium vapour is used to produce the yellow glow in street ad advertisement
lights.
6. Molten sodium is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of titanium.
4Na(l) + TiCl4(g) → Ti(s) + 4NaCl(l)
7. Sodium chloride is used as a food additive.
8. A mixture of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and carbon disulphide is used in
the manufacture of artificial silk called rayon.
The Alkaline Earth metals

Are the elements with two valence electrons and hence in group II of the periodic
table.
All are metallic in nature.
i) Beryllium
ii) Magnesium
iii) Calcium
Electron arrangement of the first three alkaline earth metals.
Beryllium 2.2
Magnesium 2.8.2
Calcium 2.8.8.2

Gradation in properties of alkaline earth metals
1. i) Atomic radius
Refers to the distance between the centre of the nucleus of an atom and the
outermost energy level occupied by electron(s)
The atomic radius of alkaline earth metals increase down the group.
This is due to increase in the number of energy levels down the group from
Beryllium to radium.
ii) Ionic radius

Refers to the distance between the centre of the nucleus of an ion and the
outermost energy level occupied by electron(s)
The ionic radius and the atomic radius of alkaline earth metals increase down
the group.
This is due to increase in the number of energy levels down the group from
Beryllium to radium.
2. Atomic and ionic radius of the same element

Compare atomic radius of calcium with its ionic radius.
Calcium atom has electron arrangement of 2.8.8.2 hence 4 energy levels.
During ion formation it reacts by losing the 2 valence electrons to acquire a new
electron arrangement of 2.8.8 hence 3 energy levels.
Thus the ion has a smaller radius than the atom.
Summary: changes in atomic and ionic radius among alkali metals.

Element Symbol Atomic Electron Atomic Ionic
number arrangement radius radius
(nm) (nm)
Beryllium Be 4 2.2 0.089 0.031
Magnesiu Mg 12 2.8.2 0.136 0.065
m
Calcium Ca 20 2.8.8.2 0.174 0.099
Physical properties of alkaline earth metals

1. Appearance.
Alkaline earth metals acquire a metallic luster when polished. This refers to a
shiny appearance on the cut surface.
They however lose this metallic luster when exposed to air due to oxidation.
Note:
The purpose of polishing alkaline earth metals before using them in experiment is to
remove the oxide coating that slows down and prevents them from reacting.
2. Ease of cutting.
Magnesium is hard to cut with a knife; but is however malleable and ductile.
Calcium cannot also be cut with a knife because it is brittle.
Note:

i) Malleability: Refers to the ability of a material to be hammered into sheets.
Example: Iron sheets are possible to be made because iron metal is malleable.
ii) Ductility:
The ability of a material to be rolled into wires.
Example: electric cables are made of aluminium because aluminium metal is
ductile.
iii) Brittle:
Refers to a substance which is hard and likely to break.
3. They have relatively high melting and boiling points in comparison to alkali
metals.
This is because they have relatively stronger metallic bonds (than alkali metals).
The melting and boiling points decrease down the group.
Reason: -
The size of the atoms increase down the group due to increasing number of
energy levels. As the atomic radius increase the force of attraction between the
positive nucleus and the delocalized electrons decrease. This leads to a decrease
in the strength of the metallic bonds (down the group).
Alkaline earth metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. This is because
they have delocalized electrons in the outermost energy level.
The electrical conductivity is similar for all the alkaline earth metals. This is
because all alkaline earth metals have the same number of delocalized electron
(two valence electrons) in the outermost energy level.
5. Ionization energy.
Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from
the outermost energy level of an atom in its gaseous state.
The number of ionization energies an element may have is equivalent to the number
of valence electrons.
Thus alkaline earth metals have two ionization energies.
The first ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove the first
electron from the outermost energy level of an atom in its gaseous state.
The second ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove the
second electron from the outermost energy level of an atom in its gaseous state.
The first and second ionization energies among alkaline earth metals decreases
down the group.
Reason:
The effective force of attraction of on the outermost electron by the positive nucleus
decreases with increasing atomic size and distance from the nucleus.
Note that the atomic radius increases down the group due to increase in the number
of energy levels.
Variation between 1st and 2nd Ionization energies.

The first ionization energy is always lower than the second ionization energy for the
same element.

This is because after losing the first electron from an atom, the overall positive
charge holds the remaining electrons more firmly. Thus removing a second electron
from the ion requires more energy than the first electron
Note:
The third ionization energy will also be higher than the second ionization energy for
the same reason.
Example:
Magnesium.
First ionization energy: Mg(g) → Mg+(g) + e- (1st I.E = 736 kJ per mole)
Second ionization energy: Mg+(g) → Mg2+(g) + e- (2nd I.E = 1450 kJ per mole)
Summary on physical properties of alkaline earth metals
Element Atomic Melting Boiling Atomic 1st I.E 2nd I.E

number point (oC) point (oC) radius (kJmol-1) (kJmol-1)
(nm)
Beryllium 4 1280 2450 0.089 900 1800
Magnesium 12 650 1110 0.136 736 1450
Calcium 20 850 1140 0.174 590 1150
Strontium 38 789 1330 0.210 550 1060
Barium 56 725 1140 0.220 503 970
Chemical properties of Alkaline earth metals

1. Burning alkaline earth metals in air
Alkaline earth metals burn in air to form corresponding oxides.
More reactive alkaline earth metals may also react with atmospheric nitrogen to
form corresponding nitrides.
Examples:
i) Magnesium.
Burns in air with a blinding brilliant white flame forming a white solid.
The white solid is a mixture of magnesium oxide ad magnesium nitride.
Equations:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
3Mg(s) + N2(g) → Mg3N2(s)
ii) Calcium.
Burns in air with a faint orange flame forming a white solid.
The white solid is a mixture of calcium oxide ad calcium nitride.
Equations:
2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)
3Ca(s) + N2(g) → Ca3N2(s)
Note:
- The trend in the reactivity of alkaline earth metals when burning in air is not clear;
due to the oxide coating on the calcium that tends to slow down the reaction of
calcium in air.

- For this reason it is important to polish the surfaces of alkaline earth metals before
using them in experiments.
2. Reaction of alkaline earth metals with cold water
Alkaline earth metals react slowly with cold water to form corresponding
hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
Examples
i) Magnesium:
Reacts slowly with water to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
The reaction is very slow and the amount of hydrogen gas evolved is very low hence
the hydrogen gas bubbles stick on the surface of the metal.
The magnesium hydroxide formed dissolves slightly in water to form magnesium
hydroxide.
Thus the resultant solution is slightly alkaline.
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g).
ii) Calcium:

Calcium sinks to the bottom of the beaker; because it is denser than water;
Slow effervescence of a colourless gas; due to slow evolution of hydrogen gas;
Soapy solution formed; due to formation of alkaline calcium hydroxide;
A white suspension is formed; because calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble in
water;
Reaction equation:
Ca(s) + H2O (l) → Ca (OH) 2(aq) + H2 (g);

Litmus paper slowly turns blue; calcium hydroxide formed is slightly soluble in
water; releasing a small number of hydroxyl ions which result into alkaline
conditions // high pH;
3. Reaction with steam.

Alkaline earth metals react with steam to produce corresponding metal oxide and
hydrogen gas.
The reactivity with stem is faster ad more vigorous for each alkaline earth metals as
compared to reaction with cold water.

Examples:
Reaction with magnesium
Note:
i) The wet sand is heated gently first then the magnesium ribbon is heated strongly
until it glows.
This is done to generate steam that drives out the air that would otherwise react
with the magnesium (preventing reaction with steam)
ii) The delivery tube is removed from the water before heating stops to prevent
sucking back (of the gas) as the apparatus cools
The gas produced is tested using a burning splint.
Observations and explanations.

i) Magnesium burns with a white blinding flame;
Grey solid (magnesium) forms a white solid, which is magnesium oxide;
ii) Evolution of a colourless gas that produces a pop sound when exposed to a
burning splint, confirming it is hydrogen;
Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g);
Reaction with Calcium

Reaction between calcium and steam would produce calcium oxide and hydrogen
gas.
However the reaction is too explosive to be done under laboratory conditions
4. Reaction with chlorine
Alkaline earth metals react with chlorine to form corresponding chlorides as the only
products.
The metal must be heated first.
Reaction should be done in a working fume chamber because chlorine gas is
poisonous.
Examples:
i) Reaction with magnesium.
Burning magnesium continues to burn with a brilliant white flame when lowered
into a gas jar containing chlorine gas, forming a white powder (MgCl 2).
Reaction between magnesium and chlorine is exothermic. The heat produced keeps
the metal burning; thus facilitates the reaction between magnesium and chlorine to
form magnesium chloride, which is the white powder.
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) → MgCl2(s)
ii) Reaction with Calcium

When a piece of burning calcium is lowered into a gas jar containing chlorine the
metal burns shortly with an orange flame but soon smolders off.
There is no steady reaction between calcium and chlorine. This is because when
calcium is heated a coating of the metal oxide is formed first which prevents further
reaction between the metal and chlorine.
However under suitable conditions calcium reacts with chlorine to form a white
powder of calcium chloride.
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) → CaCl2(s)
5. Reaction of alkaline earth metals and dilute acids

Generally alkaline earth metals react with dilute acids to form salts and hydrogen
gas.
Examples:
i) With hydrochloric acid.
Beryllium:
When a piece of beryllium is dropped into a beaker containing hydrochloric acid,
there is effervescence of a colourless gas.
The colourless gas produces a pop sound when exposed to a burning splint
confirming that it is hydrogen gas.
A colourless solution of beryllium chloride remains in the test tube // boiling
tube.
Be(s) + 2HCl(aq) → BeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium:
When a piece of magnesium is dropped into a beaker containing hydrochloric acid,
there is effervescence of a colourless gas.
A colourless solution of magnesium chloride remains in the test tube // boiling
tube.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium:
When a piece of calcium is dropped into a beaker containing hydrochloric acid, there
is effervescence of a colourless gas.
A colourless solution of calcium chloride remains in the test tube // boiling tube.
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)

ii) With sulphuric (VI) acid.
Calcium:
When a piece of calcium is dropped into a beaker containing sulphuric (VI) acid,
there is slight effervescence of a colourless gas.
The reaction however quickly stops and there is formation of a white precipitate
(CaSO4)which is insoluble hence coats the surface of the (calcium) metal stopping
further reaction.
Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + H2(g)
Trend in reactivity in alkaline earth metals.

