V.S.B.

ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KARUR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
ACADEMIC YEAR 2019-20 (EVEN SEMESTER)
2 MARK AND 16 MARK QUESTION BANK

CLASS IV YEAR/ VIII SEMESTER

S.NO SUBJECT CODE SUBJECT NAME PAGE NO

1 EE6801 Electric Energy Generation, Utilization and 2

Conservation
2 EE6009 Power Electronics for Renewable Energy 21
Systems
3 GE6075 Professional Ethics in Engineering 126

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 E6801-ELETRIC ENERGY GENERATION, UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION
TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
UNIT I
ELECTRIC DRIVES AND TRACTION
1. What is meant by electrical drives? (Anna Univ April/May 2018)
Systems employed for motion control are called drives and they employ any of the prime movers such as
diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, hydraulic motors and electric motors for supplying
mathematical energy for motion control. Drives employing electric motion are called electric drives.
2. What are the requirements of an electric drive?
✓ Stable operation should be assured.
✓ The drive should have good transient response
3. Specify the functions of power modulator.
Power modulator performs one or more of the following four functions.
✓ Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor is imparted speed-
torque characteristics required by the load.
✓ During transient operations, such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it
Restricts source and motor currents within permissible values; excessive current drawn from source
may overload it or may cause a voltage dip.

4. Mention the different types of drives.

✓ Group drive
✓ Individual drive
✓ Multi motor drive

5. List the different types of electrical drives.

✓ dc drives
✓ ac drives

6. What are the advantages of electric drives?

They have flexible control characteristics. the steady state and dynamic characteristics of electrical drives can
be shaped to satisfy load requirements.

1. Drives can be provided with automatic fault detection systems, programmable

logic controllers and computers can be employed to automatically ctrl the drive
operations in a desired sequence.
2. They are available in which range of torque, speed and power.
3. It can operate in all the four quadrants of speed torque plane. Electric braking
Gives smooth deceleration and increases life of the equipment compared to other
forms of braking.
4. Control gear required for speed control, starting and braking is usually simple and easy to operate

7. What are the functions performed by electric drives?

Various functions performed by electric drives include the following.

1. Driving fans, ventilators, compressors and pumps etc.

2. Lifting goods by hoists and cranes
3. Imparting motion to conveyors in factories, mines and warehouses and

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 4. Running excavators and escalators, electric locomotives, trains, cars, trolley buses, lifts and drums
winders etc.

8. What are the disadvantages of electric drives?

The disadvantages of electric drives are

1. Electric drives system is tied only up to the electrified area.

2. The condition arising under the short circuits, leakage from conductors and breakdown of overhead
conductor may lead to fatal accidents.
3. Failure in supply for a few minutes may paralyses the whole system.

9. What are the advantages of group drive over individual drive?

The advantages of group drive over individual drive are

1. Initial cost: Initial cost of group drive is less as compared to that of the Individual drive.
2. Sequence of operation: Group drive system is useful because all the operations are stopped
simultaneously.
3. Space requirement: Less space is required in group drive as compared to individual drive.
4. Low maintenance cost: It requires little maintenance as compared to individual drive.

10. What the group drive is not used extensively.

Although the initial cost of group drive is less but yet this system is not used extensively because of
following disadvantages.
1. Power factor: Group drive has low power factor
2. Efficiency: Group drive system when used and if all the machines are not working together the
main motor shall work at very much reduced load.
3. Reliability: In group drive if the main motor fails whole industry will come to stand still.
4. Flexibility: Such arrangement is not possible in group drive i.e., this arrangement is not suitable
for the place where flexibility is the prime factor.
5. Speed: Group drive does not provide constant speed.
6. Types of machines: Group drive is not suitable for driving heavy machines such as cranes, lifts
and hoists etc.

11. Write short notes on individual electric drives. (April/May 2011)

In individual drive, each individual machine is driven by a separate motor. This motor also imparts
motion to various other parts of the machine. Examples of such machines are single spindle drilling machines
(Universal motor is used) and lathes. In a lathe, the motor rotates the spindle, moves the feed and also with
the help of gears, transmits motion to lubricating and cooling pumps. A three phase squirrel cage induction
motor is used as the drive. In many such applications the electric motor forms an integral part of the machine.

12. Mention the different factors for the selection of electric drives? (April 2014)

1. Steady state operation requirements.

2. Transient operation requirements.
3. Requirements related to the source.
4. Capital and running cost, maintenance needs life.
5. Space and weight restriction.
6. Environment and location.
7. Reliability.

13. Mention the parts of electrical drives.

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 1. Electrical motors and load.
2. Power modulator
3. Sources
4. Control unit
5. Sensing unit
14. Mention the applications of electrical drives

1. Paper mills
2. Electric traction Cement mills
3. Steel mills

15. Name the systems of traction.

The various systems of traction are

1. Direct stream engine system.
2. Direct internal combustion engine.
3. Internal combustion engine combined with electric drive iv) Battery electric drive
4. Electric drive.

16.Mention the advantages of electrification of track.

It is the cleanest of all other types of traction systems which alone makes it ideally suitable for the
underground railway.

17. Mention the disadvantages of electrification of track.

i)The greatest disadvantage that electric traction suffers from is the high capital
Cost whether of initial outlay or of conversion from steam electric traction. If the factor can be
overcome other disadvantages would not prevent the conversion from one system into the other.

18. What are the various types of electric traction?

i) Self contained electric vehicle.
ii) Electric vehicle fed from the distributed network.

19. What are the various vehicles falling under electric vehicle fed from the distributed network?
i)Tram ways
ii)Trolley buses
iii)Electric locomotives or trains.

20. What are tramways?

The tramcar collects current from an overhead collector and runs on steel track laid on
the road. There are two driving axles to secure good adhesion and control is provided from both ends so that it
may run from any end. The tram way motors are usually of de type being operated from 600V supply.

21. What are Trolley buses?

Trolley buses do not require track like tramways. So they can be manipulated better in
Dense traffic than tramways. Since the weight can be carried on rubber typed wheels is limited, a minimum
amount of electrical equipment is provided.
22. What are the advantages of diesel electric system?
i) Existing track is not required to be modified.
ii) No overload network is to be constructed.

23. How power is supplied to railway trains?

There are two systems for supplying power to railway trains. They are
i) Overhead system
ii) Conductor rail system.

24. State any four advantages of electric traction.

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 i)Initial cost and running cost of the system are low.
ii)It has efficiency.
iii)The wearing of the track is minimum.
iv)There is no expensive wear and tear.

25. How would you analyze the speed time curve for electric train?
The speed time curve can be analyzed with respect to
i) Acceleration
ii) Speed-constant or free running
iii) Period of coasting
iv) Braking period

26. What is crest speed?

It is the maximum speed attained by a train during a run.

27.. What is average speed? (Anna Univ. April/May 2018)

Average speed =Distance between stops in km / time of run in hr

28. What is scheduled speed? (Anna Univ. April/May 2018)

It is the ratio of the distance between the spots and the total time taken including time
for stops to cover the distance.
Schedule speed =Distance between stops in km/ time of run in hr + stop time in hr

29. What are the factors affecting the schedule speed of the train?
(Anna Univ. Nov/Dec 2013)
i) Crest speed
ii) Acceleration
iii) Braking retardation
iv) Duration of stops.

30. What is tractive effort? (Anna Univ. Nov/Dec 2008)

It is the effective force on the wheel of a locomotive which is necessarily required For its propulsion.
The tractive effort is a vector quality and it is tangential to wheel. It is measured in Newtons.

31. Write the formula for tractive effort of an electric train.

The tractive effort is given to be
Ft = Fa + Fg + Fr
Where,
Fa = Force to overcome linear or angular motion
Fg = Force to overcome effect of gravity
Fr = Tractive effort to overcome the frictional resistance.

32. Define coefficient of adhesion.

Coefficient of adhesion = Tractive effort to slip the wheel
---------------------------------------
Adhesive weight

33. Why bridge transition is preferable for suburban service?

In bridge transition, jerks will not be experienced and both the motor will exert Normal accelerating
torque throughout the starting period.

34. Define dead weight.

It is the gross weight of the train including locomotive to be moved on the rail Track.

35. Define accelerating weight.

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 The dead weight of the train comprises of
i)The weight which has linear acceleration and
ii)The weight which has angular acceleration

Due to the rotation inertia for angular acceleration the total effective weight of the train will be
more than the dead weight. Thus the effective weight is termed as the accelerating weight of the train.

