Development of the University of Wisconsin's

Parallel Hybrid-Electric Sport Utility Vehicle

Julie Marshaus, Asha Ramnarine, Amanda Pertzborn, Joe
Czukas, Troy Nergaard, Ethan Brodsky, Mike Gall,
Jennifer A. Topinka, and Glenn R. Bower
University of Wisconsin–Madison

ABSTRACT sedan) [1] to optimize the Moollennium's design. A large

emphasis was placed on weight reduction; our goal was
to attain 2495 kg after adding all of the hybrid drivetrain
The University of Wisconsin – Madison FutureTruck
Team has designed and built a four-wheel drive, charge Driver Computer
sustaining, parallel hybrid-electric sport utility vehicle for Interface
135
entry into the FutureTruck 2000 competition. The base 24 R
vehicle is a 2000 Chevrolet Suburban nicknamed the
“Moollennium.” Weighing approximately 2495 kg, the 70 kW
Inverter DC
vehicle uses a high efficiency, 2.4 liter, turbo-charged, 4.84 kW-hr
Fuel
AC NiMH Battery
compression ignition direct-injection engine supplying 99 kW 70 kW
Tank
TDI Engine 30 L
approximately 99 kW of peak power, and a three phase Motor
AC induction motor that provides an additional 78 kW
(peak) of power. This hybrid drivetrain is an attractive 5-speed Gearbox Fuel Tank
alternative to the large displacement V8 drivetrain, as it Transmission 46 L
provides similar performance with lower emissions and
fuel consumption. The ADVISOR model predicts a
combined Federal Testing Procedure (FTP) cycle fuel
economy of 10.6 km/L (25 mpg) and California Ultra Low Figure 1. The University of Wisconsin’s 2000 parallel-
Emission Vehicle (ULEV) emissions levels. These goals assist hybrid electric vehicle layout.
will be met while maintaining the full passenger/cargo
capacity, appearance, and towing capacity of 3175 kg.
components. The UW-Madison vehicle performance
INTRODUCTION goals for this year are listed in Table 1.

Team management
FutureTruck 2000 is a student competition whose goals
are to build a Sport Utility Vehicle (SUV) that maintains The UW FutureTruck team consists of seven groups:
current standards of safety, performance, comfort, and Mechanical, Electrical, Engine, Weight Reduction,
affordability, while at the same time reducing Controls, Business, and Information (team composition
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions by two-thirds. is shown in Table 2). These seven groups are overseen
Fifteen universities from North America will compete in by a faculty advisor and a student team leader. There
FutureTruck 2000, which is sponsored by the US Table 1. UW FutureTruck 2000 Performance Goals.
Department of Energy and General Motors’ Truck
Parameter 2000 Goals
Group.
Combined FTP Fuel Economy 10.6 km/L (25 mpg)
The University of Wisconsin has designed a charge
Emissions ULEV
sustaining, parallel hybrid-electric vehicle for
FutureTruck 2000, as depicted in figure 1. The team Acceleration: 0–100 kph <12 seconds
used knowledge gained from previous design and Range 805 km (500 mi)
testing on the Aluminum Cow (a parallel hybrid-electric Vehicle Weight 2495 kg (5500 lb)
1
are approximately
Table 2. 40 team
Team members,
Composition by 20 of whom are
Major. a vehicle and defines where power is dissipated as the
participating in the FutureTruck project for course credit. vehicle travels down the road. [2] The equation is the
Only three team members are graduate students. basis for both the vehicle simulation developed by the
University of Wisconsin and for dictating the design of
components and/or modifications to the vehicle. The
equations necessary to calculate road power demand for
Mechanical Engineering 62.5 %
a given driving condition are shown in numbers 1-6
Electrical and Computer 25% (Symbol definitions are listed in Appendix A).
Engineering
(1) Proad = Proll + Phill + Paero + Paccel + Paux
Industrial Engineering 5%
(2) Proll = m g V Crr cos θ
Materials Science 2.5%
(3) Phill = m g V sin θ
Other 5%
Paero = 0.5 ρ A V Cd
3
(4)
(5) Paccel = d Ekinetic / dt = m V dV / dt
Each group is headed by a group leader. The group
(6) Paux = f (alternator, power steering, etc.)
leaders are in charge of planning and assigning projects
to the group members and giving them guidance. Group The road power demand Equation (1) identifies the
leaders are also responsible for setting and meeting vehicle design aspects that can be changed to improve
project completion deadlines. The team leader oversees the overall energy efficiency. Fuel economy on the FTP
all of the groups and ensures that projects are 75 cycle was calculated using this equation with reported
completed as planned and facilitates communication component efficiencies. The relative importance of
reducing each of the equation parameters is shown in
figure 3. [3] As displayed in the figure, the vehicle mass
is the dominant factor in vehicle energy consumption.
March
Sept

April
May
Nov
Dec

The second most important factor is aerodynamic drag,

Feb
Jan
Oct

which, due to the large frontal area of an SUV, is a

Design significant factor for our vehicle. Therefore, the design
Component Selection focus was on weight reduction and aerodynamic
Building of Al Frame improvements.
Component Arrival
Steel Chassis
Testing of Al Frame 1.3
EPA Combined Fuel Economy Mag.

Mass
Testing Components Aero
Arrival of Al Frame Tires
Components in Frame 1.2 Accessories
Truck Drivable

Figure 2. UW-Madison FutureTruck 2000 project 1.1

timeline.

between groups for multidiscipline projects. The faculty

advisor gives guidance, answers technical questions, 1.0
and promotes relationships with industry 0 10 20 30 40 50
representatives. Figure 2 is a general timeline compiled Parameter Reduction (%)
from the project completion date goals of the groups.
Ideally the truck would be running in March or April, but Figure 3. Fuel economy gain vs. parameter reduction.
the delays associated with the aluminum frame made
this unattainable. A steel frame was used to locate and
mount components before the aluminum frame was
complete. DRIVETRAIN
Performance data from the Aluminum Cow was
VEHICLE ENERGY CONSUMPTION MODELING reviewed to select drivetrain components that would
provide the greatest efficiency for our hybrid
In order to improve overall efficiency, vehicle energy configuration. Using vehicle simulations, we have
consumption modeling was necessary. The road power predicted that the selected drivetrain components could
demand equation represents the energy consumption of
2
potentially achieve an overall fuel efficiency in excess of 5% grade at 80 kph while pulling a 3175 kg trailer.
our 10.6 km/L (25 mpg) [4] fuel economy goal. Figure 5 shows a plot of the vehicle power requirements
at various speeds. This graph was generated using the
Components exactly matching ‘ideal’ specifications are power equations described in the vehicle energy
rarely obtainable, therefore, component availability was consumption section.
a dominating constraint as the team searched for a
desirable combination of engine, transmission, and
electric drive system.
When choosing the appropriate engine size, the peak
When searching for components, American power requirement must be achieved throughout the
manufacturers were considered first. This was done to
both minimize component lead times and also to
increase the feasibility of manufacturing the FutureTruck 105

domestically. 90

W load [kW]
75
Throughout the selection process, appropriately sized
components were chosen to maximize energy efficiency 60
and minimize weight. A packaging diagram of the 45
Wisconsin FutureTruck is shown in figure 4.
30