The reactivity of the alkaline earth metals increases down the group.
Reason:
The atomic radius increases down the group due to increasing number of energy
levels. The attraction of the two valence electrons towards the positive nucleus thus
decreases down the group. Since alkaline earth metals react by losing electrons the
ease with which the valence electrons are lost therefore decreases down the group
Uses of some alkaline earth metals and their compounds

1. Magnesium is used in the manufacture of magnesium hydroxide which is used as
an anti-acid medicine. Magnesium hydroxide is a non-toxic base.
2. A low-density alloy of magnesium and aluminium is used in aeroplanes
construction.
3. Hydrated calcium sulphate (plaster of Paris) is used in hospitals to set fractured
bones.
4. Cement is made by heating a mixture of calcium carbonate (limestone), clay and
sand.
5. Calcium carbonate is used in the extraction of iron.
6. Calcium oxide (quicklime) is added tom acidic soils to raise pH for agricultural
purposes.
7. Calcium nitrate is used as a nitrogenous fertilizer.
8. Magnesium oxide is used in the lining of furnaces.
9. Barium sulphate is used in the diagnosis of ulcers.
10. Barium nitrate is used to produce the green flame in fireworks.
11. Calcium carbonate is mixed with oil to make putty.
The Halogens
The word halogen means salt producer.
Are the elements with seven valence electrons and hence in group VII of the periodic
table.
All are non-metallic in nature.
Fluorine.
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine

Gradation in properties of halogens
1. Atomic and Ionic radius:
The ionic radius and the atomic radius of halogens increase down the group. This
is due to increase in the number of energy levels down the group from Fluorine to
iodine.
2. Atomic and ionic radius of the same element

Compare atomic radius of chlorine with its ionic radius.
Chlorine form ion by gaining an electron into the outermost energy level. This
increases the electron-electron repulsion in the outermost energy level hence
decreasing the nuclear attraction of the outermost electrons towards the nucleus.
Hence the ionic radius is longer than the atomic radius.
Summary: changes in atomic and ionic radius among halogens

Element Symbol Atomic Atomic Ionic
number radius (nm) radius (nm)
Fluorine F 9 0.064 0.136
Chlorine Cl 17 0.099 0.181
Bromine Br 35 0.114 0.195
Iodine I 53 0.133 0.216
Physical properties of Halogens
1. Physical state and appearance at room temperature.

Halogen State and appearance
Fluorine Pale yellow gas
Chlorine Green-yellow gas
Bromine Volatile brown liquid
Iodine Shiny dark grey solid.
2. a) Solubility in water
Fluorine, chlorine and bromine are all soluble in water, while iodine is insoluble in
water.
When a boiling tube containing the soluble halogens is inverted into a beaker
containing water, the halogen dissolves in the water.
This creates a partial vacuum and the water in the beaker thus rises to occupy the
space left by the dissolved gas.
The halogens dissolve in water to form acidic solutions.
The more soluble the halogen, the higher the rise in water level in the boiling tube.
Thus the solubility of halogens decreases down the group from fluorine to bromine.
All halogens have molecular structures with wreak van der waals forces between the
molecules.
During the dissolution the Van der Waals must be broken. The strength of Van der
Waals increase as the atomic size and hence the molecular size increases which
occurs down the group.

b) Solubility in tetrachloromethane.
All halogens are soluble in tetrachloromethane.
The solubility of each halogen is higher in tetrachloromethane than in water.
This is because halogens are molecular thus non-polar. Hence they are more
soluble in polar organic solvents like tetrachloromethane than in polar solvents
like water.
All halogens are non-conductors of heat and electricity.
This is because halogens are molecular and thus have neither delocalized
electrons nor free mobile ions for electrical conductivity.
4. Trend in melting and boiling points.
The melting and boiling points of halogens increase down the group.
Halogens exist as diatomic molecules and thus have molecular structures;
The molecules are held together by intermolecular forces called the Van der
Waals which have to be broken during melting and boiling;
The strength of the Van der Waals increases as the size of the atoms and hence
molecules increases which occurs down the group.
Summary on some physical properties of halogens

Melting Boiling
Atomic
Halogen Formula Appearance point point
number
(oC) (oC)
Fluorine F 9 Pale yellow gas -238 -188
Chlorine Cl 17 Green yellow gas -101 -35
Bromine Br 35 Brown liquid -7 59
Iodine I 53 Shiny dark grey 114 184
solid
Chemical properties of Halogens
1. Ion formation.
Halogens react by gaining a single electron into the outermost energy level to form
a stable electron configuration and corresponding anions.
During ion formation by electron loss, energy is released, and the energy
change for this process is called electron affinity
Note: Definition.
Electron affinity is thus the energy released when an atom in gaseous state gains an electron to form
a negative ion (anion)
Trend in electron affinity of halogens:

Generally the electron affinity of halogens decreases down the group.
The size of the atoms increases (due to increasing number of energy levels) down the
group and thus the force of attraction of the electrons in the outermost energy level
towards the nucleus decreases.

Thus down the group the ease with which electrons are gained decreases and the
faster the ease of electron gain, the more the energy released hence the more the
electron affinity.
Summary:
Ionization Electron affinity (kJ per
equation mole
F(g) + e → F-(g) -322
Cl(g) + e → Cl-(g) -349
Br(g) + e → Br-(g) -325
I(g) + e → I-(g) -295
2. Reaction with metals.

(a). Reaction of chlorine with iron.
Alternatively;
Precaution
Experiment should be done in a functional fume cupboard or in the open. This is
because chlorine gas is poisonous and will thus be harmful to the human body.

Conditions.
i) Chlorine gas has to be dry (can be dried using anhydrous calcium chloride in the
U-tube) This is to prevent hydration hence oxidation of iron (which will then form
Fe2O3.5H2O) hence preventing reaction between iron and chlorine.
ii) Iron metal must be hot; and this is done by heating. This is to provide activation
energy i.e. the minimum kinetic energy which the reactants must have to form
products.
iii) Anhydrous calcium chloride in the U-tube to dry the chlorine gas.
Note: In the guard tube, calcium oxide is preferable to anhydrous calcium chloride.
This is because other than preventing atmospheric water vapour from getting into
the flask with iron wool; it also absorbs excess chlorine thus preventing
environmental pollution.
Observations made in the experiment

Iron metal glows red-hot.
Red brown fumes (FeCl3(g)) are formed in the combustion tube.
A black solid (FeCl3(s)) is collected in the flask.
Note:
Iron (III) chloride cannot be easily collected in the combustion tube because it
sublimes when heated and hence the hotter combustion tube causes it to sublime
and its vapour is collected on the cooler parts of the flask.
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2FeCl3(g)
Iron (III) chloride sublimes on heating; the black solid changes to red-brown fumes
on heating.
FeCl3(s) FeCl3(g)
(black) (Red-brown)
b) Reaction of chlorine with aluminium

Chlorine reacts with aluminium in a similar manner to iron to form aluminium
chloride.
Aluminium chloride also sublimes on heating.
Reaction of chlorine with burning magnesium.

The magnesium continues to burn with a bright blinding flame;
Formation of white fumes (MgCl2); which cools into a white powder.
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) → MgCl2(s)
Generally chlorine reacts with most metals when hot top form corresponding
chlorides.
Note:
Where a metal forms two chlorides when it reacts with chlorine, the higher chloride
is usually formed.

This is because the higher chloride is stable. This explains why reactions of chlorine
with iron results into iron (III) chloride and not iron (II) chloride.
3. Reaction with water

Halogens that dissolve in water form a mixture of two acids.
Reaction of chlorine with water

Chlorine dissolves in water to form chlorine water, which is a mixture of two acids:
chloric (I) acid and hydrochloric acid.
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HOCl(aq) + HCl(aq)

Chloric (I) acid Hydrochloric acid
Effects of sunlight on chlorine water.
Observations
After sometime a colourless gas that rekindles a glowing splint is produced. This
shows that the gas collected is oxygen.
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
The HOCl being unstable will decomposes on exposure to sunlight, giving out
oxygen.
2HOCl(aq) → 2HCl(aq) + O2(g) (slow reaction)
Effect of chlorine water on litmus papers

The blue litmus paper turns red; then both litmus papers are bleached
(decolourised).
Explanations
Chlorine water contains a mixture of chloric (I) acid ad hydrochloric acid.
The two acids cause the litmus paper to turn red (from blue) while the red litmus
paper remained red.
The litmus papers are then bleached by chloric (I) acid.
The chloric (I) acid is unstable and thus decomposes to give hydrochloric acid and
oxygen atom.