36. Define adhesive weight.

It is the weight carried on driving wheel.

37. Why bridge transition is preferable for suburban service?

In bridge transition, jerks will not be experienced and both the motor will exert normal accelerating
torque throughout the starting period.

38. Name the advanced methods of speed control of traction motors.

▪ Tap changer control
▪ Thyristors control
▪ Chopper control
▪ Microprocessor control

UNIT II
ILLUMIINATION
1. Define light.
Light is defined as that radiant energy in the form of waves which produces a sensation
of vision upon the human eye.

2. Define luminous flux. (Anna Univ. Nov/Dec 2013, Nov/Dec 2015)

Luminous flux is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per second
from a luminous body.(eg.: incandescent lamp).

3. Define luminous intensity.

Luminous intensity is defined as the flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle.

4. Define light energy.

• It is the energy obtained in visual radiations in a given time
• It is expressed in lumen – hour.
• It is denoted by Q.
5. Define radiant efficiency.
It is defined as the ration of energy radiated in the form of light to the total energy radiated by the body.

Radiant efficiency = Energy radiated in the form of light / Total energy radiated by the
body

6. Define luminous efficiency. ( April 2016)

It is defined as the output in lumens per watt of the power consumed by the source of light. It is
measured in lumens per wattage.

Luminous efficiency = Lumens emitted by the source/ Wattage of source per

light

7. Define plane angle.

When two straight lines lying in the same plane meet at a point, there will be an angle between
these converging lines at the meeting point. This angle is termed as plane angle .In the above figure the angle
AOB is the plane angle.
Unit of plane angle is radians.

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 Plane angle = Arc/ Radius

8. Define solid angle.

The angle subtended at a point in space by an area is termed as solid angle. In plane angle it is the area which
is enclosed by two lines, but in case of solid angle. It is the Volume enclosed by numerous lines lying on the
surface and meeting at a point.
Solid angle is denoted by ω. Unit of solid angle is steradian.
Solid angle = Area/(Radius)2

9. Define lumen. (April/May 2005, 2014)

It is a unit of flux and is defined as the luminous flux per unit angle from a source of one candle power.
Lumens = Candle power X Solid angle.
= C.P. X ω.
The total flux emitted by the source of 1 C.P. is 4π lumens.

10. Define candle power.

Candle power is the light rendering capacity of a source in a given direction and is defined as the
number of lumens given out by the source in a unit solid angle in a given direction.
C.P. = Lumens/ solid angle (ω)

11. Define illuminance (or) illumination (or) Degree of illumination.

When the light falls on a surface it is illuminated. The illuminance is defined as the luminous flux
received per unit area.
Illuminance is denoted by the symbol E and is measured in lumens/m2
or lux or metre-candle.

12. Define foot candle.

It is illumination produced by a uniform source of one CP on the inner surface of sphere of one foot
radius.
1 foot candle = 1 lumens/ft2
15. Define lux. (April/May 2005, 2011, 2014)
It is a metre candle and is defined as the illumination of the inside of the sphere of
radius 1 metre at the center of which there is a source of 1 CP.

13. Define mean horizontal candle power.

The mean horizontal candle power of a souce of a light is the mean or average of the candle power in all
directions on horizontal plane which passes through the source.

14. Define mean spherical candle power.

The mean spherical candle power of a source of light is the mean or average of the
candle power in all directions in all the planes.

15. Define mean hemispherical candle power.

The mean hemispherical candle power of a source of light is the mean or average
of the candle power in all directions within the hemisphere either above the horizontal plane or below the
horizontal plane.

16. Define reduction factor.

Reduction factor of a source of light is defined as the ratio of its mean spherical
candle power to its mean horizontal candle power.
Reduction factor = M.S.C.P / M.H.C.P.

17. Define reflection factor (or) Co efficient of reflection (or) reflection ratio.
It is defined as the ratio of the ratio of reflected light to the incident light. It is
always less than unity.

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 Reflected light
Reflection factor = ------------------------ Incident light
18. Define candela.
th 2
It is the unit of luminous intensity. It is defined as 1/60 of the luminous intensity per cm of a black
body radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum (2043k).

19. Define lamp efficiency.

Lamp efficiency is defined as the ratio of luminous flux to the power input. It is
expressed in lumens/watt.

20. Define brightness.

It is defined as the flux emitted per unit area or the luminous intensity per unit
projected area of the source in a direction perpendicular to the surface.

21. What are the laws of illumination? (Anna Univ. April/May 2018)
1. Inverse square law.
2. Lambert's cosine law.
22. State Inverse square law
The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
of the surface from the source of light. This is true only if the source is a point source.
23. State Lambert's cosine law.
The illumination is proportional to the source of angle between the normal and the line of flux.(OR).
The illumination of a surface at any point is dependent upon the cube of cosine of angle between the
line of flux and the normal at the point.

24. What are the polar curves?

The luminous flux emitted by a source can be determined from the intensity
distribution curve. The luminous intensity or candle power of a practical lamp is not uniform in all directions
due to its unsymmetrical shape. The distribution of light is given by polar curves.

25. What are the uses of Rousseau's construction?

The mean spherical candle power of a symmetrical source of light can be found out
from the polar curve by means of Rousseau diagram.

26. Define utilization factor in the design of the lighting scheme.

Utilization factor is defined as total lumens utilized on working plane to the total
lumens radiated by lamp.

27. Define depreciation factor.

Depreciation factor is defined as , illumination under normal working condition to
Illumination when everything is clean. So this occurs when the source is not clean.(eg. lamps covered with
dust, dirt or smoke).

28. State the different lighting schemes.

Depending upon the requirement of light the lighting schemes can be classified as
follows.
i) Direct lighting
ii) Indirect lighting
iii) Semi-direct lighting
iv) Semi- indirect lighting
v) General diffusing system

UNIT III
HEATING AND WELDING

1. Write the Stephen law of radiation. (Anna Univ. April 2014)

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 H = 5.72 x 104 Ke [(T1/1000)4 - (T2/1000)4 ] w/m2
where , K is a constant known as radiating efficiency.
Thus Stephen derived relationship between the heat transmitted and the difference of temperature.
Here H represents amount of heat transmitted.

2 What are the advantages of electric heating?

There are enormous advantages of electric heating over hte other systems and they are
i) Economical
ii) High efficiency of utilization
iii) Cleanliness
iv) Absence of flue gases
v) Ease of control.

3. What are the applications if Arc furnaces?

i) It is suitable for non-ferrous castings of copper, Bronze, Gun metal, Nickel alloys
etc.
ii) High melting point iii)Low metal
losses
iv)Very high temperatures of heat.
4. What are advantages of dielectric heating? i)Possibility of applying
accurate quantity of heat. ii)Increase in production
iii)High uniformity and quality of the products. iv)Improvement
in working condition. v)Limited space requirement
vi)Easy maintenance.

5. Name the uses of dielectric heating. i)For baking

foundry cores ii)For food processing
iii)For wood processing industry.

6. Mention the applications of induction heating. (Anna Univ. April/May 2018)

i) Surface hardening
ii) Deep hardening iii)Tempering
iv)Soldering v)Melting.
7. What are the advantages of coreless induction furnaces?
i) It takes lesser amount of time to reach the melting temperature.
ii)Its erection cost is low.
8. State the difference between core type and coreless type induction furnaces.

S.No Core type coreless type

1. The leakage reactance is No leakage reactance
very high.
2. Crucible of any shape can Standard form is used
be used.
3. Operation cost is high. Operation cost is low
9. What are the advantages of Ajax Wyatt furnace?
i) Good operating conditions for the refractory lining, no part of the furnace being hotter
than the metal itself.
ii) Accurate temperature control, uniform castings, minimum metal losses and reduction of rejects.

10. What is the principle of arc furnace?

When voltage across two electrodes separated by an air gap is increased, a stage is

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 reached when voltage gradients in the air gap is such that air in the gap becomes good conductor of
electricity. Arc is said to exist when current passes through air gap.

11. Why Nichrome element is used as a heating element in a resistance oven?

This type of element is used for high temperature in the oven. It contains 80% Ni
and 20% Chromium.

12. Give two applications of dielectric heating.

i) Synthetics -Dielectric heating is most suitable for pressed synthetic goods.
ii) Wood processing industries - Dielectric heating has been usefully employed in wood industry.