15
Puma TDI
Solectria Engine 0
High Voltage Electric Motor 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Battery Pack Vehicle Speed [kph]

Figure 5. Power required to pull a 3175 kg trailer up a

5% grade.
5-speed Manual
Transmission upper 25% of the engine’s operating speed. This will
guarantee deliverable performance since traditional
transmissions have discrete gears and the engine
cannot be operated at peak power under all conditions.
Modified Because of the torque-rise characteristic of the CIDI
Fuel Tanks engine a 25% factor of safety on peak power will ensure
that power demands can be achieved during extended
hill climbs.
Hybrid Transfer Ideal midrange diesels that provide the optimal power
Case are currently unavailable domestically. An increase from
the ideal engine size would consume more fuel and
Figure 4. UW vehicle packaging diagram. increase vehicle weight, defeating the purpose of a
hybrid vehicle. Therefore, it was determined that the
Mechanical Drive System best option was to decrease engine size and meet the
necessary power requirements with a larger electric
Engine – A search of economically viable engines motor. Table 3 lists the engines that were considered.
revealed two engine alternatives – Spark-Ignited (SI) or
Compression Ignited (CI). A study by Thomas et al. [4]
concluded that natural gas hybrid and diesel hybrid Table 3. Engine Comparisons.
vehicles produce the lowest overall greenhouse (CO2) Engine Type Power Weight Deciding
gas emissions – even lower than hydrogen fuel cell Factors
vehicles when the full well-to-wheels analysis is
considered. It also concluded that between these two 1.8L LYNX 65kW/ 172 kg Low Power
90 hp Requires APU
powertrains, a diesel hybrid was 14% more fuel efficient
than a natural gas hybrid. The compression ignition 2.4L PUMA 99kW/ 204 kg Available
hybrid is the most fuel-efficient piston powered option 125 hp Met Needs
considered by this study. For the aforementioned 3.9L Cummins 97kW/ 355 kg Poor Emissions
reasons, the Wisconsin team chose a Compression 130 hp
Ignition Direct-Injection (CIDI) engine for its 2000
FutureTruck. 4.5L Navistar 175kW/ 340 kg Not Available
235 hp
To maintain the towing utility of a Suburban, the 5.9L Cummins 183kW/ 436 kg Too Large for
optimum engine power requirement is 90 kW (120 hp). ISB 245 hp Engine Bay
This value is based on the power required to travel up a
3
In the initial design stages of the Moollennium a 100
drivetrain design using an Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) 90 Hydrocarbons
and 1.8L Lynx CIDI engine was developed. The APU Catalyst Loading
80

Conversion Efficiency (%)

would provide an additional 15 kW of electrical power in Carbon Monoxide
70
the vehicle’s tow/haul mode. However, after this design
was considered, a larger, 2.4L, 99 kW (135hp), CIDI 60

engine became available. Table 4 shows the 50

specifications of this engine. This option was the easiest 40
to implement and fulfilled our design goals. The 4- 30
Particulates
cylinder, turbo-charged, compression ignition direct-
20
injection engine has a maximum thermal efficiency of
10 Nitric Oxides
42%.
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Table 4. Engine Build Details for the 2.4L TDI PUMA Catalyst Loading (g / ft )
3

125 PS Engine.
Figure 6. Platinum loading levels vs. conversion
Engine Component Specification efficiency for production catalyst.
Rated Power 99 kW at 4000 rpm
Maximum Torque 240 Nm @ 2300 rpm nitrogen and oxygen and the NOx trap is ‘regenerated’.
Speed Range 800 - 4900 rpm Regeneration is usually done every 30-60 seconds
during normal operation in order to keep the catalyst
Bore 89.9mm
efficiency above 75%.
Stroke 94.6 mm
Displacement 2401.9 cc
Fuel Injection Pump Bosch VP44 Transmission – The transmission is a stock YC1R 5-
speed manual transmission. The gear ratios are shown
Control System EEC V
in Table 5 and the placement of the transmission in the
Wisconsin FutureTruck is displayed in the packaging
After-Treatment - Historically, exhaust after-treatment diagram (figure 4). The gear selector and clutch are
has been developed for SI engines. These engines use typical of those found in conventional vehicles with
closed-loop controls to keep the air/fuel ratio manual transmissions. This transmission supports an
stoichiometric, in a region where the 3-way catalyst auto-shift mechanism that will be integrated into the
technology operates effectively. If the engine were vehicle in the second year of development.
operated lean, the nitric oxide (NOx) conversion
efficiency would drop drastically while rich combustion
would cause excessive carbon monoxide (CO) and Table 5. Gear Ratios for Transmission.
hydrocarbon (HC) emissions. In the case of CI engines,
the engine is always operated lean, so 3-way catalyst Gear Ratio
st
technology is not applicable. 1 4.05
nd
2 2.25
rd
Platinum loaded catalyst from Degussa was chosen for 3 1.5
th
the current vehicle. This passive catalyst is mainly 4 1
designed to reduce HC and CO emissions, but it also 5
th
.8
reduces particulate and NOx emissions. The catalyst
Differential 3.73
efficiency varies with platinum loading as shown in figure
6. From the four different catalysts tested, a catalyst
3
loading of 20 g / ft was chosen. This choice was made Hybrid Transfer Case – The original transfer case has
to maximize NOx reduction. Past testing has shown that been removed from the vehicle and has been replaced
CO, HC, and particulate levels are all below ULEV with a single speed student-designed unit that acts as
standards while NOx has been our constraining effluent, the transfer case and the hybrid integration unit. A
so we have optimized the cost for NOx. schematic of this unit is shown in figure 7. To facilitate
the room for a single battery pack, this transfer case
offsets both the front and rear drive shafts 21.6 cm
In addition to the production catalyst, Degussa furnished
towards the driver’s side of the vehicle. Also, a
a lean NOx catalyst with an estimated efficiency of 40% syncromesh unit commonly used in standard
in addition to a NOx trap. The trap actually causes the transmissions is being used to disconnect the front drive
NOx to adhere to the surface of the catalyst. Once the shaft during 2-wheel drive operation.
catalyst surface is loaded with NOx, a small injection of
fuel into the exhaust stream (2-3% fuel economy The decision to eliminate the low-range portion of the
penalty) causes a slightly fuel rich exhaust gas stream. transfer case stemmed from several factors. First, both
In the absence of oxygen, the NOx converts to diatomic the diesel and the electric motor have excellent low

4
 Front Wheel Output 0.8

0.7
Engine Output

Regen. System Efficiency

0.6

0.5
Single Speed
0.4
2 Speed Gearbox
0.3

0.2

0.1

Rear Wheel 0.0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Output
Vehicle Speed (kph)
Two Speed
Electric Motor Figure 8. Regen system efficiency gains using a 2-
Reduction
speed hybrid transfer case.
Electric Motor Input