HOCl(aq) → HCl(aq) + [O]
The oxygen atom combines with the chemical of the natural dye in the litmus thus
decolourising it.
Dye + HOCl(aq) → HCl(aq) + (Dye + [O])
Coloured Decolourised
Some uses of halogens and their compounds

1. Fluorine is a raw material in the preparation of a synthetic fibre known as
polytetrafluoroethane.
2. Some compounds of fluorine are added to water and some tooth pastes in small
quantities to reduce tooth decay.
3. Fluorine is used in the manufacture of hydrogen fluoride used to engrave words
or pictures on glass.
4. Chlorine is used to make bleaches used in paper and textile industries.
5. Chlorine is added to water to kill micro-organisms in water treatment works.
6. Chlorine is used in the manufacture of a plastic known as polyvinylchloride (PVC).
7. Chlorine is used in large scale manufacture of hydrochloric acid.
8. Bromine is used in the manufacture of silver bromide which is used to make the
light sensitive photographic paper and films.
9. A solution of iodine in alcohol (tincture of iodine) is used as a disinfectant.
The Noble gases

Are the elements in group VIII of the periodic table.
All are gaseous in nature.
The members of the family in order down the group is as follows: Helium, Neon,
Argon….
They are found as free atoms in nature and form about 1% of air with argon being
the most abundant.
Electron arrangement of the first three noble gases.

Helium 2.
Neon 2.8.
Argon 2.8.8.
Note: - Helium with only two electrons has one occupied energy level; which is
completely full and hence is said to have a duplet electron configuration
The rest of the noble gases have eight electrons in their outermost occupied energy
level hence are said to have the octet electron configuration.
Physical properties of noble gases

1. Atomic and ionic radius.
The atomic radius of noble gases increase down the group. This is due to an
increase in the number of energy levels down the group.

Note:
Under normal circumstance the noble gases neither lose nor gain electrons and are
thus stable hence unreactive. Due to this they rarely form ions and hence
comparative studies of ionic radii among noble gases are not feasible.
2. Ionization energies.
Noble gases have very high ionization energies.
The nuclear attraction force of electrons in the outermost energy level towards the
nucleus is thus very strong.
The ionization energy decrease down the noble gases group.
As the size of the atoms increase down the group (due to increase in the number of
energy levels), the force with which the electros in the outermost energy levels are
attracted towards the nucleus decrease hence increase in the ease of electron loss
(from the outermost energy level).
3. Melting and boiling points.

Generally noble gases have very low melting and boiling points.
They exist as monoatomic gases with simple molecular structures with weak van der
waals forces that are easy to break.
Melting and boiling points among the noble gases increase down the group. This is
due to increase in the strength of the Van der Waals down the group.
Chemical properties of Noble gases

Generally the noble gases neither lose nor gain electrons and are thus stable hence
unreactive.
Due to this they rarely form ions and hence have no feasible chemical reactions.
However xenon and radon with very large atomic radii and smaller ionization
energies take part in some reactions and thus display some chemical properties.
Uses of some noble gases

Note: The application of noble gases is ironically centered on their inert nature.
1. Argon is used in light bulbs to provide an inert environment to prevent oxidation.
2. Argon is used as an insulator in arch-welding.
3. Neon gas is used in streets and advertisement lights.
4. Helium mixed with oxygen is used in deep sea diving and mountaineering.
5. Helium mixed with oxygen also is used in hospitals for breathing in patients with
respiratory problems and those undergoing certain forms of surgery.
6. Helium can be used instead of hydrogen in balloons for meteorological research.
This is because hydrogen is explosive in the presence of air and may explode
causing serious accidents. Helium is less dense than hydrogen.
7. Helium is used in thermometers for measurements of very low temperatures.
8. Liquid helium is used to keep certain metal alloys at temperatures low enough for
them to become superconductors.

PROPERTIES AND TRENDS ACROSS A PERIOD
Elements in the same period have same number of energy levels.
The Period three of the periodic table

Consists of elements with three energy levels.
Consists of the 8 elements from sodium to argon.
Trends in physical properties of elements in period 3
1. Electrical conductivity
Sodium, magnesium and aluminium are good conductors of electricity. They all
have delocalized electros which conduct electricity;
The electrical conductivity increases from sodium to aluminium.
Electrical conductivity increases with increase in the number of delocalized
electrons; thus aluminium with the highest number of delocalized electrons (3) in
each atom will have the highest electrical conductivity;
Note;
In the metals the electrical conductivity decreases with increase in temperature.
Increase in temperature distorts the alignment of electrons thus preventing their
easy flow and hence poor conductivity;
Phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and argon do not conduct electric current.
They lack delocalized electron or free ions for electrical conductivity.
Silicon is a semi-conductor.
Note:
A semi-conductor is a crystalline material which only conducts electricity under
certain conditions.
2. The atomic and ionic radii.
The atomic radii of period 3 elements decrease across the period.
This is due to increase in number of protons in the nucleus across the period; this
leads to the increase in nuclear charge hence decrease in atomic radius across the
period.
3. Melting and boiling points

i) Sodium, magnesium and aluminium have very high melting and boiling points.
They have giant metallic structures with strong metallic bonds which need a lot
of energy to break.
The boiling and melting points increase from sodium to aluminium. This is
because as you move across the period from sodium to aluminium, the nuclear
charge increases hence decrease in atomic radius; the smaller the atomic radius
(for metals) the stronger the metallic bonds.
ii) Silicon, though a non-metal also has a very high melting and boiling points. This
is because silicon has a giant atomic structure with strong covalent bonds
which need a lot of heat energy to break.
iii) Phosphorus, Sulphur, Chlorine and argon have low melting and boiling points.
They all have molecular structures with strong covalent bonds between the
atoms (except in argon) but weak van der waals forces between the molecules

which are easy to break.
Note that argon exist as atoms and thus a monoatomic molecule.
The melting and boiling points decreases from phosphorus to argon. This is
because as we move across the period from phosphorus to argon, the size of the
atoms decreases leading to smaller atoms and hence molecules, which lead to
decrease in the strength of the van der Waals (across the period)
Note:
Phosphorus and sulphur exists as solids at room temperature while chlorine and
argon exists as gases at room temperature. This is because phosphorus and sulphur
have giant molecular structures while chlorine and argon have simple molecular
structures.
Summary: Some physical properties f elements in period 3.
S
P
Property Na Mg Al Si (monoclin Cl Ar
(white)
ic)
Physical
Green
state and Silver Silver Black White Yellow Colourle
Silver yellow
appearanc solid solid solid solid solid ss gas
gas
e
Electron
arrangem 2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8..3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8
ent
Valency 1 2 3 4 5 or 5 6 7 8
Atomic
0.157 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.110 0.104 0.09 0.192
radius
MP (oC) 98 650 660 1410 44 119 -101 -189
BP (oC) 890 1110 2470 2360 280 445 -35 -186
Simple
Giant Giant Giant Simple
Giant Molecul molecula
Structure metall metall metall Molecular molecul
atomic ar r
ic ic ic ar
/atomic
Van
metall metall metall Covale Covalen Covalen
Bond type Covalent der
ic ic ic nt t t
waals

Trends in chemical properties of the elements in period 3
Note: Trends in reactivity
The reactivity among the metallic elements decreases across the period from sodium
to aluminium.
Reason:
There is a continuous increase in nuclear charge from sodium to aluminium which
leads to increase in ionization energies hence increasing difficulty in removing an
electron from the outermost energy level.
Among the non-metallic elements, the reactivity increases across the period from
phosphorus to chlorine.
Reason:
There is increase in nuclear charge from phosphorus to chlorine, hence an increase
in ease of electron gain (electro affinity) since non-metals react by gaining electrons.
Argon is unreactive and can only react under very special conditions. This is
because it is a noble gas with a stable octet configuration.
1. Reaction of period 3 elements with oxygen

All period three elements react with (burn in) oxygen with the exception of argon.
i) Sodium:
Burns vigorously in oxygen with a golden yellow flame; to produce white solid of
sodium oxide.
Na(s) + O2(s) → Na2O(s)
The resultant sodium oxide dissolves in water to form sodium hydroxide.

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq);
The sodium hydroxide is alkaline in nature and thus turns red litmus paper blue;
ii) Magnesium:
Burns vigorously in oxygen with a bright white light; to produce white solid of
magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s) + O2(s) → 2MgO(s)
The resultant magnesium oxide is slightly soluble in water to form magnesium
hydroxide.
MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq);
The magnesium hydroxide is alkaline in nature and thus turns litmus indicator
blue;
iii) Aluminium:
Note:
Aluminium (foil) is usually coated with a thin layer of aluminium oxide, Al 2O3; which
prevents reaction with the oxygen.
When polished, it reacts slowly with oxygen to form a white solid of aluminium
oxide.
Al(s) + 3O2(s) → Al2O3(s)
The resultant aluminium (III) oxide is insoluble in water.
iv) Silicon:
Silicon powder can only bur in oxygen at very high temperatures of about 450 oC to
form solid silicon (IV) oxide.