13. What are the advantages of dielectric heating?

i) This method of heating non conducting material in very speedy.
ii) Normally material heated by this method are combustible which cannot be heated by the flame.

14. What are the methods of controlling the temperature of resistance ovens?
i) Varying the number of elements
ii) Adding variable external resistance in series with the element iii)Changing
transformer tappings.

15. Write any two reasons for the failure of heating element.
Reasons for failure of heating elements are
i) Formation of hot spots
ii) Oxidation of element and intermittent operation
iii) Embrittlement due to grain growth
iv) Contamination of element.

16. Classify the methods of electric heating. (Anna Univ. May/June 2012)
Kinds of electric heating
A. Power frequency heating
a. Resistance heating
i) Direct resistance heating
ii) Indirect resistance heating
iii) Infrared or Radiant heating
b. Arc heating
i) Direct arc heating
ii) Indirect arc heating
B. High frequency heating
a. Induction heating
i) Direct induction heating
ii) Indirect induction heating
b. Dielectric heating
17. What is meant by indirect resistance heating?
In this method, the current is passed through a high resistance wire known as heating element. The heat
produced due to I2 R loss in the element is transmitted by radiation or convection to the body to be heated.
Applications are room heaters, in bimetallic srip used in starters, immersion water heaters and in
domestic and commercial cooking and salt bath furnace.

18. What is meant by(1) infra red /radiant heating? (2)Dielectric heating?
(1) When current possess through a resistive element heat energy is produced and the same is dissipated
in the form of infrared radiation this is focused upon a body to be heated .e.g. to dry the wet paint on an
object.
(2) When a non metallic material is placed between two electrodes at high voltage the dielectric loss is
dissipated in the form of heat which is used for heating purposes.
19.)What are the properties of a good heating material? (Anna Univ. Nov/Dec 2013)
1. High resistivity

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 2. Low temperature coefficient of resistance
3. High melting point
4. Free from oxidation

20. What is the basic principle of induction heating?

High frequency eddy current heating produced by eddy currents induced by electromagnetic action in the
metal to be heated. It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction as same as a transformer. It has a metal
disc surrounded by a copper coil in which a.c supply is flowing. The disc has a finite value of diameter and
thickness and is spaced a given distance from the coil and concentric to it. We find that a secondary current is
caused to circulate around the outer surface of the disc.

20. Name the different types of electric welding.

i) Electric arc welding
ii) Electric resistance welding iii)electron
beam welding.
21. Where is spot welding employed?
Spot welding is usually employed for joining or fabricating sheet metal structure.
22. Where is carbon arc welding employed?
Carbon arc welding is usually employed in welding copper metal and its alloys.
23. What are the advantages of flash butt welding?
i) Power requirement is less
ii)No speed attention is to be paid to the surfaces being joined
iii)All the foreign metals appearing on the joining surfaces will be burnt due to flash, thus the weld
obtained is clean and pure.

24. Distinguish between Butt welding and spot welding.

S.No Butt Welding Spot Welding

1. There is no mechanical Mechanical force is required .
Force required.
2. Only two joints are heated Here three joints are to be heated.
up. Hence excessive energy is needed.

25. State different types of arc welding.

i)Electric arc welding
ii)Metal arc welding
iii)Helium or Argon arc welding.
iv)Carbon arc welding
v)Submerged arc welding.

26. State different types of electric arc welding.

i)Metal arc welding
ii)Inert arc welding
iii)Carbon arc welding
iv)Atomic hydrogen arc welding.

27. What are the two types of Butt welding?

i)Upset butt welding
ii)Flash butt welding.

28. What are the various types of electric resistance welding?

i)spot welding
ii)Projection welding
iii)Seam welding
iv)Butt welding

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 UNIT IV
SOLAR RADIATION AND SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS

1. What is meant by Solar Energy?

The energy received in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of
energy, such as heat and electricity, which can be utilized by man.

2. List the drawbacks of Solar Energy.

The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the earth’s surface and
The large area required to collect the energy at a useful rate.

3. Define solar constant. (April/May 2017)

Solar constant is defined as the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the
sun’s direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun.
4. Define solar time.
Solar time (Local Apparent Time) is measured with reference to solar noon, which is the time when the
sun is crossing the observer’s meridian.

5. What is meant by solar collector? Mention its types.

A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfers the energy to a fluid passing in
contact with it. There are two types of collectors:
Non- concentrating or flat plate type solar collector.
Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector.

6. Mention the ways of solar energy can be utilized.

Solar energy can be utilized directly in two ways:

By collecting the radiant heat and using it in a thermal system
By collecting and converting it directly to electrical energy using a photovoltaic system

7. What are the indirect forms of solar Energy?

Wind energy Biomass energy Tidal energy Ocean wave energy Ocean thermal energy Fossil fuels and
other organic chemicals Hydro energy

8.What are the performance indices of a solar collector? Or Define Collector Efficiency.
(Anna Univ. April/May 2018)

The performance indices of a solar collector are Collector Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy actually
absorbed and transferred to the heat transport fluid by the collector(useful energy) to the energy incident on the
collector Concentration Ratio is defined as the ratio of the area of aperture of the system to the area of the
receiver. The aperture of the system is the projected area of the collector facing (normal) the beam. Temperature
Range is the range of temperature to which the heat transport fluid is heated up by the collector.

9. Name the basic design of solar cookers

The four basic designs of the solar cookers are: Box type solar cooker Dish type solar cooker Community solar
cooker Advanced solar cooker

10. List out the advantages and disadvantages of air flat plate collector

Advantages of flat plate air heating collector are

1. It is compact, simple in construction and requires little maintenance.

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 2. The need to transfer thermal energy from the working fluid to another fluid is eliminated as air is
used directly as the working fluid.
3. Corrosion is completely eliminated.
4. Leakage of air from the duct is less severe.
5. Possibility of freezing of working fluid is also eliminated.
6. The pressure inside the collector does not become very high.

Disadvantages of air collector are

1. A large amount of fluid is to be handled due to low density. As a result, the electrical power
required to blow the air through the system can be significant if the pressure drop is not kept
within prescribed limits.
2. Heat transfer between the absorber plate and air is poor.
3. There is less storage of thermal energy due to low heat capacity.

11. What is meant by solar pond?

A natural or artificial body of water for collecting and absorbing solar radiation energy and storing it as
heat. Thus a solar pond combines solar energy collection and sensible heat storage.

12. What is meant by solar photo voltaic?

The direct conversion of solar energy into electrical energy by means of the photovoltaic effect, that is, the
conversion of light (or other electromagnetic radiation) into electricity. The photovoltaic effect is defined as the
generation of an electromotive force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation.

13. List the application of solar PV system.

Water pumping sets for micro irrigation and drinking water supply Radio beacons for ship navigation at ports
Community radio and television sets Cathodic protection of oil pipe lines Weather monitoring Railway signaling
equipment Battery charging Street lighting

14. What are the advantages & disadvantages of PV solar energy conversion system?

Advantages
1. Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity through a simple solid state device.
Absence of moving parts Maintenance cost is low s they are easy to operate Do not create
pollution Long effective life Highly reliable
Disadvantages
2. High cost in many applications energy storage is required because of no isolation at night.
15. What are the advantages & disadvantages of concentrating collectors over flat plate type collectors?

Advantages:
1. Reflecting surfaces required less material and are structurally simpler than flat plate collectors.
For a concentrator system the cost per unit area of solar collecting surface is therefore potentially
less than that for flat plate collectors
2. The absorber area of a concentrator system is smaller than that of a flat plate system for same
solar energy collection and therefore the insulation intensity is greater.
3. Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber in a concentrator system whereas the
entire solar energy collection surface requires anti-freeze protection in a flat plate collector.