Using the first and second gear assembly from a

Figure 7. Student-designed hybrid transfer case. standard transmission, the 2-speed electric motor
reduction was implemented into the hybrid transfer case.
speed torque characteristics. Also, the complexity and First gear is utilized between 0 and 80 kph while second
weight of the additional components for the low-range gear can operate up to 160 kph. The gears are actuated
portion were significant. Finally, a two-speed gear using a small air cylinder during deceleration; above 50
reduction system for the electric motor allows the electric kph the system will not downshift until the driver releases
motor to operate in the ‘low’ range mode normally. the brake pedal. In addition to increasing regenerative
These factors were considered in the design of the braking efficiencies, the hybrid transfer case also allows
Wisconsin team’s hybrid transfer case. The overall gear for quicker vehicle acceleration. Figure 9 depicts the
ratios supplied by the hybrid transfer case are listed in relative torque supplied to the wheels for each gear ratio
Table 6. in the hybrid transfer case. For maximum acceleration,
the ideal shift point is 46 kph.
Table 6. Gear Ratios for Hybrid Transfer Case.
Input Ratio

Diesel 1.3:1 2.0

2 Speed Gearbox
Electric Motor 5.87:1 (Low speed) Straight Throughput
Percent Electric Motor Torque

3.26:1 (High speed) 1.5

Ideal Shift Point

2-Speed Electric Motor Reduction – In our previous 1.0

vehicles, the electric motor was connected to the

driveline and geared so that maximum motor speed
would occur at maximum vehicle speed. Under 16 kph, 0.5

the electric motor cannot supply enough torque to fully

capture the vehicle’s momentum for typical
decelerations. Regenerative braking efficiency was 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
calculated experimentally by comparing the loss in Vehicle Speed (kph)
kinetic energy, to the electrical energy input into the
battery pack, over a given time step. A curve fit for this
efficiency is plotted in figure 8. Overall efficiency is Figure 9. Plot of relative torque supplied to the wheels
approximately 65% above 30 kph and decays to zero as for a 2-speed gearbox and a straight
the vehicle’s speed approaches 0 kph. A hypothetical throughput gearbox.
gearbox was then studied and a second line was added
to figure 8. Choosing a gearbox with a 2:1 reduction, its Fuel and Fuel Tank– Ideally, the UW FutureTruck
regenerative efficiency was recalculated. The electric would operate using California Diesel, which has an
motor will spin faster at lower vehicle speeds, increasing average cetane rating of 56.5 and an average sulfur
its efficiency (figure 8). For a deceleration from 32 kph, content of 31.5 PPM. These numbers are significantly
the 2-speed gearbox would capture 16% more better than #2 Diesel (the fuel presently available at gas
regenerative braking energy. stations nationwide), which has an average cetane rating

5
of 43 and an average sulfur content closer to 200 PPM. With this knowledge, the Moolennium will use a Solectria
Since 75-80% of the sulfur in the fuel is directly 21 kW AC induction motor with a peak power of 78 kW
converted to particulates, which constitute about one- (battery limited) and a maximum torque of 175 N-m. The
third of current particulate emissions, use of California motor weighs 60 kg, and operates at a peak efficiency of
Diesel will improve FutureTruck emissions by decreasing 93% (figure 10). The motor is part of Solectria's
particulate generation. [2] prepackaged electric drive system that includes a
microprocessor vector control unit, the UMOC440F.
Due to the offset drive shaft, two fuel tanks are needed This air-cooled controller is 98% efficient, weighs 16 kg,
to achieve a fuel capacity of 76 liters. At 6.65km/l and includes large cooling fins and fans. The control
(model prediction), this will provide a “tank” range of unit is rated for an input voltage of 350 V and has a 240
813km (505miles). The tanks are constructed from 16- Arms limit.
gauge 5052 H32 aluminum, TIG-welded at the seams.
The interconnected tanks share a single fuel gauge and
an in-line lift pump/filter to transport the fuel to the AC42 Motor w/ UMOC440 Efficiency (312VDC)
engine.
95
Electric Drive System
4500 rpm
Motor/Inverter - In the fall of 1998, the Aluminum Cow 6000 rpm
was tested on a chassis dynamometer on two separate 90
occasions to evaluate the performance of hybrid utilizing
7500 rpm
a permanent magnet motor. In the spring of 1999, the

Efficiency (%)
85 3000 rpm
tests were repeated using an inductive motor. City fuel 9000 rpm
economy results are listed in Table 7 for both tests.
The FTP 75 city cycle was used to compare the 80
effectiveness of the hybrid drive train, as the highway
cycle rarely requires the hybrid mode. The inclusion of
an unused permanent magnet electric motor into the 75 1500 rpm
drivetrain of the Aluminum Cow produced a 16.4%
decrease in fuel economy. After experimenting with two
different control strategies, the best-hybridized strategy 70
had only a 3.2% fuel economy advantage over the same 0 50 100 150
vehicle without hybrid operation. Torque (Nm)
The permanent magnet’s free spinning drag losses
added to the drivetrain’s resistance and are analogous to
a 20% increase in the dynamometer’s aerodynamic drag Figure 10. System efficiency map for Solectria AC42
setting. Using a mild hybrid strategy, the electric motor motor using a UMOC440F controller
is only utilized 10-15% of the time and the gains in operating from 312V DC.
efficiency are smaller than the drag losses compared to Battery – The energy storage system used in the
an inductive motor. These dynamometer results Moollennium consists of 1680 sub-C Nickel Metal
conclude that an induction motor is the best choice for a Hydride (NiMH) cells. This technology is capable of 480
mild hybrid. W/kg (20 seconds, 20% voltage drop), providing a
lightweight system, optimal for a charge-sustaining,
Table 7. Dynamometer FTP 75 City Fuel Economy parallel assist, hybrid design. The NiMH batteries from
Results Using the 1.8L CIDI Hybrid Moltech Power Systems are completely enclosed,
Powertrain in Our Aluminum Cow. require no maintenance, and are recyclable. For
Vehicle Testing UQM Solectria comparison of NiMH and NiCd, a graph showing voltage
Mode Permanent AC versus time for 40-amp discharge is shown in figure 11.
Magnet Motor Induction When comparing the NiMH cells to the NiCd cells that
Motor were used in past vehicles at UW-Madison, the NiMH
are more power dense and have little or no memory
No Hybrid Mode 34.7 NA problems. In addition, the method of construction for the
(Electric Motor NiMH battery pack significantly lowers the resistance in
Removed) each string, when compared to our NiCd system. NiMH
No Hybrid Mode 29.0 52.1 cells also are much less hazardous environmentally,
(Motor Spinning) since they do not contain heavy metals. A battery
Hybrid Mode 35.8 62.0 configuration comparison between the 1998, 1999, and
2000 vehicles is shown in Table 8.
Load Leveling 35.6 60.5
NiMH cells were tested according to PNGV testing
standards [5]. The cell's open circuit voltage, Voc, was
calculated from a series of pulse tests vs. State of