Si(s) + O2(s) → SiO2(s)
The resultant silicon (IV) oxide is insoluble in water.
v)Phosphorus.
Burns readily in oxygen with a bright orange flame; to produce dense white
fumes (solid) of phosphorus (V) oxide
P4(s) + 5O2(s) → 2P2O5(s)
The resultant phosphorus (V) oxide readily dissolves in water to form phosphoric
(V) acid.
P2O5(s) + 3H2O(l) → 2H3PO4(aq);
The phosphoric acid is acidic in nature and thus turns litmus indicator red;
vi) Sulphur.
Burns in oxygen with a blue flame; to form a colourless gas of sulphur (IV) oxide
S(s) + O2(s) → SO2(s)
The resultant sulphur (IV) oxide readily dissolves in water to form sulphuric (IV)
acid.
SO2(s) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq);
The sulphuric (IV) acid is unstable and thus easily gets oxidized by oxygen to the
stable sulphuric (VI) acid.
H2SO3(aq) + O2(g) → H2SO4(aq);
vii) Chlorine
Burns in oxygen only under certain conditions to form acidic oxides.
2Cl2(s) + O2(s) → 2Cl2O(s)
viii) Argon.
Argon is unreactive.
Conclusion:
Metallic elements burn in oxygen to form basic oxides.
Non-metallic oxides burn in oxygen to form acidic oxides.
2. Reaction of period 3 elements with water
i) Sodium.
A small piece of sodium metal is cut and dropped into a trough containing water;
The resultant solution is tested with litmus paper;

i. The metal floats on the water surface; because it is less dense than water;
ii. A hissing sound is produced; due to production of hydrogen gas;
iii. It vigorously melts into a silvery ball then disappears because reaction
between water and sodium is exothermic (produces heat). The resultant heat
melts the sodium due to its low melting point.
iv. It darts on the surface; due to propulsion by hydrogen;
v. The metal may burst into a golden yellow flame; because hydrogen may
explode into a flame which then burns the sodium;
vi. The resultant solution turns blue; because sodium hydroxide solution formed
is a strong base;

Reaction equations.
Equation I
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g);
Equation II
4Na(s) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O(s);
Equation III:
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)

high pH;
ii) Magnesium.
i) The metal sinks into the water; because it is denser than water;
ii) It reacts slowly with water leading to slow evolution of hydrogen gas.
iii) The resultant solution turns blue; because sodium hydroxide solution formed
is a strong base;
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g);

Litmus paper turns blue; magnesium hydroxide formed is highly soluble in water;
high pH;
iii) Aluminium.
Aluminium does not normally react with cold water or steam.
Reason:
Aluminium is usually coated with a thin coating of aluminium oxide which prevents
further reaction.
However at very high temperatures of about 700oCsteam can react with aluminium
to form aluminium oxide and hydrogen gas.
2Al(s) + 3H2O(g) → Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g);
Note:
Due to its inability to react with water and air aluminium is preferable for making
cooking utensils like sufurias and coking pans.
iv) Silicon, phosphorus and sulphur.

These non-metals do not displace hydrogen from water and thus do not react
with water.

v) Chlorine.
Dissolves in water t form chlorine water, which is a mixture of chloric (I) acid ad
hydrochloric acid.
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HOCl(aq) + HCl(aq)

Chloric (I) acid Hydrochloric acid
3. Reaction of period 3 elements with acids
i) Sodium:
Reacts explosively with acids to form salts and hydrogen and thus reactions of
sodium with acids should not be tried in the laboratory.
ii) Magnesium:
Reacts with both dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulphuric acid to form
magnbsium salts and hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
iii) Aluminium:
Note:
It does not readily react with dilute acids.
Reason:
This is due to presence of a thin aluminium oxide coating that prevents contact
hence reaction with the acids.
When polished t remove the oxide coating it reacts with both dilute hydrochloric
and dilute sulphuric acid to form aluminium salts and hydrogen gas.
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 3AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)2(aq) + 3H2(g)
iv) Silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine.

They do not react with dilute acids.
Summary: Chemical properties of period 3 elements.

Eleme Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
nt
Reactio Readily Reacts - Forms Si powder White Burns N
n with reacts slowly a burns at phosphor in air reaction
air or with air. with protecti temperatur us or with air
oxygen - Burns air. ve es above smolders oxygen or
brightly - Burns coating 950oC to in air; with a oxygen
in in of Al2O3 form SiO2 - P burns blue under
oxygen oxygen when it in air with flame normal
with a with a burns a bright to condition
golden bright in orange form s.

yellow white oxygen. flame to SO2
flame to flame form P2O3 gas
form to form and P2O5
Na2O MgO
Reactio Reacts Slow No No reaction No No Dissolves

n with vigorous reactio reaction reaction reactio in water
water ly to n with n to form
produce cold chlorine
H2 and water water
NaOH to form
Mg(OH)
2 and
H2;
-
Reacts
faster
with
steam
to form
MgO
and H2
Reactio Violent Rapid Reacts No reaction No No No
n with reaction evolutio slowly reaction reactio reaction
dilute giving n of H2 to give n
acids out H2 gas and H2 and
and a a Mg an Al
sodium salt is salt
salt formed

TOPIC THREE : STRUCTURE AND BONDING
Meaning of structure and bond
Bond:
Is the mutual force of attraction that holds particles together when atoms (similar or
different) combine during chemical reactions.
Structure:
Is a regular pattern of particles in a substance held together by chemical bonds.
Nature of the chemical bond.

Atoms are made up of energy levels and nucleus.
The energy levels contain electrons while the nucleus contains protons and
neutrons.
The electrons are negatively charged, protons are positively charged while neutrons
are electrically neutral.
The noble gases are chemically inert since their outermost energy levels are
completely filled with the maximum possible number of electrons.
Thus noble gases have either a stable duplet state (2) like in helium or a stable octet
configuration
(2.8 or 2.8.8) as in neon and argon respectively.
Other atoms are unstable because the outermost energy levels are not yet completely
filled with the maximum possible number of electrons.
To attain the stable duplet or octet noble gas configuration, such atoms lose, gain or
share their valance electrons.
It is the act of losing, gaining or sharing valence electrons that lead to the chemical
bonds.
When atoms gain or lose valence electron(s) they become charged forming anions
and cations respectively.
Particles of the same charge repel each other while particles of different charges
attract one another.
Types of bonds
There are three main types of chemical bonds:
a) Ionic bonds
b) Covalent bond
c) Metallic bond
(a). Ionic bonds / electrovalent bond

Is a bond formed due to complete transfer of electrons from one atom to
another resulting into two oppositely charged ions.
Formation of an ionic bond

Formed due to complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another; and mainly
formed between a metal and a non-metal.
This occurs in a bid for both atoms to acquire a stable noble gas configuration.
One atom loses all its valence electrons thus forming a cation (positively charged
ions).

The other atom gains all the lost valence electrons forming an anion (negatively
charged ion).
The cation and the anion are oppositely charged and thus develop a mutual force of
attraction between them which is the ionic / electrovalent bond.
Examples
i) Formation of ionic bond between sodium and chlorine to form sodium
chloride.
ii) Formation of ionic bond between Potassium and fluorine to form potassium
fluoride.
ii) Formation of ionic magnesium oxide.
Use dot and cross diagrams to show bonding in;

i) Magnesium chloride.
ii) Aluminium (III) oxide.
Giant Ionic structures

Ionic bonding results into one type of structure, the giant ionic structure.
Most ionic substances with the giant ionic structure are crystalline in nature, made
up crystals.
Note: A crystal is a solid form of a substance in which the particles are arranged in
a definite pattern repeated regularly in 3 dimensions.
Illustration of the giant ionic structure: sodium chloride structure.

The NaCl structure consists of many Na+ and Cl- arranged and packed in a regular
pattern.
Each Na+ is surrounded by six Cl- that are equidistant from it.
Similarly each Cl- is surrounded by six Na+ that are equidistant from it.
This pattern occurs repeatedly in all directions.
The result is a giant of ions in all directions hence giant ionic structure.
Properties of giant ionic Compounds
1. They have high melting and boiling points.

They have strong electrostatic forces / ionic bonds / electrovalent bonds between
the oppositely charged ions throughout the structure which require large
amounts of energy to break.
3. Solubility.
(i). They are soluble in polar solvents like water, ethanol and acetone (propanone)
This is because they are made up of oppositely charged ions which are attracted
by the polar molecules.
(ii). They are insoluble in non-polar organic solvents like tetrachloromethane, benzene
and hexane.
Ionic substances do not conduct electric current in solid state.
This is because they lack mobile ions in solid state.
They conduct electric current in molten and solution (aqueous) states.
In molten and aqueous states the ions are free and mobile and thus move about
conducting electric current.
Gradation in properties of some ionic compounds
Compound of sodium
Property of compound Sodium Sodium Sodium Sodium
fluoride chloride bromide iodide
Solubility in water Soluble Soluble Soluble Soluble
Melting point (oC) 993 801 747 661
o
Boiling point ( C) 1695 1413 1390 1304
Electrical Solid Does not Does not Does not Does not
conductivi Molten /
Conducts Conducts Conducts Conducts
ty solution
Note:
Solubility of the compounds decrease from sodium fluoride to sodium iodide.
Melting and boiling points decrease from sodium fluoride to sodium iodide.

2. The covalent bond
Refers to a bond formed when two atoms of the same or of different elements share
electrons to become stable. This leads to formation of a molecule.
A molecule is a group of atoms (two or more) of the same or different elements that
are held together by strong covalent bonds.
Examples;
i) Formation of chlorine molecule.
ii) Formation of oxygen molecule
Note:
Thus a single covalent bond like in chlorine can be represented as Cl – Cl, a double
covalent bond like in oxygen can be represented as O = O while a triple covalent
bond like in nitrogen can be represented as N ≡ N.
Use dot and cross diagram to show bonding in;

1. Hydrogen, H2
2. Hydrogen chloride, HCl
3. Nitrogen, N2
4. Water
5. Carbon (IV) oxide, CO2
6. Ammonia gas, NH3
7. Phosphene, PH3
8. Methane, CH4
9. Ethane. CH2CH2
10. Ethyne, C2H2
10. Ethanol, C2H5OH
12. Bromoethane, C2H4Br.
The coordinate/dative bond.