Disadvantages:
1. Out of the beam and diffuse solar radiation components, only beam component is collected in
case of focusing collectors because diffuse component can not be reflected and is thus lost.
2. Additional requirements of maintenance particular to retain the quality of reflecting surface
against dirt, weather, oxidation etc.,
3. Non-uniform flux on the absorber whereas flux in flat plate collectors is uniform

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 4. Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the intercept loss, so they introduce
additional factors in energy balances
5. High initial cost

16. Name the types of concentrating collectors.

The main types of concentrating collectors are: Parabolic trough collector Mirror strip reflector Fresnel
lens collector Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors compound parabolic concentrator(CPC)

17. What are the zones in solar pond?

Surface convective zone or upper convective zone (0.3-0.5m)
Non-convective zone (1-1.5m) salinity increases with depth.
Storage zone or lower convective zone (1.5-2m) salinity =20%

18. List the various types of solar energy collectors.

1. Stationary collectors (or) Non- concentrating
• Flat plate collectors
• Compound parabolic collectors
• Evacuated tube collectors
2. Sun tracking concentrating collector
• Single axis tracking
• Two-axis tracking
19. List the four important solar systems.
• Low temperature cycles using flat plat collector or solar pond
• Power tower or central receiver system
• Distributed collector system
• Concentrating collectors for medium and high temperature cycle
20. What is concentration ratio?
Concentration ratio is defined as the ratio between the aperture area and the receiver absorber area of the
collector.
21. Define space-height ratio.

It is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps and height of their mountings. Space-
height ratio= Horizontal distance between two adjacent lamps/ Mounting height of lamps above working plane

UNIT-V
WIND ENERGY

1. List out the factor led to accelerated development of wind power.

Availability of high strength fibre composites for constructing large low cost rotor blades Falling prices of
power electronics Variable speed operation of electrical generators to capture maximum energy Improved plant
operation, pushing the availability upto 95%. Economy of scale, as the turbines and plants are getting larger in
size. Accumulated field experience improving the capacity factor Short energy payback period of about one year .

2. What are the features prefer for the wind turbine site? (or)
List down the aspects considered for selecting the wind turbine location.
(Anna Univ. April/May 2018)

No tall obstructions for some distance in the upwind direction and also a low a roughness as possible in
the same direction A wide and open view i.e., opens plain, open shore line or offshore locations. Top of smooth
well-rounded hill with gentle slopes on a flat plain An island in a lake or the sea A narrow mountain gap through
which wind is channeled Site reasonably close to power grid Soil conditions must be such that building of
foundations of the turbines and transport of road- construction materials loaded in heavy trucks is feasible.
Production results of existing wind turbines in the area to act as a guide to local wind conditions.

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3. What are the merits and demerits of three blade rotor over two blade rotors?
Compared to the two blade design, the three blade machine has smoother power output and balanced
gyroscopic force. There is no need to teeter the rotor, allowing the use of a simple rigid hub. The blades may be
cross-linked for greater rigidity. Adding a third blade increases the power output by about 5% only, while the
weight and cost of a rotor increases by 50%, thus giving a diminished rate of return for additional 50% weight and
cost. The two blade rotor is also simpler to erect, since it can be assembled on the ground and lifted to the shaft
without complicated maneuvers during the lift.

4. Draw the power Vs wind speed characteristics.

5. Draw the block diagram of WECS.

6. What are the types of generator drive for the operation of WECS?

The types of generator are suitable for the wind generations are: DC generator Synchronous Generator Induction
generator

7. Define gusts
.
Rapid fluctuations in the wind velocity over a wide range of frequencies and amplitudes, due to
turbulence caused by mechanical mixing of lower layers of atmosphere by surface roughness, are commonly
known as gusts.

8. What are the features of VAWT?

The features of VAWT:

1. It can accept wind from any direction, eliminating the need of yaw control.
2. The gearbox, generator, etc., are located at the ground, thus eliminating the heavy nacelle at the
top of the tower, thus simplifying the design and installation of the whole structure, including the tower.
3. The inspection and maintenance also gets easier
4. It also reduces the overall cost.

15
9. Define power coefficient

The fraction of the free flow wind power that can be extracted by a rotor is called the power-coefficient. Power
coefficient = Power of wind turbine/Power available in the wind

10. List out the merits of WECS

It is a renewable source of energy Like all forms of solar energy, wind power systems are non-polluting, so it has
no adverse influence on the environment. Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport. On a small
scale up to a few kilowatt system is less costly. On a large- scale costs can be competitive with conventional
electricity and lower costs can be competitive with conventional electricity and lower costs could be achieved by
mass production.

11. List out the demerits of WECS

Wind energy available in dilute and fluctuating in nature. Unlike water energy wind energy needs storage capacity
because of its irregularity Wind energy systems are noisy in operation; a large unit can be heard many kilometers
away. Large areas are needed, typically, propellers 1 to 3 m in diameter, deliver power in the 30 to 300W range.

12. What are the components of wind turbine generator units?

A wind turbine unit consists of the following major assemblies: A wind turbine with vertical axis or horizontal
axis. Gear chain An electrical generator(synchronous or asynchronous (induction)) Associated civil works,
electrical and mechanical auxiliaries, control panels etc.,

13. Classify the schemes available for electric generation.

The schemes are available for electric generation is of three categories. Constant-speed constant frequency
systems (CSCF) Variable speed constant frequency systems(VSCF) Variable speed variable frequency
systems(VSVF)

14. Define wind turbine.

A wind turbine which converts wind power into rotary mechanical power. A wind turbine has aerofoil
blades mounted on the rotor. The wind drives the rotor and produces rotary mechanical energy.

15. What is the principle of wind power generation?

Kinetic energy in moving air (wind) is converted into electrical energy. If mechanical energy is directly used it is
called a wind mill. e.g. Pump. If mechanical energy is used to generate electrical energy and then used it is a
wind energy converter. Cluster of wind mills is called a wind form. Winds are essentially caused by the solar
heating of the atmosphere. They carry enormous quantity of energy. Wind as a source of power is very attractive
because it is
plentiful, inexhaustible, renewable and non -polluting. There is no depletion of scarce resources. In large portion
of the world, wind blows for 320 days in a year and this gives them an advantage over sunlight in direct
conversion programmes, operating cost of a wind mill is negligible.

16. Define Lift.

When the wind blows, a pocket of low-pressure air forms on the downwind side of the blade. The low-pressure air
pocket then pulls the blade toward it, causing the rotor to turn. This is called lift.
17. What are the types of wind mills?
Wind energy conversion system are classified into two types, i) Horizontal axis wind mills

16
The axis of rotation is horizontal and in the aero turbine, plane is vertical facing the wind. ii) Vertical axis wind
mills
The axis of rotation is vertical, the blades also be vertical.
18. Define a distributed generation system?
It is a system of modular power generators at are near the customers sites and loads It potentially provide an
economic value to the consumers as well as the power grid.
19. What are the applications of Wind energy?
• Energy conversion
• Water pumping.
• Driving ship
20. List the various components of wind energy system.
1. Rotor
2. Gearbox
3. Enclosure
4. Tail vane
21. What are the two basic design of turbines? Or List the types of wind turbines.
(April/May 2017)
1. Vertical axis (or) Egg beater style
2. Horizontal axis (propeller style) machines
22. Write down the various types of wind power plants.
• Remote
• Hybrid
• Grid connected
23. List any four advantages of wind turbine.
• Inexhaustible fuel source
• No pollution
• Excellent supplement to other renewable source
• Its free
24. List the disadvantages of wind power generation.
1. Low energy production
2. Expensive maintenance
25. What are the causes of aerodynamic force? (Nov/Dec 2017, April/May 2018)
Aerodynamic forces caused by wind shear, off-axis winds and rotor rotation and randomly fluctuating forces
induced by turbulence and dynamic effects are the source of fatigue loads and are a factor in the peak loads
experienced by a wind turbine.