6
 Terminal Voltage and Current vs. Time
1.1
1.3
NiCad

Voltage [xVn]
NiMH
1.2
1.0

1.1
0.9

1 0.8
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

0.9
6
4

Current [pu]
0.8
2
0.7 0
-2
0.6 -4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-6
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Figure 11. Plot of voltage versus time for NiMH and time [sec]
NiCad sub-C batteries. Figure 12. Per unit terminal voltage and current vs. time
for several states of charge for a sample
Charge (SOC). The pulse tests were elongated to 30 NiMH system.
seconds from the specified test procedure of 18-second (Vbase=1.336V/cell, Ibase=3.0 Amps or Ah
discharge and 2-second peak charge power. This was capacity).
done in order to gain a more balanced bi-directional
power flow description of the battery, a closer During a FTP dynamometer cycle, individual string
resemblance of the application in our hybrid vehicle. currents and the pack voltage were monitored in a
The power pulse test trajectories for several SOC levels attempt to quantify the “current-sharing” abilities of
are shown in figure 12 (80%, 60%, 40%, and 20%). This parallel string pack. In figure 13, four individual current
figure shows the typical voltage variation per battery, as levels are displayed for a snapshot of the ‘hot 505’ cycle.
well as the voltage swings to be expected during assist The pack voltage varies with the current and the four
and regenerative battery utilization. Additionally, these individual strings each experienced almost identical
tests confirm the power density of the NiMH batteries, current loads. Equal current sharing will ensure the
given the tested variation in battery voltage. longevity and performance of the hybrid pack.

The completed battery pack is 1.07m x .64m x .18m and

Table 8. Comparison of NiCd in AIV and NiMH in easily fits underneath the truck between the frame rails
SUV. (see figure 4). The battery pack provides 15.4 A-hr, 4.44
kWh, and weighs 105kg. The batteries are captured by
Battery 1998 1999 2000 insulating plastic strips which are located inside the
Characteristics AIV AIV SUV battery pack. Fasteners pinch the plastic strips and the
battery strings while attaching to the external aluminum
Battery Mass [kg] 49 53 105 support structure. A ProE model of the battery box is
Bat. Box Mass [kg] 6 6 10 shown in figure 14. A thin polycarbonate shell
encapsulates the batteries and power electronics
Voltage [V] 272 286 288
12 300
Capacity [A-h] 7.5 8.0 15.4
Pack Voltage (V)

10 Pack Voltage 290

Energy [kW-h] 2.0 2.3 4.44
8 280
Power [kW] # +/- 22 +/- 24 +/- 50 6
270
Cycle Efficiency * 0.87 0.89 0.87 4
260
*- at +/- 4kW rate, 30 seconds, 50% SOC 2
# - 10 seconds, +/- 20% voltage variation 250
String Current (A)

0
240
-2

-4
String 1 230
String 2 220
-6
String 3
-8 210
String 4
-10 200
210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280
Time (s)

Figure 13. Pack voltage and individual string’s

current levels in a hybrid vehicle being
7 tested on the FTP 505 cycle.
 The UW control strategy has only one mode of
operation. This results in a FutureTruck that operates
similarly to a conventional SUV. There are no added
modes, switches, pedals, or dials with which the driver
might be concerned.
The control strategy is designed as a state machine, with
three states. By developing the control strategy as a
finite state machine, the software is restricted to run in
only one state at a time. Since the current vehicle state
can always be determined, each state can be tested,
debugged, and tuned separately. Each state is reviewed
in the following sections.
State 1: Engine-Only – The first state is engine-only. In
Figure 14. ProE model of battery pack showing battery this state, the vehicle operates without using the electric
strings mounting pattern and corresponding motor. This state is used at low speeds, when the clutch
support structure. is depressed, when the SUV is in neutral, or when the
battery is so low that it cannot deliver any useful power.
In this state, the accelerator input goes directly to the
integrated into the pack for easy manufacture, assembly, engine, with the motor providing no torque.
and maintenance. Battery performance and longevity are
ensured by monitoring string current, voltage and State 2: Regenerative Braking – The second state is
temperature for anomalies. The modular design of the the regenerative braking state. Regenerative braking
battery pack also allows for easy identification and string (regen) is the act of using the mechanical energy from
replacement in the event of a battery failure. the wheels to drive the motor, generating electricity for
storage in the battery. This process recharges the
battery while decreasing the vehicle speed.
Thermal management has been addressed by the
addition of multiple fans in the battery pack. The cross- The vehicle goes into the regenerative braking state only
flow heat-exchanger configuration of the batteries allows if the brake pedal is depressed and the battery pack is
for adequate airflow to dissipate heat generated during not fully charged. The brake pedal travel is split into two
battery operation. portions as seen in figure 15. The first 2 cm (0.75in) of
travel does not engage the hydraulic brakes, only
regenerative braking. After 2 cm, regenerative braking is
Computer – The Wisconsin FutureTruck team strives to
fully saturated and the stock hydraulic brakes engage to
incorporate a flexible, yet robust, control system. The
help slow the vehicle. This allows a conservative driver
control strategy is run on a custom-built computer
to regenerate large amounts of energy by anticipating
system consisting of a Computer Dynamics single-board
stops and braking slowly, increasing fuel economy in
Pentium machine with a touch-screen user interface.
The computer's MicroIndustries data acquisition boards stop-and-go driving, while retaining the ability to brake
are connected to a custom-designed board that collects hard when needed.
Braking System Capacity Applied (%)

input signals from sensors throughout the vehicle and 100

distributes control signals to actuators and other vehicle 90
components. The data acquisition boards have a Brake Switch
80
maximum capability of 48 digital inputs and outputs, 32 Activated
Regen Begins
70
analog inputs, and 16 analog outputs. By using the PC
architecture, the team can program in a common 60

language (C/C++) while remaining flexible to hardware 50

and software improvements. 40
Regenerative Braking System
Conventional Braking System
30
Control Strategy - The Wisconsin team has developed Conventional
a hybrid control strategy that is State Of Voltage (SOV) 20 Braking Begins

regulating. A SOV regulating strategy will monitor the 10

battery voltage and maintain that voltage within a fixed 0
range, avoiding fully charging or fully discharging the 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

battery. [6] Using the electric motor to meet rapid Brake Pedal Depression (mm)
increases in road load power demands reduces transient
engine emissions. The engine power output is then Figure 15. The application of the regenerative and
gradually increased while the motor power output conventional braking systems in the vehicle.
simultaneously decreased. Buffering the engine from the
road load in this manner also increases the vehicle's fuel
economy.