Refers to a type of covalent bond in which the shared pair of electrons forming the
bond is contributed by only one of the atoms forming the bond.
It is also called the dative bond.
Examples:
i) Formation of ammonium ion.
ii) Formation of the hydroxonium ion.
iii) Carbon (IV) oxide
iv) Formation of PH4+
v) Aluminium chlorine dimer (Al2Cl6).
vi) Ammonia-aluminium chloride vapours complex, AlCl3.NH3
Note:
Substances with covalent bonds form two main types of structures:
a) Molecular structures
b) Giant atomic // Giant covalent structures.
a) The Molecular structures.

Refers to a structure in which covalent bonds holds atoms together to form
molecules and the resultant molecules are held together by intermolecular forces.
Substance with molecular structures are usually gases or liquids at room
temperature.
Few solids such as sulphur, iodine, fats, sugar, naphthalene and paraffin wax
also have molecular structures.
The intermolecular forces in molecular structures are of two types:
a) Van der Waals
b) Hydrogen bonds
c) (a). The Van der Waals.
Illustration of Van der Waals forces

(i). Iodine
(ii). Graphite.

(b). The hydrogen bonds.
Is an intermolecular force in which the electropositive hydrogen atom of one
molecule is attracted to an electronegative atom of another molecule.
Note:
Other compounds with hydrogen bonds include ethanol, ammonia, hydrogen
fluoride etc.
Hydrogen bonds are much stronger than the weak Van der Waals forces but still
weaker than the covalent bonds.
Examples.
1. Both ethanol (C2H5OH) and dimethyl ether (C2H6O) have the same relative
molecular mass of 46. However the boiling point of ethanol is higher at 78.5oC than
that of dimethyl ether at only -24oC.
Reason:
Even though both have molecular structures with covalent bonds between the
atoms, the intermolecular forces in ethanol are hydrogen bonds which are much
stronger than the intermolecular forces in dimethyl ether which are weak Van der
Waals forces.
2. Ethanol (C2H5OH) has a molecular mass of 46 while butane (C 4H10) has a
molecular mass of 58, yet the boiling point of ethanol is higher than that of butane.
Reason:
Both have molecular structures with covalent bonds between the atoms. However,
the intermolecular forces in ethanol are hydrogen bonds which are much stronger
(and require more energy to break) than the intermolecular forces in dimethyl ether
which are weak Van der Waals forces.
Molecular substances are generally insoluble in polar solvents like water. However
those with hydrogen bonding as the intermolecular forces are soluble in water since
the hydrogen bonding makes them polar.
Examples:
Sugar, ethanol, ethanoic acid etc
Properties of molecular structures

1. Melting and boiling points.
They generally have low melting and boiling points.
Because they consist of molecules held together by weak Van der Waals forces
which require low amounts of energy to break.
2. Heat and electrical conductivity

They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
They have neither delocalized electrons nor mobile ions for electrical conductivity.
3. Solubility
Molecular substances are generally insoluble in polar solvents like water but
soluble in non-polar organic solvents like benzene.
Reason:
In polar solvents like water there are strong water – water attractions which are
considerable stronger than the intermolecular forces (Van der Waals) attractions or
molecule – water (solvent) attractions, making the molecules unable to penetrate the
water (solvent) structure for dissolution to occur.
In non-polar solvents like benzene, the benzene-benzene attractions are similar in
strength to the intermolecular forces or the molecule – benzene (solvent) attractions,
enabling the molecules to penetrate the solvent thus allowing dissolution.
Note:
Molecular substances with hydrogen bonds as the intermolecular forces are soluble
in polar solvents like water.
Reason:
The hydrogen bonds in the molecules are equal in strength to the water – water
interactions which are also hydrogen bonds, thus the molecules are able to

penetrate the structure of water leading to salvation // dissolution // hydration i.e.
they are polar like the water molecules.
Summary: Properties of some molecular substances

Molecular substance
Property of Water Hydroge
Sugar Rhombi
Naphthale n
compound (Sucros Iodine c
ne sulphur
sulphid
e) e
Insolu Insolub - Slightly
Solubility in water Soluble Insoluble
ble le soluble
Molecular mass 183 128 186 256 18 34
Melting point (oC) 186 82 113 114 0 -85
Boiling point (oC) - 218 183 444 100 -60
Does Does Does Does
Electrical Solid Does not Does not
not not not not
conductivi
Molten / Does Does Does Does
ty Does not Does not
solution not not not not
Giant covalent structures // Giant atomic structures

Examples:
(a). Diamond.
(b). Graphite.
(c). Silicon (IV) oxide.
The metallic bond

Is a bond formed due to electrostatic attraction between the positively charged nuclei
and the negatively charged delocalized electrons that hold atoms together.
Properties of the giant metallic structure

1. They have high melting and boiling points.
This is because they have strong metallic bonds which need large amounts of energy
to break.
The strength of the metallic bond increases with decrease in atomic size, as well as
with increase in the number of delocalized electrons.
Thus metals with smaller atoms and more delocalized electrons tend to have
stronger metallic bonds hence higher melting and boiling points.
This explains why the melting and boiling points of metallic elements in period three
increase from sodium to aluminium.
2. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
This is because they have delocalized electrons.
Note: The electrical conductivity of metals increases with increase in the number of
delocalized electrons in each atom in the structure.
This explains why aluminium metal is a better conductor of heat and electricity than
both magnesium and sodium.
3. They are insoluble in water.
This is because they are non-polar, so cannot dissolve in polar water molecules.
Summary: some physical properties of metals

Metal Valenc Melting Boiling Atomic radii Electrical
o
y point ( C) point (oC) (nm) conductivity
Lithium 1 180 1330 0.133 Good
Sodium 1 98 890 0.155 Good
Potassium 1 64 774 0.203 Good
Magnesium 2 651 1110 0.136 Good
Aluminium 3 1083 2582 0.125 Good
Types of bonds across a period

The number of valence electrons play an important role in determination of chemical
bonding.
Across a period in the periodic table, the nature of the bonds varies from metallic to
covalent.
The structure also thus varies from giant metallic to simple molecular.
Thus similar compounds of the elements in period 3 will also exhibit variation in
bond types, structures and properties.
Variation in bond types in oxides of period three elements.

Oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO2 Cl2O7
Physical Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Gas Gas
state
M.P (oC) 1193 3075 2045 1728 563 -76 -60
B.P (oC) 1278 3601 2980 2231 301 -10 -9
Structur Giant Giant Giant Giant Molecul Molecul Molecul

e ionic ionic ionic atomic ar ar ar
Bonding Ionic Ionic Ionic Covalen Covalent Covalent Covalent

t with with with
Van der Van der Van der
Waals Waals Waals
Nature Basic Basic Amphoteri Acidic Acidic Acidic Acidic

of oxide (alkalin (weakly c
e) alkaline
)
Solubilit Dissolve Dissolve Insoluble Insolubl Dissolve Dissolve Dissolve

y in s to s to e s in s in s in
water forms forms water to water to water to

an an form form form
alkaline alkaline acidic acidic acidic
solution solution solution. solution. solution.
Reaction Reacts Reacts Reacts to No No No No

with to form to form form salt reaction reaction. reaction reaction
acids salt and salt and and .
water. water. water.
Note:
1. The melting and boiling points of the magnesium oxide is higher than that of
sodium oxide
Reason:
Both have giant ionic structures. However the electrostatic forces of attraction
between magnesium ions and oxide ions are stronger due to the fact that
magnesium ion has a charge of +2 and is smaller in size than the sodium ion.
Chlorides of elements in period 3

Most period 3 elements form stable chlorides.
The trend in bond types, structures and properties of chlorides of period 3 elements
show variation across the period.
Properties:
i. Reaction with water.
Observations:
Observations
Chloride Temperature
Solubility pH of solution
change (oC)
Drop in
Sodium chloride Dissolves 7
temperature
Magnesium
Dissolves Slight increase 6.5
chloride
Aluminium
Hydrolyzed Increases 3
chloride
Silicon (IV) oxide Hydrolyzed Increases 2
Phosphorus (III)
chloride
Phosphorus (V)
chloride
Explanations.
a) Sodium and magnesium chlorides
i. Sodium chloride dissolves in water causing a slight drop in temperature.
ii. Magnesium dissolves readily with a small increase in temperature.
b) Anhydrous aluminium chloride
It exits in molecular form as a dimeric molecule of Al 2Cl6.
The dimeric molecule is formed when aluminium chloride (AlCl 3) molecules

vapour condense and combine forming larger molecules of Al 2Cl6.
Diagram: Formation of a dimer in aluminium chloride.
When added to water aluminium chloride is hydrolyzed to form an acidic solution.