16 MARK QUESTIONS
PART-B
UNIT I ELECTRIC DRIVES AND TRACTION
1. Write the advantages of electric traction systems and mention the requirements of electric traction systems.
2. Describe the supply system used in electric traction systems.
3. Define coefficient of adhesion. Derive an expression for the tractive effort for the propelling a train.
4. Write in detail about mechanics of train movement
5. Derive the expression for specific energy output
6. Write about the various methods of traction motor control
7. Explain briefly the recent trends in electric traction.
8. Explain series - parallel control of dc motors with relevant diagrams
9. A locomotive accelerates a 350 tonne train up a gradient of 1 in 100 at 0.8 kmphps. Assuming the coefficient
of adhesion to be 0.25, determine the minimum adhesive weight of the locomotive. Assume train resistance 45
N per tonne and allow 10% for the effect of rotational inertia.
10. An electric locomotive is required to accelerate a train weighing 100 tonnes up a gradient of 1 in 200 at an
acceleration of 1.5 km per hour per second. Assuming Coefficient of adhesion as 10%, train resistance as 30

17
N/tonne and effect of rotation inertia as 15%, determine the tractive effort required in newtons.
11. Explain about multiple unit control and braking of traction motor
12. An electric train is required to be driven up an inclined plane having a gradient of 0.5% at a speed of 40
Kmph. The train resistance is 40 N per tonne. If the power taken by the motor from the traction network is
200Kw, compute the maximum permissible weight of the train. The combined efficiency of the motor and the
gearing system is 75.
13. Explain shunt transition and bridge transition methods of series-parallel starting of series motors. State the
advantage of bridge transition over shunt transition method. .Derive the expression for energy output from
driving axles.
14. A train runs with an average speed of 40Kmph. Distance between stations is 2 km. Values of acceleration and
retardation are 1.5 Kmphps and 2.5 Kmphps respectively. Find the maximum speed of train assuming trapezoidal
speed time curve.
UNIT II
ILLUMIINATION

1.i) State the types of electric lamps used for illumination in different applications.
ii) Draw the circuit diagram of low-pressure discharge tube used as light source.
Explain the operating principle of this device.
2. i) Explain the operating principle of anyone type of photometer.
iii) Draw the circuit diagram of high - pressure neon lamp and describe its operating principle.
3. Explain the construction and working of
i) Carban arc lamp
ii) Flame arc lamp
iii) Magnetic arc lamp.
4. i) Define MSCP and luminous efficiency.
ii) When a 250 V lamp takes a current of 0.8A,it produces a total flux of 3260 lumens .
Calculate a) MSCP of the lamp b )efficiency of the lamp.
5.i) What are the various types of lighting scheme?
ii) Enumerate the various factors, which have to be considered while designing lighting
scheme.
6.i) Define candle power and lux.
ii) A workshop measuring 15m X 25m.,is lighted by 30 lamps of 200W, each having an
efficiency of 15 lumens/watt. Assuming utilization factor of 0.5 and depreciation factor
of 0.75. Find the illumination on the working plane.
7. Describe the salient features of
a) Street lighting
b) Flood lighting
8. A corridor is lighted by lamps spaces 9.15m apart and suspended at a height of 4.575m above the centerlines
of the floor. If each lamp gives 100 candle power in all directions below the horizontal. Find the maximum and
minimum value of the illumination on the floor along the centerline.
9. A hall 30 metre long and 12 metre wide is to be illuminated and illumination required is 50 meter candles.
compute the number, wattage, location and mounting height of lamps. Depreciation factor = 1.3 and utilization
coefficient = 0.5. Light outputs of different lamps are given below.
Watts 100 200 300 500 1000
Lumens 1615 3650 4700 9950 21500
10. i) Explain the construction and working of a sodium vapour lamp
ii) A lamp giving out 1200 lumens in all directions is suspended 8m above the working plane. Calculate the
illumination at a point on the working plane 6m away from the foot of the lamp.
11. i) Write short note on flood lighting.
ii) It is required to provide an illumination of 100m. Candle in a factory hall 40m X
10 m. Assume the depreciation factor as 0.8 and co efficient of utilization as 0.4 and efficiency of lamp
as 14 lumens per watt. Calculate the number of lamps and their disposition.
12.12.
i) A 250V lamp takes a current of 1A and produces a total flux of 4000 lumens. Determine the
MSCP of the lamp and the efficiency of the lamp.
ii) Enumerate the various factors to be considered in designing a flood lighting installation.

18
 13. Describe with a simple sketch the construction, operation and applications of sodium vapour lamp.
14. Draw schematic diagram of low pressure mercury vapour fluorescent lamp and explain the operation of the
lamp. State the relative merits of this lamp.
15. A room measuring 10m X 10m is to be illuminated by 5 lamps. The average illumination
required is 40 lumens per square metre. Utilization factor = 0.5 and depreciation factor = 1.2.
Compute MSCP OF EACH lamp.
16. A lamp of 300 CP is hung at the center of a room 8m X 6m at a height of 3m from the floor. Calculate the
maximum and minimum illumination produced and mention the places where it occurs.(April/May 2008)(May/
June 2009)
17. i) State the laws of illumination.
ii) It is required to provide an illumination of 100 lumen/m2 in a workshop hall
40m X 10m. Assume that efficiency of lamp is 14 lumens/watt, coefficient of utilization is 0.4 and depreciation
factor as 0.8. Calculate the number and rating of lamps and their positions when trusses are provided at mutual
distance of 5m.
18. Draw the connection diagram of fluorescent tube. Explain the working principle. What are the advantages
of fluorescent tube over the incandescent lamp?
19. Explain with a neat diagram the principle and operation of sodium vapour lamp. Mention its uses.
20. It is required to provide illumination of 100 lux in a workshop hall 40m X 10m and efficiency of lamp is
14 lumens per watt. Calculate the number and rating of lamps and their positions when seven trusses are
provided at mutual distance of 5 meters. Take coefficient of utilization as 0.4 and depreciation factor as 0.8.
UNIT III
IHEATING AND WELDING

1. Mention the requirement of heating element. Explain the types of resistance heating.
2. Describe the operation and characteristics of welding generator sets (both AC and DC).
3. Explain the welding transformer and its characteristics
4. Explain the working of core type induction furnace with a neat sketch.
5. What is dielectric heating? How is this different? Explain the Explain the construction and working principle of
dielectric heating.
6. Explain coreless type induction furnace?
7. Describe the operation of vertical core type or Ajax Wyatt induction furnace.
8. A 5KW, 440volts, 3 phase resistance oven is to have a 3star connected nichrome strip of 0.3mm thick heating
element. If the wire temperature is to be 1500°c and that of the charge 1000°c, estimate the suitable width of the
strip. Resistively of nichrome alloy is 1.016X10-6 Assume the radiating efficiency and emissivity of the element
as 0.6 and 0.91respectively.
9. A laminated plywood board 40cm x 25 cm x 1.8 cm is to be heated from 25º C to 160º
C in 12 minutes, using 25 MHz supply, specific heat of wood is to be taken as 0.32, density is 0.6 g / cm 3 ,
relative permittivity of wood is 6 and power factor 0.05. Find the supply voltage, power required and current
drawn. Take the efficiency of the process as 75%
10. Calculate the energy required to melt one metric ton of brass in a single – phase
Induction furnace. If the time taken is 1.5 hr, find the power input to the furnace.
Specific heat of brass = 0.094
Latent heat of fusion of brass = 38 kcal / kg
Melting point of brass = 920º C
Furnace efficiency = 80%, Temperature of charge = 20º C (8)
11. A 105 KVA of tin is to be melt during an hour in a melting furnace. Determine a suitable rating of the furnace
if melting temperature of tin is 240˚ C. Take initial temperature of metal as 35˚ C. Specific heat = 0.055 Kcal/kg ˚
C Latent heat of liquid = 13.3 Kcal/kg

UNIT IV
SOLAR RADIATION AND SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS

1. Explain in detail how solar energy can be effectively utilized in day-to-day life.

2. Draw illustrative diagram showing all the important components of solar heating and solar cooling unit.
Explain the working principles of these devices.

19
3. Explain with necessary diagram the construction, principles of operation and applications of solar collector.

4. Explain with neat diagram solar space cooling and solar pond electric power plant.

5. Write short notes on:

a) Solar pumping
b) Solar desalination
6. Describe the photovoltaic principles of solar power generation. Compare the different types of solar cells with
respect to power output and efficiency.

7. Write briefly about characteristics and principles of any three different types of solar collectors. Draw
diagrams illustrating the constructional features of these collectors.

8. Draw and explain different types of solar cookers.

9. Explain with neat diagram about solar pond and its characteristics

10. Discuss briefly about a) Solar drying b) solar cells

11.Draw schematic diagram of solar thermal power plant used for power production and explain the operation of
this system in detail.

12.a) Give merits and demerits on solar energy. b) State some important the applications of PV

UNIT-V
WIND ENERGY

1. Is wind energy a better alternative source of energy for Indian demand? Explain in detail how wind energy is
produced.

2. Explain in detail about the performance and efficiency of different types of wind mills.

3. Describe with a neat sketch the working of a wind energy conversion system (WECS) with its main
components
4.a) What is the origin of wind and what are the various factors which govern wind energy and direction? b)
determine the overall power coefficient for a wind turbine with a rated power of 3 MW, speed 18m/s and blade
diameter 40 metre.

5. Explain the preliminary design of wind electric system.

6. Explain the working of a horizontal axis wind turbine driven generator with a diagram. Show the mechanism
for the automatic reorientation of the turbine axis along the wind direction.