8
A hydraulic piston (patent pending) is attached to the Component Summary
end of the existing master cylinder. As the brake pedal
is depressed, the brake fluid forces this hydraulic piston Table 9 provides a summary of the mechanical and
to compress a spring. A brake line pressure of 100 kPa electrical components used in the Moollennium.
(14.5 psi) is needed to initiate the movement of the
piston and a mechanical stop limits the piston’s stroke at
a pressure of 350 kPa (see Figure 15). The control
computer senses the pedal position using a rotary Table 9. Moollennium Component Summary.
potentiometer mounted on the pedal. After the piston Component Manufacturer Rating
contacts the stop, the disc braking system operates
normally. The 350 kPa preload causes a very smooth 99 kW @ 4000 rpm
Puma
transition between the regenerative and conventional Engine 240 N-m @ 2300
2.4 L TDI
braking systems. 210 g/kW-hr @ 2300

State 3: HEV – The HEV state is the third and most 5-speed w/ Reverse
common state in the control strategy. This state contains Transmission YC1R
3.73 Diff. Ratio
the SOC regulator control code, which manages the
battery voltage as previously described.
21 kW continuous
Solectria
Safety is ensured by range checking all inputs and Motor ≤150 N-m
AC42
outputs. If a value entering or leaving the computer is too ≤10000 rpm
low or too high the computer will adjust the value to the 78 kW
closest bound, or, if the values are far out of range, Solectria
indicating a serious error in hardware or software, and Inverter ≤ 240 Arms
UMOC 440F
the control strategy will disable the electric motor to 312 Vdc
prevent hazardous operation.
Moltech +/- 85 kW
Battery
To further improve fuel economy in city driving, the NiMH 4.44 kWhr
CO2 Emissions

4
Engine On (Hot & EGR) TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEMS
Engine Off (Hot & EGR)

3 Air Conditioning – A conventional R134a refrigeration

CO2 (%)

2
system is used to cool the vehicle cabin. Thermal-
electric coolers are four times less efficient than a vapor-
1 compression system and the relatively small battery
0 pack makes operation of an electrically driven
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 compressor impractical. When the air conditioning
Time (sec.)
system is activated, intermittent engine operation is
Figure 16. Comparison of modal CO2 emission data deactivated so that continuous cooling can be supplied
recorded during a ‘Hot 505’ FTP chassis to passengers. In order to ensure adequate cooling, a
dynamometer experiment. two-speed electric radiator fan operates in the 'low'
position, drawing air across the condenser while the air
control strategy implements intermittent engine conditioning is activated.
operation. When the driver does not need the engine
(for example, when coasting or sitting at a red light), the Window Coating – Window coating from V-Kool, Inc.,
control strategy shuts the engine down. The engine is has been installed on all windows, excluding the
automatically restarted when it is needed again. windshield, of the Moollennium. This window film is a
nearly transparent film that blocks out ultraviolet and
Before implementing the intermittent engine operation, infrared rays without limiting visible light transmission.
modal CO2 emissions from FTP cycles were compared. Blocking infrared rays helps reduce the solar heating
Figure 16 shows a snapshot comparison of the energy from entering the vehicle, decreasing the air
instantaneous CO2 emissions from normal and conditioning load.
intermittent engine operation. Between 120 and 160
seconds of the ‘hot 505’ cycle, the engine would
ordinarily be at idle (0.3% CO2 emissions). With 12-VOLT SYSTEM
intermittent engine operation, the engine is shut down
during the period, so there are no CO2 emissions. When Table 10 lists the different 12-volt system configurations
the engine is restarted at 162 seconds, no CO2 spike is that were considered for the truck. Each configuration
observed as the engine is restarted. The intermittent involves a different combination of DC-DC converters
engine operation is used in the Aluminum Cow and has and alternators. Systems were evaluated with regards
demonstrated a 3-5% fuel economy increase. to weight, performance and power conversion efficiency.
The system efficiency of an alternator (85-90%) is higher
than the total cycle efficiency of the DC-DC converter
9
system (70-75%). The electric motor, motor controller,
HV battery and DC-DC converter efficiencies must all be
multiplied in order to determine its system efficiency.

The final choice for the Moollennium consists of a 50 A

alternator, a 600 watt DC-DC converter. In normal
operation, the alternator will meet all 12-volt system
demands. The 2.5 kg alternator will operate near peak
efficiency and if additional power is needed the DC-DC
converters begin to supply power as the voltage droops.
In addition, the DC-DC converters will power the 12-volt
system when the vehicle is in intermittent engine
operation mode and the engine is shut down. The NiCd
start battery holds 24 A-hr and can deliver 300 A to start
the engine. A similar system has been tested and
validated in the Aluminum Cow.

Figure 17. Solid model of the 1999 aluminum frame

Table 10. 12 Volt System Options built for the Moollennium.
Options Stock Small Small Lamba
Alternator Alternator Alternator 2000 Suburban body. The frame was assembled into
and Vicor and two major sections and heat-treated to the T6 state.
Lambda
Max Current 125 94 150 112
Coated bolts and rivet nuts were used to eliminate
[A] galvanic reactions at mounting surfaces.
Efficiency [%] 85 85 85 90
Weight 14.2 8 18 12 To ensure safety, horn crush tests were performed on an
Cooling None Forced Air Liquid Liquid aluminum and steel version of the 1999 GMT 430.
Advantages Reliable Lightweight Plenty of No Compared to the steel, the aluminum section absorbed
Power Engine 80% of the energy with 75% of the peak load. To
Losses
Disadvantages
increase energy absorption, a 12 cm crumple section
Can’t turn Decrease Heavy Battery
engine off Engine Eff. Pack was added to the front of the GMT 430 aluminum frame.
Drain The extension was also needed to account for a 12 cm
shift between the 2000 Suburban body and the 1999
frame. A second crush test was performed with the
ALTERNATIVE ENERGIES crumple section attached and the total deflection was
doubled while absorbing 50% more energy. When
Solar Array – Solar Arrays are being installed on the completed, the new crumple-extended aluminum frame
roof of the Moollennium. Five separate arrays are being absorbs 20% more energy with 75% of the peak load
connected to supply a maximum of 150 watts to the 12- and double the deflection, compared to an unmodified
volt system. Currently, solar cells are cost prohibitive steel frame.
but are being used as a demonstration of future
technology. When constructing the aluminum frame, the side rails
were completely boxed. Normally, the back 2/3 of the
frame utilizes an open C-channel design. This increased
WEIGHT REDUCTION the bending rigidity. Torsional rigidity was increased by
attaching cross members to the frame. In one instance,
In an effort to reduce the weight of the vehicle, many an aluminum tube doubled as a cross member and the
components were reconstructed using lightweight air tank for the air suspension system.
materials such as aluminum or replaced with lighter
stock components from other vehicles. A more complete To ensure the integrity of the aluminum frame, a
description of the benefits and uses of aluminum can be complete FEA of the frame was performed using
found in Appendix C. NASTRAN software on the Tower Automotive
supercomputer. The solid model of the frame is shown
Frame – Tower Automotive and the University of in figure 17. A modal analysis of the frame was also
Wisconsin cooperatively developed an aluminum frame calculated and those results are listed in Table 11. The
for the 2000 Chevrolet Suburban. Over 40 components results indicate that the aluminum GMT 430 aluminum
were stamped using the 1999 GMT 430 frame tooling. frame has 20% less torsional rigidity than a steel frame.
6061-T0 aluminum was stamped and assembled using a Since aluminum deflects 3 times more than steel, a 20%
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welder. To reduce weight decrease with a 50% mass reduction is acceptable.
further, the redesigned front suspension from the 2000 Traditional, the body of the Suburban has provided
Suburban was integrated into the 1999 GMT 430 frame. about half of the vehicle’s rigidity.
Minor adjustments were made to the frame's body-
mounting brackets to accept the newer, re-engineered
10
Table 11. Results from Modal Analysis of the
Aluminum Frame.
Mode Frequency