The hydrolysis is due to the very small but highly charged aluminium ion, Al 3+.
The Al3+ draws electrons away from its surrounding water molecules and causes
them to give up H+ ions.
AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) → Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq) Or;
Al2Cl6(s) + 6H2O(l) → 2Al(OH)3(aq) + 6HCl(aq)

c) Silicon (IV) chloride
Undergoes hydrolysis in water in an exothermic reaction producing a lot of heat.
SiCl4(s) + 2H2O(l) → SiO2(s) + 4HCl(aq)
d) Phosphorus (III) chloride and phosphorus (V) chloride

Both undergo hydrolysis in water in an exothermic reaction producing a lot of
heat.
PCl3(s) + 2H2O(l) → H3PO3(s) + 3HCl(aq)
PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) → H3PO4(s) + 5HCl(aq)
Trends in bond types and properties of chlorides of elements in period 3

Period 3 chloride
Property
Formula NaCl MgCl2 Al2Cl6 SiCl4 PCl3 & SCl2
PCl5
Physical Solid Solid Solid Liquid Liquid Liquid
state at
RT
M.P (oC) 801 714 Sublimes -70 Sublimes -78
at 180oC at -94oC
B.P (oC) 1467 1437 - 57 - Decompose
s at 57oC
Structure Giant Giant Molecular Molecular Molecular Molecular
ionic ionic dimer
Bond Ionic Ionic Ionic / Covalent Covalent Covalent
type covalent
Effect on Readily Readily Hydrolyze Hydrolyze Hydrolyze Hydrolyzed
water dissolve dissolve d to give d to give d to give to give HCl
s s HCl fumes HCl fumes HCl fumes fumes
pH of 7 6.5 3 2 2 2
solution

Summary: Characteristics of bonds
Property Substances with
Covalent bonds Ionic bonds Metallic
bonds
Electrical Non-conductors except - Solids do not conduct. - Conducts
conductivity graphite - Aqueous solutions and
molten state conduct
Thermal - Non-conductors except - Do not conduct - Conducts
conductivity graphite
Melting - Low for molecular - Usually high. - Generally
point (oC) substances high
- High for giant atomic
structures
Boiling - Low for molecular - Usually high - Generally
point (oC) substances high
- High for giant atomic
structures
Solubility - Generally insoluble in - Generally soluble in - Some
water but soluble in water metals react
organic solvents with water

TOPIC FOUR: SALTS
A salt is a substance that is formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are wholly or
partially replaced by a positive ion.
Types of Salts
a) A normal salt; is a salt that does not contain any replaceable hydrogen atom.
Examples are;
NaCl
K2SO4
Na2CO3
Ca(NO3)2
b) Acid salts ; Are salts that contain replaceable hydrogen atom. Examples are;
NaHCO3, KHSO4, NaH2PO4. They have acidic properties due to the presence of
replaceable hydrogen.
c) Basic salts; Are salts that contain hydroxide (OH-) ions. This makes them have
basic properties.
Examples are;
Mg(OH)Cl
Pb(OH)2.PbCO3
Zn(OH)Cl
CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
d) Double salts; Are salts in which there are two different anions or cations.
Examples;
KAl(SO4)2.12H2O
Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.6H2O
Na2CO3.NaHCO3.H2O
Solubility of Salts in Water

Nitrates All are soluble
Chlorides All are soluble except AgCl and PbCl2
Sulphates All are soluble except BaSO4 and PbSO4
CaSO4 is slightly soluble
Carbonates All are insoluble except K2CO3, Na2CO3 and (NH4)2CO3
All potassium, sodium and ammonium salts are soluble.

Solubility of Bases in Water
Solubility Effect of resulting solution
Cation on red litmus paper
Oxide Hydroxide Oxide Hydroxide
Potassium Soluble Soluble Turns blue Turns blue
Sodium Soluble Soluble Turns blue Turns blue
Calcium Slightly soluble Slightly soluble Turns blue Turns blue
Magnesium Slightly soluble Slightly soluble Turns blue Turns blue
Zinc Not soluble Not soluble No effect No effect
Aluminium Not soluble Not soluble No effect No effect
Copper Not soluble Not soluble No effect No effect
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq)
Potassium and sodium hydroxides are soluble in water. The hydroxides of calcium
and magnesium are slightly soluble in water.
water
KOH(s) → KOH(aq)
water
NaOH(s) → KOH(aq)
The hydroxides of zinc, aluminium, iron, lead and copper are insoluble in water.
Ammonia is a base and dissolves in water to form aqueous ammonia.
water
NH3(g) → NH3(aq)
Methods of preparing salts

The method chosen for preparation of a specific salt may depend on the solubility of
the salt in water.
Preparation of Soluble Salts

1. Reaction of a dilute Acid with a metal
Example;
Describe briefly how zinc sulphate can be prepared starting with zinc powder and
dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.
React dilute sulphuric(VII) acid with excess zinc(until effervescence stops). Filter
the mixture into an evaporating dish. Evaporate the filtrate to saturation. To find
out if the solution is saturated, dip a
glass rod into the solution and hold it up in air to cool. If crystals form on the tip of
the rod, then the solution is saturated and is ready to form crystals. At that point
heating is stopped and the solution allowed to cool slowly to form crystals.
The process of obtaining salt crystals from a saturated solution by cooling is called
crystallization.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Exercise
Describe briefly how the following salts can be prepared using the above method.
i) Magnesium nitrate
ii) Zinc chloride
iii) Calcium chloride
2. Reaction of a dilute Acid with a suitable metal oxide

Example;
Describe briefly how copper (II) sulphate can be prepared starting with
copper(II)oxide and dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.
Warm dilute sulphuric(VII) acid then react it with excess copper(II)oxide(until no
more candissolve). Filter the mixture into an evaporating dish. Evaporate the
filtrate to saturation. Allow to cool slowly to form crystals.
Excess CuO is used to ensure that all the acid has reacted.
The acid is warmed so as to speed up the reaction.
Evaporation of the filtrate is carried out over a water bath to ensure slow
evaporation and formation of large crystals.
Exercise
i) Lead (II) nitrate
ii) Magnesium sulphate
iii) Calcium chloride
3. Neutrallisation method
Example;
Describe briefly how sodium chloride can be prepared starting with dilute
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution.
Measure 25 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid and pour it into a beaker. Measure 25
cm3 of sodium hydroxide and pour it in another beaker. Add 2 – 3 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator into the sodium hydroxide. Pour the dilute hydrochloric
acid slowly into the beaker containing sodium hydroxide until the pink colour just
disappears. Test the resultant solution with universal indicator paper to confirm if
the pH is 7.
Pour the resultant solution into a clean evaporating dish, evaporate the solution
until it is saturated.
Allow the saturated solution to cool for crystals to form.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Exercise
i) Potassium nitrate
ii) Sodium sulphate
iii) Ammonium chloride

Equations
i) KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
ii) 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
iii) NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
4. Reaction of a dilute Acid with a suitable Carbonate

Example;
Describe briefly how Lead (II) nitrate can be prepared starting with
lead(II)carbonate and dilute Nitriv(V) acid.
Warm dilute nitric (V) acid then react it with excess lead (II)carbonate
(until effervescence stops).
Filter the mixture into an evaporating dish. Evaporate the filtrate to saturation.
Allow to cool slowly to form crystals.
Excess PbCO3 is used to ensure that all the acid has reacted.
The acid is warmed so as to speed up the reaction.
PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Pb(NO3)2 + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Other Examples;
i. ZnCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2 + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
ii. CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2 + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
iii. (NH4)2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
iv. Na2CO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → 2NaNO3 (aq)+ CO2(g) + H2O(l)
5. Preparation of salts by Direct Combination of Elements

This method can be used to prepare both soluble and insoluble salts.
Example;
Describe briefly how iron (II) sulphide can be prepared.
Put iron fillings in a crucible. Add sulphur. Het the mixture strongly. When the
reaction is complete allow to cool.
When the mixture is heated, it glows red, showing the reaction is exothermic.
Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)
The method above is also called direct synthesis.
Other Examples;
i. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
ii. 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2FeCl3(s)
Preparation of Insoluble Salts

Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation method.
Precipitation reaction is a reaction in which solids (precipitates) are formed by
reacting aqueous solutions.
Example;
Describe briefly how lead (II) sulphate can be prepared starting solid lead (II) nitrate
solid magnesium sulphate.
Dissolve lead (II) nitrate and magnesium sulphate separately.