7.a) Explain the principle of electric power generation from wind mill. b) Discuss its types and components. Also
indicate the best site for locating them.

8. Explain the principle of operation of any two types of wind mill with neat diagram and discuss its
characteristics and constraints if any.

9. Discuss briefly about a) Performance of wind mills b) Wind power generation in India.

10. Describe the saronious type of rotor in wind mill.

11. Compare the performance of horizontal and vertical axis wind mills.

20
12. How wind energy conversion systems are classified? Discuss in brief. What are its advantages and
disadvantages?

13. Explain the safety and environmental aspects of wind energy.

EE6009 - POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

TWO MARKS QUESTION &ANSWERS
UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
1. Give any two environmental aspects of electric energy conservation.

Environment means surrounding.Nature has provided a clean environment to the human beings.
But with the passage of time , the quality of the environment (main constituent air , soil, water) is
degrading. Every step must be taken to conserve the environment while supplying increased energy
demand.

A trade off between the energy and environment is a must. To create public awareness June 5th is
observed as World Environment Day.

During every energy conversion process pollutants are produced as a by-product.The various
pollutants and its harmful effects is an important environmental aspects of electric energy conservation.
Particulate matter ,CO2,CO,SOX,NOX are the various pollutants.Their harmful effects are change in
climatic condition,global warming , depriving oxygen and increase in cardio-vascular diseases, corrosion
of architectural buildings etc.

2. Discuss about GHG Emission? List the factors influencing the amount of GHG emissions.

Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases (GHG) .The greenhouse is a n
enclosure having transparent glass pane trapping the heat in the atmosphere. Similarly the CO2 is an
enclosure present around the globe which prevents the heat from the earth to escape. This cause the global
warming. This effect of GHG such as methane, CO2,nitrous oxide,sulphur hexafluoride,water
vapour,hydroflurocarbon is lead to global warming.The CO2 leads to 82% of total GHG emission.

The main factors which influence the GHG emission is –

• Large scale fossil fuel combustion of power plant all over the world.
• Felling of trees- deforestation –industrialization
• Pollution due to vehicles and byproducts of industries.

GHG :

• Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil),
solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g.,
manufacture of cement).

• Particulate matter lead to reduced sunlight and low visibility- respiratory problems
• SO2,SO3 due to combustion of fuel from motor vehicles, power plant, waste disposal

• Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.
• Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well
as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.

(vi) Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen

trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial
processes.

21
3. List various renewable energy resources.

• Solar energy
• Wind energy
• Biomass
• Geothermal energy
• Ocean Tidal Power
• Ocean Wave Power
• Ocean Thermal energy conversion

4.List the significance of renewable energy resources.

• The conventional energy resources such as fossil fuel, hydro,nuclear etc are fast depleting and
lead to climate change and global warming.

• The reneable energy resources are pollution free inexhaustible,available in abundance.

• Reliability, Stability are two significant factors which lead to hybrid systems.
• The cost of harnessing the energy is high. Diffuculty in transportation.
• Accessibility - Coal, natural gas and oil reserves are finite and hidden.

5. Discriminate spring and neap tides?

The difference between spring and neap tides is that spring tides are much higher than normal and neap
tides are lower than normal. Spring tides occur because of the combined effects of the sun and moon,
whereas neap tides happen when the sun and the moon are at right angles.

6. Explain the principle of power generation using tides?

Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tides occur due to the attraction of sea
water by the moon. Tides contain large amount of potential energy which is used for power generation.
When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide. When water level is below the mean
level it is called ebb tide.

7. List the limitations of Tidal energy.

• Variations in tidal range cause the output to not uniformed throughout the day.
• Because of the variation of headwater throughout the day, the plants effectiveness is slightly
compromised.
• Maintenance of machinery is difficult when preformed underwater or at sea.
• Construction of a solid tidal dam is difficult with tide changes.
• The corrosives nature of seawater is proven to corrode untreated modern machinery.
• Tidal fences in order to mitigate fish migration would be difficult to construct and maintain.
• Generation posts are usually far away from collection stations, leading to high cost of
transmission lines.
• Tidal is a time-specific base load, meaning it cannot conform to peak demands.

8. Compose various ocean tidal energy conversion schemes available.

• Tidal energy – from gravitational fields of sun and moon

• Thermal energy (OTEC) – from solar radiation

22
 • Marine current – by thermal and salinity differences in addition to tidal effects.

• Ocean waves – by winds blowing over the ocean surface.

• Salinity gradient

9. Discuss about anaerobic digestion? And its advantages.

Anaerobic digestion is the natural breakdown of organic materials into methane and carbon dioxide gas
and fertiliser. This takes place naturally, or in an anaerobic digester.

The process is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste or to produce fuels. Much of the
fermentation used industrially to produce food and drink products, as well as home fermentation, uses
anaerobic digestion.

Advantages of Anaerobic Digestion

1. It is a net energy producing process which produces renewable energy in the form of biogas.
2. It produces a liquid and a fibrous fertilizer.
3. It sanitizes the feedstock/ waste which is put through it, as long as the temperature is held
above a required temperature for a pre-defined time period.
4. It reduces odour below unprocessed waste odour levels.
5. It is much less likely to cause environmental pollution than spreading untreated organic waste
on land.
6. The effect of the fertilizer is longer lasting than for untreated organic waste.

10. Discuss how to use hydrogen energy to generate electric power?

Hydrogen fuel is a zero-emission fuel when burned with oxygen or used in a contained cell. It often uses
electrochemical cells, or combustion in internal engines, to power vehicles and electric devices.

Hydrogen gas is so light, it rises in the atmosphere and is therefore rarely found in its pure form, H2. In a
flame of pure hydrogen gas, burning in air, the hydrogen (H2) reacts with oxygen (O2) to form water
(H2O) and releases energy.
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

23
 The energy released enables hydrogen to act as a fuel. In an electrochemical cell, that energy can be used
with relatively high efficiency. If it simply is used for heat, the usual thermodynamics limits on the
thermal efficiency apply.

11. Identify the problems associated with tapping solar energy?

Solar energy systems offer significant environmental benefits in comparison to the conventional energy
sources, thus they greatly contribute to the sustainable development of human activities. At times
however, the wide scale deployment of such systems has to face potential negative environmental
implications. These possible problems may be a strong barrier for further advancement of these systems
in some consumers.

The potential environmental impacts associated with solar power can be classified according to numerous
categories, some of which are land use impacts, ecological impacts, impacts to water, air and soil, and
other impacts such as socioeconomic ones, and can vary greatly depending on the technology, which
includes two broad categories:

• Photovoltaic (PV) solar cells or

• Concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP).

Summarize the factors influencing solar power extraction?

• Cable Thickness
• Temperature
• Shading
• Charge Controller and Solar Cell’s IV Characteristics
• Inverter Efficiency
• Battery Efficiency

Identify the limitation of solar power.

The chief limitations of solar energy include an inability to generate power at night, an inability to ramp
up power production to meet demand, and the cost of solar panels. Transferring the electricity from areas
where solar is more efficient to other areas of the planet is also a problem.

14. Explain about NOCT and STC of a solar cell.

Standard Test Conditions are the laboratory conditions under which all PV modules are tested. It can be
said that STC is a benchmark for comparing different types of PV modules, even if they are not from the
same provider. STC means:

• An irradiance of 1000 watts per square meter, which simulates peak sunshine on a surface
directly facing the sun in a day without clouds.
• A surface temperature of 25°C
• A light spectrum that closely simulates sunlight: AM 1.5 G

• However, these are idealized conditions which don't reflect the real site conditions under
which a PV module will operate. The conditions at Nominal Operating Cell Temperature
aim to simulate reality more closely:

24
 • The irradiance is 800 watts per square meter, which takes into account the fact that PV
modules don't always face the sun. It also considers atmospheric or geographic conditions
what might diminish sunshine.

• Solar panels heat up considerably during operation, so the temperature considered is 45 (+/-
3) °C.
• The light spectrum is the same as for STC.
• A windspeed of 1 m/s is considered, with air at 20°C

This means that solar panels will always have higher ratings at STC compared with NOTC.

Discuss about fuel cell and mention its specification. [CO1-H1]

Basically, a fuel cell is a device that converts directly the chemical energy stored in gaseous
molecules of fuel and oxidant into electrical energy. When the fuel is hydrogen the only by-products are
pure water and heat. The overall process is the reverse of water electrolysis. In electrolysis, an electric
current applied to water produces hydrogen and oxygen; by reversing the process, hydrogen and oxygen
are combined to produce electricity and water (and heat).