1 10.62 Hz
2 26.39 Hz

3 28.26 Hz

4 31.77 Hz
5 35.82 Hz

Steering – The stock recirculating ball steering was

replaced with a rack and pinion out of a 2000 MY Ford
Explorer. Although lighter, the rack and pinion system
typically transmits more vibration from the suspension to
the steering wheel. The change resulted in a weight Figure 19. ANSYS analysis of spindle and rotor, with
savings of 11 kg. The exact stock ball joint angle maximum and minimum stresses shown for
remained the same for the rack and pinion to avoid a load representing all of the vehicle weight
bump steer during jounce and rebound. on one wheel.

Spindle/Rotor –The front spindles were remade in

7075-T6 aluminum, using a “cookie-cutter” design so Front Calipers – The stock 2000 Suburban had dual
that the brake rotors will transmit shear forces directly to piston calipers on the front wheels. To retain equivalent
the spindle, rather than to the wheel studs (see Figure braking performance, the calipers were redesigned from
18). The steel wheel bearing and race were maintained, aluminum billet while maintaining the stock pistons and
as was the cast iron upright. An auto-locking hub pads. This reduced the weight of the front calipers by
mechanism from a Ford Ranger was integrated into the 3.2 kg each. In a production vehicle the aluminum
new design disengage the front drive train at the hubs calipers could be cast (instead of machined) to reduce
when 4-wheel drive is not engaged. manufacturing cost.
Rear Axle – Because a custom offset rear axle
assembly was required, weight reduction options were
investigated. Research revealed that the Jeep Grand
Cherokee used a cast aluminum housing with an
identical Dana rear carrier (and differential) as the
Chevrolet Suburban. Axle tubes were fabricated from
DOM tubing. In conjunction, the 1999 frame uses a leaf
spring rear suspension instead of the 5-link coil system
used in the 2000 frame. Each 1999 stock leaf springs
weighed in excess of 64 kg each. They were replaced
with fiberglass leaf springs weighing 8 kg each. These
leaf springs have a spring constant of 33 kN/m while the
stock steel leaf springs have a spring constant of 51
kN/m for the first stage and 80 kN/m for the second
stage. This is obviously not enough force to hold up a
3175 kg trailer, so air suspension components were
added. The air system maintains the truck at stock ride
height. An added advantage of the air system is that it
enables the truck to be lowered for aerodynamic
Figure 18. “Cookie Cutter” design of spindle and rotor. efficiency at speeds over 32 kph.
A-Arms – The stock 2000 Suburban upper a-arms are
forged steel. The a-arms were redesigned using
Figure 19 illustrates the maximum stress predicted in the chromoly tubing arms attached to 1020 carbon steel at
aluminum spindle under the worst-case scenario of the the ball joint location. The shafts were TIG welded with
entire vehicle load being applied to one wheel (as in an custom elastomers and stock ball joints. As can be seen
off-road course). The stress is well within acceptable in Figure 20, an FEA analysis of the a-arm was
limits. The weight reduction due to this redesign is 4.5 completed using a loading of 680 kg. The maximum
kg per front wheel. stress and strain were within the acceptable limits of the
material. The weight savings on each upper a-arm was
1.4 kg.
11
 DRAG REDUCTION

As shown in Equation 4 of the Vehicle Energy

Consumption section, the second most significant factor
contributing to the vehicle’s power loss is attributed to
aerodynamic drag. This loss is dependent on several
factors, of which only the frontal area profile and drag
coefficient can be changed.
The following steps were taken to reduce the
Moollennium’s frontal area profile, drag coefficient, and
coefficient of rolling resistance.
Air Dam – An aerodynamic study of the vehicle was
performed via wind tunnel testing. Several different
1/25-scale Chevrolet Suburban models were assembled.
Figure 21 shows one of these models with a mockup of
the trailer attached.

Figure 20. ANSYS FEA on redesigned upper a-arm.

Shown are maximum and minimum stresses
incurred along with their respective locations
as a result of a 680 kg point load at the ball
joint placement surface.
Torsion Bars – To implement the automatic ride height
suspension, the front shocks were replaced with air
shocks. To keep the front suspension from riding too
stiffly, torsion bars from a ¾ ton Suburban were gun Figure 21. An image of a 1/25-scale Chevrolet
drilled to an inside diameter of 2.54 cm with an outside Suburban and trailer used in wind tunnel
diameter of 3.81 cm. This modification resulted in a 20% testing.
reduction in the front spring rate in comparison to the ½
ton assembly. The weight of the torsion bars was also
decreased by 40%. A wind tunnel at the University of Wisconsin was used to
perform the study. It was capable of producing wind
Front Differential – The stock differential was replaced speeds up to 45 meters per second (100 mph). The
with a 3.73:1 Dana differential designed for a ½ ton cross-sectional area of the tunnel's measurement
vehicle. The aluminum front differential, while carrying 2
section was approximately 900 cm . A plate was
the full torque of the engine and motor to the front installed parallel to the airflow to simulate ground effects.
wheels, allowed the weight to be reduced a total of 18 An instrumented arm extended to the bottom of the test
kg. The switch to a smaller differential allowed the
engine to be lowered in the engine compartment,
Coefficent of drag vs speed
thereby lowering the center of mass of the Suburban as
well as simplifying engine installation.
1.2
Weight Reduction Summary – Table 12 summarizes
1.0
the weight reduction achieved in the Moollennium.
"Without Air
Normalized Cd

0.8 dam"
Air dam
0.6
without sides
Table 12. Summary of Major Weight Reduction Air dam with
0.4
Components. sides
0.2
Component Stock Moollennium
0.0
Frame 181 kg 90.7 kg
Speed (m/s)
Suspension 221 kg 168 kg

Drive train 408 kg 392 kg Figure 22. Wind tunnel test data showing the reduction
in the coefficient of drag due to the addition
of an air dam.