React lead (II) nitrate solution with excess magnesium sulphate solution. Stir the
mixture using a glass rod. Let the solid (precipitate) formed settle the filter. Wash the
residue with distilled water.
Dry the residue between filter papers to obtain lead (II) sulphate.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + MgSO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)
Pb2+ (aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s) + Mg2+ + 2NO3-(aq)
Pb2+ (aq) + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s)
Other Examples;
i) Ba(NO3)2(aq) + ZnSO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)
ii) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) → PbI2(s)

yellow precipitate
What happens when Salts are Exposed to the Atmosphere

1. Deliquescent salts; Are salts which when exposed to the atmosphere absorb water
and form a solution. The process is called deliquescence.
Examples; Sodium hydroxide, anhydrous calcium chloride, iron (II) chloride,
potassium hydroxide and zinc chloride.
2. Hygroscopic salts; Are salts which when exposed to the atmosphere absorb water
but do not form a solution. The process is called hygroscopy.
Examples; anhydrous copper (II) sulphate, anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride,
potassium nitrate and sodium chloride.
3. Efflorescent salts; Are salts which when exposed to the atmosphere lose some
water of crystallisation. The process is called efflorescence.
Examples;
i) Na2CO3.10H2O lose some water to form Na2CO3.H2O
ii) FeSO4.7H2O
iii) Na2SO4.10H2O
Uses of Salts
1. Ammonium nitrate, ammonium suiphate and ammonium phosphate are
fertilizers.
2. Sodium chloride used as food additive.
3. Sodium hydrogen carbonate used as baking powder.
4. Calcium sulphate (plaster of Paris) used in hospitals on people with fractures or
dislocations.
5. Calcium chloride used in the extraction of sodium metal.
6. Potassium nitrate is used for making fireworks and gunpowder.
7. Sodium carbonate is used in the softening of hard water, making of glass and
detergents.
8. Calcium chloride is used to applied on roads to melt snow in cold countries.
Action of Heat on Salts
1. Action of Heat on Carbonates

i) Pure carbonates of sodium and potassium are not affected by heat. However if
hydrated, the salts only lose their water of crystallization.
heat
Na2CO3.10H2O(s) → Na2CO3(s) + 10H2O(l)
ii) Other carbonates decompose on heating.

heat
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
heat
ZnCO3(s) → ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
heat
PbCO3(s) → PbO(s) + CO2(g)
heat
CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)
heat
(NH4)2CO3(s) → 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
heat
2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
heat
2KHCO3(s) → K2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2. Action of Heat on Nitrates

2KNO3(s) → 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
2NaNO3(s) → 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
2Ca(NO3)2(s) → 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

white white brown gas
2Mg(NO3)2(s) → 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
4Al(NO3)3(s) → 2Al2O3(s) + 12NO2(g) + 3O2(g)
2Zn(NO3)2(s) → 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

white (orange when hot)
(yellow when cold)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) → 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

white (yellow when hot)

(white when cold)
2Cu(NO3)2(s) → 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

blue black brown
2AgNO3(s) → 2Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
Hg(NO3)2(s) → Hg(l) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
NH4NO3(s) → N2O(g) + 2H2O(l)
2. Action of Heat on Sulphates

i) Sulphates of potassium, sodium and calcium and magnesium are stable and
are not affected by heat. However if hydrated, they lose their water of
crystallization, which condenses on cooler parts of the test tube
heat
Na2SO4.10H2O(s) → Na2SO4(s) + 10H2O(l)
Zinc sulphate and copper (II) sulphate decompose on strong heating to form the
metal oxide, water and sulphur (IV) oxide gas which is colourless. The gas turns
moist blue litmus paper to red.
ZnSO4.7H2O(s) → ZnO(s) + SO2(g) + 7H2O(l)
CuSO4.5H2O(s) → CuO(s) + SO2(g) + 5H2O(l)
2FeSO4.7H2O(s) → Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g) + 14H2O(l)

(pale green) (black)
N/B; All ammonium salts decompose on heating.

TOPIC FIVE: EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT ON SUBSTANCES
The set up below can be used to investigate electrical conductivity of substances.
NOTE:
1. Conductor – Is a substance which allows an electric current to pass through it.
2. A Non-conductor – Is a substance which does not allow an electric current to pass
through it.
Electrical Conductivity of Molten Substances
The set up consist of two solid conductors each with one end dipped in the melt
under investigation. There is source of direct current. The solid conductors should

not come into contact with each other. Either a bulb or an ammeter is used to
indicate the flow of the electric current.
The two solid conductors are called electrodes.
An electrode is therefore defined as a solid conductor dipped in an electrolyte and
allows current to enter or leave the electrolyte.
Anode is the electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
Cathode is the electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery.

From the set up above, the following can be noted;
Lead (II) bromide does not conduct an electric current in the solid state. However, it
conducts an electric current when melted. Similarly lead (II) iodide does not conduct
an electric current in the solid state. The two compounds are ionic and do not
contain mobile ions in solid state.
Copper (II) chloride, copper (II) sulphate, sodium chloride conduct electric current
when dissolved in water. In aqueous state they contain mobile ions responsible for
the electrical conductivity. When the circuit is complete the positive ions move
towards the negative electrode (cathode) while the negative ions move towards the
positive electrode (anode).
Conventionally, an electric current is shown to move from the positive terminal to

the negative terminal. Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal.
The movement of ions in the solution constitutes the current through the solution.
Electrolysis
What products are formed when an electric current is passed through molten lead
(II) bromide?

Molten lead (II) bromide acts as an electrolyte.
An electrolyte is a substance which when melted or dissolved in water conducts an
electric current and gets decomposed by the current. The process of passing an
electric current through an electrolyte is called electrolysis.
At Cathode: Attracts Pb2+ ions

Observation – Grey solid deposited.
Pb2+(l) + 2e- → Pb(s)
At Anode: Attracts Br- ions

Observation – Brown vapour produced.
2Br-(l) → Br2(g) + 2e-
Complete the table below;
Binary electrolyte Cathode equation Anode equation

Lead (II) bromide (PbBr2) Pb2+(l) + 2e- → Pb(s) 2Br-(l) → Br2(g) + 2e-
Lead (II) iodide (PbI2)
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Magnesium chloride (MgCl2)
Copper (II) chloride (CuCl2)
Applications of Electrolysis
a) Extraction of metals e.g. sodium, aluminium.
b) Purification of metals.
c) Electroplating of metals such as iron to improve their appearance and to prevent
corrosion.
d) Manufacture of pure chemicals such as hydrogen gas, chlorine gas and sodium
hydroxide.

TOPIC SIX: CARBON AND SOME OF ITS COMPOUNDS
Carbon occurs in pure state as diamond and graphite and in impure state as
armophous carbon. It also occurs in the combined state in compounds such as
carbonates, mineral oils, organic matter and carbon(IV) oxide.
Allotropes of Carbon
Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one form in the same physical
state.
Allotropes are therefore the different forms of an element that exist in the same
physical state.
Diamond
Is colourless, transparent shiny crystalline solid.
Properties of Diamond
i) Diamond does not conduct electricity. This is because in diamond carbon uses the
entire four valence electrons in bonding hence no delocalized electrons.
ii) Diamond has a high melting point (3700oC). This is because it has giant atomic
structure with strong covalent bonds.
iii) Diamond has high density due to continuous close packing of carbon atoms.
iv) Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance. This is due to the
uniformity of covalent bonds between the atoms throughout the structure.
Uses of Diamond
i) Diamond is used as a jewel because of its shiny appearance when polished.
ii)Used in glass cutters and drill bit because of its hardness.
Graphite
Is black, soft, slippery crystalline solid. It consists of hexagonally arranged layers in
whi0ch each carbon atom is bonded to three others. The layers are held together by
van der Waals forces.

Propreties of graphite
i) Has a density of 2.3g/cm3. The low density is due to spaces between the layers.
ii) It is soft and slippery because the layers in the structure can slide over each other
due to weak van der Waals forces.
iii) Graphite conducts electricity. This is because each carbon atom uses only three
electrons in bonding. It therefore has delocalized electrons.
iv) It has high melting point (3500oC) and boiling point (4800oC). This is because it
has strong covalent bonds between the atoms in its layers.
Uses of Graphite
i) Used as a lubricant in moving machines parts where a lot of heat is produced
because it is slippery and has high melting point.
ii) Used in making moulds for casting metals. This is because it has high melting
point.
iii) It is used as an electrode because it has delocalized electrons hence conduct
electricity.
iv) It is mixed with clay to make pencil leads. This is because the carbon layers can
slide over each other.
Fullerenes( C60)
Are synthetic allotropes of carbon. It can be spherical, tubular or elliptical.
Amorphous Carbon
Is an impure form of carbon. Examples are charcoal, soot, coke and coal. They
contain small amounts of graphite. They do not conduct electricity or heat.
Charcoal is used to make gas masks because it can absorb gases and liquids.
Charcoal is also used in sugar refinery to absorb coloured impurities in sugar.
Carbon black is mixed with rubber in the manufacture of tyres to improve tensile
strength and reduce tear and wear. It also gives tyres the black appearance.

Chemical Properties of Carbon
1. Burning carbon in oxygen
Observations
i) Carbon glows red. This is because the reaction is exothermic.
ii) A colourless gas is produced which forms white precipitate with calcium
hydroxide. The gas is CO2.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
2. Reaction with Metal Oxides

i) 2CuO(s) + C(s) → 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (black) (brown) (colourless)
ii) 2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)

(orange) (black) (grey) (colourless)
iii) 2ZnO(s) + C(s) → 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)

(yellow) (black) (grey) (colourless)
iv) 2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

(brown) (black) (grey) (colourless)

The Reactivity series
N/B: Carbon cannot reduce the oxides of elements above it in the reactivity series.
3. Reaction with steam; The reaction takes place at about 1200 oC, forming a mixture
of CO(g) + H2(g).
A mixture of the two gases is called water gas.
C(s) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + H2(g)
4. Reaction with Concentrated nitric (V) acid and sulphuric (VI) acids
i) C(s) + 4HNO(l) → 4NO2(g) + CO(g) + 2H2O(l)
ii) C(s) + 2H2SO4(l) → 2SO2(g) + CO(g) + 2H2O(l)
The two hot concentrated acids react with carbon because they are strong
oxidizing agents, while carbon is a reducing agent.