Fuel cells rely on an electrochemical reaction involving the fuel, and not on its combustion. A
Carnot cycle involving the transformation of heat into mechanical and electrical energy is involved in
conventional methods for generating electricity.

16. Show fuel cell characterization [CO1-H2]

• Overall performance (i-V curve, power density)

• Kinetic properties
• Ohmic properties
• Mass transport properties
• reactant/product homogeneity
• Parasitic losses
• Electrode structure
• Catalyst structure
• Flow structure
• Heat generation/heat balance;

• Lifetime issues (lifetime testing, degradation, cycling, startup/shutdown, failure, corrosion,

fatigue).

Classify the types of fuel cell.

• PEMFC, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

• DMFC, Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
• PAFC, Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
• AFC, Alkaline Fuel Cell
• MCFC, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
• SOFC, Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

18. Explain how to assess the wind energy pattern for a particular location.

Level of wind power penetration; Grid size; and Generation mix of electricity in the system.

19. Point out the impact of wind power penetration in power grid.

25
 • Voltage variations in Steady state voltage under continuous production of power
• Voltage fluctuations
• Flicker during operation
• Flicker due to switching
• Harmonics

1. Name the domestic application of wind energy.

• Generating Power at Remote Sites

• Low-Power Applications - Electric fence charging, Cathodic protection.

• Village Electrification AND Interconnecting with the Utility

20. List the types of wind turbine and differentiate it.

Sl.No HAWT (Horizontal axis turbine) VAWT (Vertical axis turbine)

It is used for low power It can accept wind from any
1 application and use yaw control. direction eliminating the need
It is more widely used one. for yaw control.
Hawt capture more power than The inspection and
2 VAWT for the same tower height maintainance is easy and
and wind speed. cheap.
The gear and generator are
located at ground level which
3 More costly than VAWT.
simplify the design of tower and
installation cost.
4 It is less noisy than VAWT It is noisy .
22. What is green power?

The green power is used to describe the sources of energy which are environmental friendly,non-
polluting , and hving a remedy to effects of pollution and global warming. These sources are called renewable
energy sources such as sun,wind, water, biomass,and waste.

23. What is Hydrogen energy?

The hydrogen alone or mixed with natural gas is used in a combustion based power generation such as
gas turbine for stationary power generation in standalone power plants or in a fuel cell based generation
unit. Hydrogen is an optimum choice for fuel cell, which are efficient energy conversion devicesThe HFI
(HYDROGEN FUE CELL) is a cost effective project to produce fuel cell vehicles at low cost developed
by George Bush in 2003 in US.

26
 Part – B

1. Explain the impact of renewable energy generation on environment.

(or)

1. Discuss the influence of renewable energy sources with special reference to global warming and
climatic change context.

Environment means surrounding.Nature has provided a clean environment to the human beings.
But with the passage of time , the quality of the environment (main constituent air , soil, water) is
degrading. Every step must be taken to conserve the environment while supplying increased energy
demand. A trade off between the energy and environment is a must. To create public awareness June
5th is observed as World Environment Day.

During every energy conversion process pollutants are produced as a by-product.The various
pollutants and its harmful effects is an important environmental aspects of electric energy conservation.
Particulate matter ,CO2,CO,SOX,NOX are the various pollutants.Their harmful effects are change in
climatic condition,global warming , depriving oxygen and increase in cardio-vascular diseases, corrosion
of architectural buildings etc.

Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases (GHG) .The greenhouse is a n
enclosure having transparent glass pane trapping the heat in the atmosphere. Similarly the CO2 is an
enclosure present around the globe which prevents the heat from the earth to escape. This cause the global
warming. This effect of GHG such as methane, CO2,nitrous oxide,sulphur hexafluoride,water
vapour,hydroflurocarbon is lead to global warming.The CO2 leads to 82% of total GHG emission.

The main factors which influence the GHG emission is –

(iv) Large scale fossil fuel combustion of power plant all over the world.
(v) Felling of trees- deforestation –industrialization
(vi) Pollution due to vehicles and byproducts of industries.

27
GHG :

(vii) Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil),
solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g.,
manufacture of cement).

(viii) Particulate matter lead to reduced sunlight and low visibility- respiratory problems
(ix) SO2,SO3 due to combustion of fuel from motor vehicles, power plant, waste disposal

(x) Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.

(xi) Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well

As during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste

(xii) Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen

trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial
processes.

Factors affecting the GHG:

Transportation:

• Burning gasoline and diesel fuels produces CO2, CH4, and N2O Transportation
produces 28% of U.S. GHG emissions (fastest growing sector) Health care facilities
rely heavily on transportation systems GHG reduction has ancillary health benefits
• Reduce fleet emissions
• Help commuters reduce emissions
• Choose suppliers with fuel efficiency/alternate fuel standards
Prefer local suppliers
• Purchase for energy efficient shipping

Energy – Operations:

• Burning fossil fuels to heat, cool, and power buildings produces CO2, CH4,N2O and SF6

• Energy conservation and efficiency help facilities lower GHG emissions, reduce other
pollutants and save money

• Make building operations more energy efficient Install on-site renewable energy or CHP
Purchase energy efficient products
• Reduce “standby” energy use
• Buy green power

Energy – The Built Environment:

• Green building and smart landscape design reduce emissions Proper site location lessens
auto dependence
• Environmentally preferable material purchasing reduces GHGs Incorporate green
building principles
• Consider transportation impacts of facility site selection

Use native vegetation and plant trees

Use local and regional building materials

28
 Offset emissions from construction

Purchase only Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)-certified lumber products

Food Service:

• Livestock production produces 18% of global GHG emissions

• The U.S. food system relies heavily on fossil fuel inputs
• Food is the 2nd largest part of the health care waste stream
• Hospitals have important green purchasing power
• Reduce the amount of meat protein on menus
• Buy local and seasonal food
• Procure organic food when possible
• Prevent waste in food services

THE COST OF GREENHOUSE GAS MITIGATION:

Global Warming

4. Increasing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions may cause considerable global and regional climate
change leading to significant economic, environmental, and ecological costs over the next century.

5. Global Warming Potentials (over 100 years):

– CO2 1

– CH4 23

– N2O 296

World GHG Emissions by Sectors:

Sector CO2 Emissions (GtC) Share growth rate† rate trend

Buildings 1.73 31% +1.8% decelerating
Transport 1.22 22% +2.5% steady
Industry 2.34 43% +1.5% decelerating

Agriculture 0.22 4%‡ +3.1% decelerating

Total Emissions 5.5 100% +1.8% decelerating

(Total energy emissions accounted for 5.5 GtC emissions in 1995).

Energy usage does not include other emissions such as cement production, landfill emissions, and
land-use changes such as forest management, etc.

The agriculture sector accounts for 20% of CO2 equivalents because of methane emissions.

The signs of worldwide climate change are

• Average temperature has climed from 0.8°C to 1.4 F, as said by NASA goddard
institute of space studies.

29
 • The Artic has the most severe effect.The temperature has increased to twice the
global average as per the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change (IPCC)
report .

• Artic ice is disappearing.Polar bear are suffering the ice loss.

• Glaciers and mountain snow are melting. The Montanna glacier park has only 27
glaciers versus 150 in 1910.

• Spring comes earlier and freezing comes a week later in winter .

• Heat waves , wildfire,strong tropical storms,aalso are the signs of sudden upsurge
in climate change.

Costing Methodologies for GHG

Top-down approach

• Uses integrated macro-economic models to estimate the cost of GHG reduction

activities.
• Good for examining the effectiveness of overall mitigation policies.
• Bottom-up approach
• Estimates the cost of GHG reduction from a given technology or mitigation activity.
• Must compare to some baseline emissions from current or expected technology
portfolio.

Tools for Measuring GHGs:

Calculating GHG emissions reduced via hospital program costs can help make the business case for
climate action.The Energy Impact Calculator (EIC):

• Calculates GHGs and other pollutants produced from facility energy use
• Quantifies health impacts, and costs of these impacts
Worldwide Energy Trends:

The average annual growth rate of global energy consumption was 2.4% from 1971-1990, but
dropped to 1.3% from 1990-1998.The average annual growth rate of global energy-related CO2
emissions dropped from 2.1% to 1.4% in the same periods.
Why?