12
section to measure both drag and lift on the vehicle. An Tires – Equation 2 shows that vehicle power loss is
airfoil shrouded the arm to ensure accurate drag directly related to the tires’ rolling resistance, therefore
measurements. A pitot tube was used to measure the low rolling resistance tires from Goodyear were used.
air velocity in the test section. The coefficient of rolling resistance for these tires is
about .006.
Wind tunnel data, displayed in figure 22, illustrate the
benefits of the air dam. After quantifying the positive ADVISOR MODEL
effect of the air dam on aerodynamic drag, a working air
This year the UW FutureTruck team has been working
dam was fabricated for use during towing. The air dam
with the ADVISOR model, a computer simulation of
is made of Fibrelam, a carbon fiber material with a
vehicle drive train dynamics. In learning the system the
honeycomb core. This material can withstand a beam-
team chose first ran simulations using last year’s vehicle,
bending load of 45 kg, well above the 27 kg that the air
the Aluminum Cow. Comparing the simulations to
dam will see at highway speeds. The air dam is
results from last year’s dynamometer testing validated
removable, collapsible and thin enough to be stored in
the accuracy of the simulation and modeling employed
the cargo area of the truck. Two different designs were
by the team.
examined, one with sides and one without sides. The air
dam with sides showed the greatest reduction in the The results from the ADVISOR Model are listed in Table
coefficient of drag. In addition to wind tunnel testing, 11. The model consistently under predicts the actual
computational fluid dynamics was performed using data by approximately 14%. Unfortunately, despite
Fluent, as shown in figure 23. This analysis further several attempts, the applicable engine map could not
confirmed the benefits of the air dam. be integrated into the ADVISOR model. Therefore,
when exercising the model, a generic small bore CIDI
engine was used.
Once the accuracy of the model was determined, efforts
went to modeling the Moollennium. Weight and drag
were examined extensively on the FTP UDDS and
HWFET driving cycles. The interaction between vehicle
weight, aerodynamic drag and fuel economy are shown
in figure 24. If the Moollenium is to reach its fuel
economy goal of 10.6 km/L, the vehicle weight must be
kept below 2500 kilograms while maintaining or
improving the stock drag coefficient.

Figure 23. Fluent analysis of truck with air dam and

trailer showing pressure, and therefore
force, contours.
Ride Height Adjustment – Testing was performed to
evaluate the benefits of lowing the vehicle ride height at
speeds over 32 kph. By lowering the vehicle,
aerodynamic drag can be reduced by decreasing the
effective frontal area of the vehicle. Wind tunnel tests
also showed a reduction in the coefficient of drag of
about 20%. The variable ride height was achieved by
adding air bellows in the back and air shocks in the front,
allowing the truck to ride three percent lower when
driving at speeds over 32 kph. At low speeds, the truck
retains its full ground clearance. The on-board hybrid
computer dynamically adjusts ride height.

Table 11. Fuel Economy Results from ADVISOR and

Dynamometer Testing for the Aluminum
Cow
Advisor Results Actual Data Figure 24. ADVISOR plot of liters per 100 km versus
(Dyno) vehicle mass in kg and coefficient of drag.
City 19.2 km/L 22.5 km/L
Hwy 23.8 km/L 26.8 km/L
Combined 21 km/L 24.3 km/L

13
DFMEA ANALYSIS vehicle. In addition to the stock audio system, a DVD
player and two televisions displays have been mounted
In designing the Moollennium, appropriate design in the vehicle for use by the passengers in the second
techniques were used to minimize component failures. and third seats. A touch screen provides a convenient
interface to useful information for the driver. The driver
Mechanical Considerations – Safety factors were
can select different control profiles for the vehicle to
considered in all components, and FEA analysis was
optimize driving based on conditions.
performed for any structural parts that were modified.
Splines instead of keyways were used on all rotating In modifying the vehicle, care was taken to preserve the
components and locking devices (locknuts, safety wire, full passenger capacity and cargo room found in a stock
threadlocker) were used on all critical fasteners. Suburban. Turnkey start up, air conditioning, cruise
Because of the aluminum frame, coated fasteners and control, and power windows are a few of the many
rivets were used to minimize galvanic reactions. attractive features of the vehicle. The UW FutureTruck
can travel 805 km without refueling due to an advanced
Electric Drive System - The temperatures of the
control strategy. The vehicle can haul a 3175 kg load to
inverter, electric motor, and battery pack are continually
satisfy the needs of consumers wishing to use the
monitored. Power limits are lowered as values approach
vehicle for towing. The 4x4 drive train also allows for off-
an unsafe level. If the temperatures exceed extreme
road use.
limits, the electric assist will be totally disabled.
Suspension - The default state of the controller used in MANUFACTURING POTENTIAL
the air suspension is in the up position, so if the signal or Component selection for the Moollennium was based on
power is lost, the vehicle will go to its fully raised functionality, ease of procurement, maintainability, and
position. Even if air pressure is lost, the vehicle will manufacturability. This vehicle can be produced using
remain at its last ride height, rather than immediately existing production line technology. The drive train can
dropping to the lowest position. be installed as a single unit, much like today's current
Electrical Considerations – The Moollennium has two truck production techniques.
Emergency Disconnect Switches (EDS) switches (one in To further improve manufacturability, some features of
the front and one in the rear) that, when depressed, will the UW FutureTruck would implemented differently in a
disable the entire high voltage system. These would not mass produced vehicle. For example, the Pentium
be installed on a production vehicle but are a required control computer would be replaced with a less
safety feature for the hybrid prototype. Inline fuses expensive embedded computer. In addition, the
protect against serious battery faults, and an inertia gearbox and brake calipers would be cast instead of
switch will disable the high voltage system in the event machined. Additionally, certain component could be
of a crash. made using lighter and cheaper mass production
The 12-volt system includes both an alternator and a techniques, for example, plastic fuel tanks instead of our
DC/DC converter. If either component fails, the hybrid prototype welded aluminum tank. Incorporating these
computer will limit accessory use so that the vehicle can modifications into the existing design prior to developing
operate in a safe mode until it can be serviced. the assembly line would significantly reduce the time and
cost associated with production.
Control Strategy Considerations– The control strategy
has been designed with a safety state and any abnormal
signal levels will cause it to activate the safety state. For COST ANALYSIS
example, the gas pedal signal is typically between 0.8 V At high volume production, the estimated retail price for
and 3.3 V. If there were a low-side fault, the signal the UW FutureTruck is $45,000. Price estimates are
would go up to 5V and it would be apparent that based on current Suburban retail prices, with a base
something has failed. The control strategy will recognize cost of $38,000. Table 12 lists the assumptions and
this discrepancy and will not go to 100% torque. prices used to calculate the production price of the
Similarly, if the battery voltage ever goes to an extreme Moollennium.
value or if the motor controller stops providing feedback
to the computer, the strategy automatically goes to a
safety state to protect against hazardous operation.