Carbon (IV) oxide
Laboratory preparation
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Note:
i) The gas is passed through sodium hydrogen carbonate solution or water to remove
traces of hydrochloric acid fumes in the gas.
ii) Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is used to dry CO 2 gas. Anhydrous calcium
chloride can be used in place of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid as a drying
agent. Any carbonate can be used with a suitable acid to prepare CO 2 gas.
However, dilute sulphuric (VI)
acid should not be reacted with CaCO3, BaCO3 and PbCO3. This is because
insoluble sulphates produced form a coating on the carbonate and prevent further
reaction. For the same reason, dilute HCl is not reacted with lead (II) carbonate.
Properties of carbon (IV) oxide

i) Is colourless
ii) Odourless
iii) Denser than air, hence collected by downward delivery.
iv) Neither burns nor supports combustion.
v) The gas is acidic and turns universal indicator solution red
vi) The gas dissolve in water to for carbonic acid, a weak acid.
CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)
vii) CO2 gas reacts with NaOH(aq) to form Na2CO3
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(aq) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
If CO2 gas is in excess, a further reaction occurs that leads to the formation of
sodium hydrogen carbonoate.
Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → 2NaHCO3(aq)
viii) When CO2 is bubbled into Ca(OH)2 for a short while, a white precipitate is
formed. This is due to the formation of insoluble CaCO 3. This is the
confirmatory test for carbon (IV) oxide.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

When the gas is bubbled through the mixture for a while the white precipitate
dissolves to form a colourless solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate.
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
N/B; State and explain observations made when burning magnesium is lowered into
a jar containing carbon (IV) oxide gas.
i) Burning magnesium continues to burn. The burning magnesium produces a
lot of heat that decomposes carbon (IV) oxide to carbon and oxygen. Magnesium
continues to burn in the oxygen.
ii) White powder is produced. This is due to formation of magnesium oxide.
iii) Black specks. Due to formation of carbon.
2Mg(s) + CO2(g) → 2MgO(s) + C(s)
Uses of Carbon (IV) oxide

i) As a refrigerating agent for perishable goods. This is because solid carbon (IV)
oxide sublimes when heated, leaving no residue.
ii) Used to extinguish fires. This is because it is denser than air therefore it forms a
blanket on fire cutting off oxygen supply. It is also non–flammable.
iii) Used in manufacture of sodium carbonate in the Solvay process.
iv) It is dissolved in water to make aerated drinks.
v) Used in making baking powder.
Carbon (II) oxide (CO)
Laboratory Preparation of Carbon (II) oxide
Conc. H2SO4
HCOOH(s) → CO(g) + H2O(l)
The process is called dehydration.
Alternatively;
Conc. H2SO4
H2C2O4(l) → CO(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Concentrated sodium hydroxide is used to remove the carbon (IV) oxide.
Alternatively;
Physical Properties of carbon (II) oxide

i) Is colourless
ii) Less dense than air, hence can be collected by upward delivery.
iv) Slightly soluble in water
iv) Has a low boiling point (-111oC).
v) The gas is extremely poisonous.
Chemical Properties of carbon (II) oxide

1. Combustion
Carbon (II) oxide burns with a blue flame to form carbon (IV) oxide.
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
2. Carbon (II) oxide as a reducing agent;
CuO(s) + CO(g) → Cu(s) + CO2(g)
Other reactions;
ZnO(s) + CO(g) → Zn(s) + CO2(g)
PbO(s) + CO(g) → Pb(s) + CO2(g)
2Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
The reducing property of carbon (II) oxide makes the gas useful in the extraction of
some metals from their ores.
Other sources of carbon (II) oxide

Through combustion of charcoal and fossil fuels such as kerosene, diesel, petrol and
coal.
Burning charcoal in a charcoal stove (jiko)
Region A
In this region plenty of air enters the jiko allowing complete combustion of carbon to
form carbon (IV) oxide.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
Region B
The carbon (IV) oxide produced in region A rises up to region B where it is reduced.
CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO2(g)
Region C
Here there is enough oxygen therefore carbon (II) oxide produced in region B burns
to form carbon (IV) oxide.
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates
1. Reactions with dilute acids

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The reaction between calcium carbonate and dilute sulphuric (VI) acid does not go
into completion. This is due to the formation of insoluble calcium sulphate which
coats the surface of calcium carbonate and preventing further reaction.
CaCO3(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
PbCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → PbCl2(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2. Action of Heat on Carbonates

i) CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)
(green) (black)
ii) PbCO3(s) → PbO(s) + CO2(g)

(white) (orange when hot)
(yellow when cold)
iii) ZnCO3(s) → ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

(white) (yellow when hot)
(white when cold)
iv) ( NH4)2CO3(s) → 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
v) 2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

vi) 2KHCO3(s) → K2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
vii) Ca(HCO3)2(s) → CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The CaCO3 is further decomposed by heat i.e
(white) (white)
Large scale production of sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen

carbonate
1. Extraction from Trona ( Na2CO3.NaHCO3.H2O)

Trona is dug by bucket dredges and taken to the washery where it is washed in
water to remove mud and small rocks. The wet trona is then centrifuged to remove
water and to purify it further. The dry trona is then heated to about 300 oC in a kiln
to decompose the sodium hydrogen carbonate.
heat
Na2CO3.NaHCO3.H2O(s) → Na2CO3.NaHCO3(s) + H2O(l)
heat
2Na2CO3.NaHCO3(s) → 3Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The sodium carbonate obtained is cooled, ground, sieved and bagged ready for
storage and transportation to the consumers.
After removal of trona from the lake, a solution rich in sodium chloride remains. The
solution is pumped into shallow basins where evaporation takes place until the
percentage of sodium chloride is 14%. The solution is then transferred to another
basin for crystallization.
During the day when the temperature is about 40 oC trona crystalises and is
removed. During the night when the temperature is about 21 oC sodium chloride
crystalises and is removed.
2.Manufacture of sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate

by Solvay Process
Raw materials;
1. Sodium chloride
2. Calcium carbonate
3. Coke
4. Ammonia
Steps;
1. Ammonia id dissolved in brine to form ammoniacal brine
A lot of heat is produced in the process. The amount of heat is controlled by
regulating the flow of brine into the solvay tower.
2.The ammoniacal brine is then pumped into the carbonator from the top where it
trickles down the carbonator while carbon (IV) oxide fro the kiln is pumped from
the base. The carbonator has to be cooled regularly to reduce the amount of heat
produced in it. Sodium hydrogen carbonate being less soluble than ammonium
chloride at low temperatures, forms crystals in the lower cooled part of the
carbonator.
The following are the two reactions at the carbonator;
i) NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) → NH4HCO3(aq)

ii) NH4HCO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
In summary; NH3(g) + CO2(g) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) → NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
3. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is separated from ammonium chloride by filtration.

4. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is dried and decomposed by heat at 300 oC to
produce sodium carbonate.
heat
2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
5. Reactions at the kiln producing carbon (IV) oxide

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
6. The ammonia used in this process is obtained from the Haber process.
The calcium oxide produced in the limestone kiln is slaked (combined) with water
and mixed to ammonium chloride to produce ammonia gas, water and calcium
chloride.
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)

Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
The Solvay process is one of the best examples of an efficient industrial chemical
process, because pollution problems are considerably reduced. The carbon (IV) oxide
and ammonia gases produced are recycled to minimize costs.
The water produced is also recycled to minimize the thermal effects of the water
source near the plant.
The process does not involve large consumption of energy because the coke burned
in the kiln supplies the necessary heat in the process.
The only by-product in the process which is not recycled is calcium chloride and it
has a wide range of uses.
The best site for the Solvay process plant should be close to a river or large source of
water to cool down the carbonator.
Uses of Sodium Carbonate

 Water softening
 Glass making
 Paper industry
 Making sodium silicate, which is used in making detergents.
N/B; sodium hydrogen carbonate is used in;

 Making of health drinks
 As baking powder in the food industry.
Effects of carbon (IV) oxide and Carbon (II) oxide on the Environment
 Global warming;
 CO2 in the atmosphere causes acidic rain that corrodes iron roofs.
 Carbon (II) oxide can cause death. However it is quickly oxidized by oxygen in
the atmosphere.
The Carbon Cycle


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FORM TWO CHEMISTRY NOTES

TOPIC ONE :STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

Example: Structure of a helium atom

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 1

Number Number Number

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 2

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 3

Electron Arrangement for the First Twenty Elements

The Periodic Table

I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Relative Atomic Mass(R.A.M) of an Element

R.A.M = average mass of one atom of an element

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 5

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 6

Mg→ Mg2+ + 2e-

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 7

Summary on valencies of common elements

Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency 3

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 8

Summary on valencies of some common radicals.

Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency 3

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 9

Characteristics of a chemical family:

Main chemical families.

The Alkali metals

Elements Electron arrangement

Gradation in properties of alkali metals

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 10

Atomic and ionic radius of the same element

Summary: changes in atomic and ionic radius among alkali metals

Physical properties of alkali metals

The melting and boiling points decrease down the group.

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 11

Chemical properties of alkali metals.

Then with carbon (IV) oxide:

Then with carbon (IV) oxide:

4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s)

4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s)

3. Reaction with water.

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 13

ii) 4K(s) + O2 (g) → 2K2O(s);

iii) K2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq)

Effect of resultant solution on litmus paper;

ii) 4Na(s) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O(s);

iii) Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)

Effect of resultant solution on litmus paper;

ii) 4Li(s) + O2 (g) → 2Li2O(s);

Effect of resultant solution on litmus paper;

Summary on reaction rate.

The general trend in reactivity of alkali metals

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 15

The Alkaline Earth metals

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 16

ii) Ionic radius

2. Atomic and ionic radius of the same element

Summary: changes in atomic and ionic radius among alkali metals.

Physical properties of alkaline earth metals

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 17

Variation between 1st and 2nd Ionization energies.

F2 NOTES BY ORWA COLLINS Page 18