INTENDED MARKET
The intended market for the Moollennium is similar to
that of a typical light-duty SUV. SUVs are designed for
consumers desiring a stylish vehicle with good utility,
power and traction to be used when towing heavy loads,
traveling in poor weather, or traversing rough terrain. In
addition to retaining the original look and feel of a stock
Suburban, several features have been incorporated in
order to enhance the consumer acceptability of the
14
 suspension will lower the vehicle 5 cm when the vehicle
travels faster than 32 kph – this will decrease the frontal
Table 12. Moollennium Production Cost Estimates area of the vehicle by 3 % while also reducing the Cd by
20%.
Component UW Prototype Cost Production Cost

Stock Vehicle $38,000 $38,000 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1
Motor/Inverter $9000 $2,500 The outstanding contributions of Faculty Advisor Dr.
2 Glenn Bower and GM Mentor Pam Mabery regarding
Computer $5,000 $250
sound engineering, student education, and professional
Batteries $40,000 $3,000
3 conduct have been invaluable to the UW FutureTruck
Team. Their dedication, along with the financial support
Aluminum $5,000 $500 and enthusiasm of the UW College of Engineering, has
Components given team members the ability to flourish with new
opportunities and experiences.
Aluminum $50,000 $750
Frame The patient work of the FutureTruck organizers to create
and facilitate FutureTruck 2000 is also greatly
Total $147,000 $45,000
appreciated by the members of the Wisconsin team.
1
72% mass production discount for all electronic components. The funding for such organization, as well as the
2
availability of competition facilities, seed money, and
Upgrade cost for additional processing to be included in power
control module.
platform vehicles, is made possible by the generous
contributions of USDOE, ANL, and General Motors. We
3
92.5% mass production discount for batteries would like to extend our thanks to all of these
organizations, which have been instrumental to
The following is a list of assumptions made in FutureTruck 2000 and the promotion of energy efficient
determining the cost analysis. vehicles.
• 10,000 vehicles are manufactured each year on an
existing vehicle platform Finally, the authors of this report wish to recognize all
the members of the University of Wisconsin FutureTruck
• Labor costs would be comparable Team who have contributed to the success of the
“Moollennium” and elevated the engineering standards
• All costs have been assessed in year 2000 dollars at the University of Wisconsin.
• All other vehicle components are the same as those
REFERENCES
found in a stock Suburban
1. Bayer, Koplin, et al., “Optimizing the University of
Wisconsin’s Parallel Hybrid-Electric Aluminum Intensive
SUMMARY Vehicle,” SAE Publications October 1999, SAE .
2. Bower, G.R., et al. , “Design of a Charge Regulating,
The Wisconsin FutureTruck team has successfully Parallel Hybrid Electric FutureCar,” SAE Publications
converted a 2000 Chevrolet Suburban into a power February 1998, SAE 980488.
assist, charge-sustaining four-wheel drive parallel 3. Johnston, Brian, et al. , “The Continued Design and
hybrid-electric vehicle. The Moollennium was designed Development of the University of California, Davis
to decrease greenhouse gas emissions by two-thirds FutureCar,” SAE Publications February 1998, SAE
and double fuel economy while maintaining the same 980487.
level of comfort, performance, and utility of a stock 4. Thomas, C.E., et al., “Societal Impacts of Fuel Options for
Suburban. Fuel Cell Vehicles,” SAE Publications October 1998, SAE
982496.
The team developed a hybrid transfer case with an 5. PNGV Battery Test Manual, U.S. DOE, Idaho National
integrated two-speed electric motor gearbox that will Engineering Laboratory, DOE/ID-10597, Jan. 1997
increase capture regenerative energy by 16%. A mild 6. Wiegman, H., Vandenput, A., "Battery State Control
hybrid with a peak power of 177 kW is provided using an Techniques for Charge Sustaining Applications," SAE
AC induction motor with matched inverter, high power Publ. 981129, SP-1331, 1998, pp 65-75 , and 1999 SAE
Transactions
density NiMH batteries, and a compression ignition
direct injection engine.
In an attempt to meet our FutureTruck 2000 goals, an
aluminum frame and lightweight suspension components
were developed as a means of reducing the vehicle
weight. FEA was performed to ensure component
integrity in addition to minimizing weight. An air ride

15
 and lower emissions, making vehicles more
APPENDIX environmentally friendly. Further environmental benefits
are reaped due to aluminum’s ease of recycling and high
scrap value, (in 1996, over 50% of aluminum used in
A. SYMBOL LIST cars and light trucks was recycled). Aluminum use in
m = mass of vehicle (kg) light trucks from 1992 to 1997 grew at a compound
annual rate of 7.7%. 55% weight savings over steel can
g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s^2) be realized while retaining or improving the same level of
stiffness and crashworthiness.
V = velocity (m/s)
In the manufacturing process, lighter aluminum can
θ = inclination of road (rad)
mean easier mobility of material. In addition, dies used
ρ = density of air (~ 1.3 kg/m^3) for aluminum are less expensive than those used for
harder steel due to the ease of working and forming
A = frontal area of Truck (~4.169 m^2) aluminum. Production and development of aluminum-
intensive vehicles have generated the following results:
Cd = drag coefficient (~.446)
Crr = coefficient of rolling resistance (~.006) • 45-55% body structure weight reduction
• 25-35% increased torsional rigidity
B. EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION • Up to 50% assembly parts consolidation
• Improved crash performance
• Dramatic reduction in tooling costs
One of the main drawbacks of compression ignition (CI)
engines is the high oxides of nitrogen emission levels.
Issues to address with aluminum include the higher cost
CI engines utilize high compression ratios (15-18:1) to
of raw material and lower stiffness (by a factor of three)
achieve high thermal efficiency. Unfortunately, high in-
in comparison to steel.
cylinder temperatures promote the formation of NOx
during combustion. It has been found that NOx Companies such as ALCOA and BMW are developing
emissions can be reduced by introducing exhaust gas new manufacturing processes for aluminum. The BMW
into the intake charge. This practice is known as 500 series axles were hydroformed for higher stiffness
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). NOx emissions can and fatigue strength, and then GMA welded together.
further be reduced by cooling this recirculated exhaust Aluminum tends to respond well to GMA and GMA-
gas. impulse welding. For high-quality joints, TIG welding is
also used.
The 2.4 L PUMA engine was originally equipped with an
EGR intercooler. This heat exchanger lowers the Table A.1 - Material Properties for Aluminum and Steel.
temperature of the EGR stream by using the cooling Alloy & Temper Ultimate Yield Modulus of
system as its heat sink. This exchange of heat results in Strength Strength Elasticity
two advantages. First, cooling of the exhaust gas
(ksi) (ksi) (ksi)
produces lower NOx emissions from forming. Second,
the coolant that is heated is then pumped directly to the
heating system for the vehicle. This will provide heat to Alum. 2014-T6, 70 60 10.6
the cabin much more quickly and efficiently than the T651
stock heating system Alum. 6061-T6, 42 37 10.0
T651
C. USE OF ALUMINUM Alum. 7075-T6, 83 73 10.4
T651
Aluminum provides many advantages over alternative Steel 1020 HR 66 42 30
materials in vehicle production. Beneficial Steel 1018 A 49.5 32 30
characteristics of aluminum include desirable energy
absorption and crashworthiness, versatility in design,
high elasticity, high strength-to-weight ratio, reduced
noise and vibration, and resistance to corrosion and rust-
related failures. With regard to automotive use, the
reduced weight of aluminum means higher fuel economy

16