✓ Improved energy efficiencies

✓ Increased fuel switching to less carbon-intensive sources
✓ Adoption of renewable energy sources
✓ Dramatic decrease in countries with economies in transition (EIT) as a result of economic
changes
✓ Why aren’t emissions dropping then?
✓ Countervailing trends of population growth, economic growth, increased energy usage per capita,
and development of the Third World.

9. Compare the power extraction aspects of solar PV system with wind energy system. (Refer Unit III Part
B)

• (i) Describe the consequences of green house effect. (ii)Describe the prospects of ocean energy

(i) Ocean Tidal Energy :

30
The ocean tidal energy is a form of hydro power that converts the energy from the ocean tides to
electricity. The tidal power has more potential than wind and solar.

• Ocean Wave Energy :

The wave power refer to the energy from the ocean surface waves which is captured to do useful work.The
worlds first ocean wave energy plant is in Portugal of 2250MW.

• Ocean thermal power conversion: (OTEC) is still in infant stages.

The tidal power plants exploit the rise and fall of tides to convert this potential energy to produce the
mechanical power .Its operation is similar to that of Hydro electric plant.

The tidal plant are generally classified on the basis of the number of basins used for the power
generation. They are further subdivided as one-way or two-way system as per the cycle of operation for power
generation.

The classification is represented with the help of a line diagram as given below

Working of Different Tidal Power Plants:

Single basin-One-way cycle :

This is the simplest form of tidal power plant. In this system, a basin is allowed to get filled during flood
tide and during the ebb tide. The water flows from the basin to the sea passing through the turbine and generates
power. The power is available for a short duration during ebb tide.

Fig 1. Single basin Tidal Power Plant

Fig1 .shows a single tide basin before the construction of dam and Fig.2 shows the diagrammatic representation of
a dam at the mouth of the basin and power generation during the falling tide.

31
Single-basin two-way cycle:

In this arrangement power is generated both during flood tide as well as ebb tide also. The power generation
is also intermittent but generation period is increased compared with one-way cycle. However the peak power
obtained is less than the one-way cycle. The arrangement of the basin and the power cycle is shown in Fig .3.

Fig 3

The main difficulty with this arrangement, the same turbine must be used as Prime mover as ebb and tide flows
pass through the turbine in opposite directions. Variable pitch turbine and dual rotation generator are used for
such schemes.

Single-basin two-way cycle with pump storage :

The Rance tidal power plant in France uses this type of arrangement. In this system, power is generated both
during flood and ebb tides. Complex machines capable of generation Power and Pumping the water in either
directions are used. A part of the energy produced is used for introducing the difference in the water levels
between the basin and the sea at any time of the

tide and this is done by pumping water into the basin up or down. The period of power production with this
system is much longer than the other two described earlier. The cycle of operation is shown in Fig 4.

Fig 4

32
Double basin type:

In this arrangement, the turbine is set up between the two basins as shown in Fig 5.one basin is intermittently
filled by the flood tide and other is intermittently drained by the ebb tide. Therefore a small capacity but continuos
power is made available with this system as shown in Fig5. The main disadvantage of this system is that 50% of
the Potential energy is sacrificed in introducing the variation in the water levels of the two basins.

Fig 5

Double basin with Pumping:

In this case, off peak power from the base load plant in a interconnected transmission system is used either to
pump the water up the high basin. Net energy gain is possible with such a system if the pumping head is lower
than the basin-to-basin turbine generating head.

Advantages and disadvantages of Tidal Power Plants:

Advantages:

1. Exploitation of tidal energy will in no case make demand for large area of valuable land
because they are on bays.

• It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.

• It is much superior to hydro-power plant as it is totally independent of rain which always

fluctuates year to year. Therefore, there is certainty of power supply a the tide cycle is very
definite.

• As in every form of water power, this will also not produce any unhealthy waste like gases,
ash, atomic refuse which entails heavy removal costs.

• Tidal Power is superior to conventional hydro power as the hydro plants are know for their large seasonal and
yearly fluctuations in the output of

energy because they are entirely dependent upon the nature’s cycle of rainfall, which is not
the case with tidal as monthly certain power is assured. The tides are totally independent on
nature’s cycle of rainfall.
Another notable advantage of tidal power is that it has a unique capacity to

meet the peak power demand effectively when it works in combinatiion with thermal or hydroelectric system.

33
• It can provide better recreational facilities to visitors and holiday makers, in addition to the
possibility of fish forming in the tidal basins.

Disadvantages :

3. These Power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available.

4. As the sites are available on the bay which will be always far away from the load centers. The power
generated must be transported to long

distances. This increases the transportation cost.

5. The supply of power is not continuous as it depends upon the timing of tides.

Therefore some arrangements (double basin or double basin with pump storage) must be made to supply the
continuous power. This also

further increases the capital cost of the plant.

4. The capital cost of the plant (Rs.5000/kw) is considerably large compared with conventional-
power plants (hydro, thermal)

5. Sedimentation and siltration of the basins are some of the added problems with tidal power plants.
6. The navigation is obstructed.

7. It is interesting to note that the output of power from tidal power plant varies with lunar
cycle, because the moon largely influences the tidal

rhythm, where as our daily power requirement is directly related to solar cycle.

In addition to all the above mentioned (imitations of tidal power, the utilization of tidal
energy on small scale has not yet proved economical.

Components of Tidal Power plants

There are three main Components of a tidal Power plant. i.e,

• The Power house

• The dam or barrage
• Sluice-ways from the basins to the sea and vice versa.

The turbines, electric generators and other auxiliary equipment’s are the main equipments of a power
house. The function of dam to form a barrier between the sea and the basin or between one basin and the other
in case of multiple basins.

The sluice ways are used either to fill the basin during the high tide or empty the basin during the low
tide, as per operational requirement. These are gate controlled devices.

It is generally convenient to have the power house as well as the sluice-ways in alignment with the
dam.

The design cycle may also provide for pumping between the basin and the sea in either direction. If reversible
pump turbines are provided, the pumping operation can be taken over at any time by the same machine. The
modern tubular turbines are so versatile that they can be used either as turbines or as pumps in either direction of
flow. In addition, the tubular passages can also be used as sluice-ways by locking the machine in to a stand still.

34
As compared to conventional plants, this, however, imposes a great number of operations in tidal power plants.
For instance, the periodic opening and closing of the sluice-way of a tidal plant are about 730 times in a year.

Dam (Barrage):

Dam and barrage are synonymous terms. Barrage has been suggested as a more accurate term for tidal power
scheme, because it has only to with stand heads a fraction of the structure’s height, and stability problems are far
more modest. However, the literature does not always make the distinction, even though heads are small with
tidal power cutoffs.

Tidal power barrages have to resist waves whose shock can be severe and where pressure changes sides
continuously. The barrage needs to provide channels for the turbines in reinforced concrete. To build these
channels a temporary coffer dam in necessary, but it is now possible to built them on land, float them to the
site, and sink them into place.

Tidal barrages require sites where there is a sufficiently high tidal range to give a good head of water – the
minimum useful range is around three meters. The best sites are bays and estuaries, but water, can also be
impounded behind bounded reservoir built between two points on the same shore line.

The location of the barrage is important, because the energy available is related to the size of trapped basin
and to the square of the tidal range. The nearer it is built to the mouth of bay, the larger the basin, but the
smaller the tidal range. A balance must also be struck between increased out put and increased material
requirements and construction costs.

Gates and Locks:

Tidal power basins have to be filled and emptied. Gates are opened regularly and frequently but heads very in
height and on the side where they occur, which is not the case with conventional river projects. The gates must be
opened and closed rapidly and this operation should use a minimum of power. Leakage, is tolerable for gates and
barrages. Since we are dealing with seawater, corrosion problems are actuate, they have been very successfully
solved by the catholic protection and where not possible by paint. Gate structures can be floated as modular units
into place.

Though, in existing plants, vertical lift gates have been used. The technology is about ready to substitute a
series of flap gates that operates by water pressure. Flap gates are gates that are positioned so as to allow water
in to the holding basin and require no mechanical means of operation. The flap gates allow only in the direction
of the sea to basin. Hence, the basin level rises well above to sea level as ebb flow area is far less than flood
flow area.
:
Power house:

Because small heads only are available, large size turbines are needed; hence, the power house is also a large
structure. Both the French and Soviet operating plants use the bulb type of turbine of the propeller type, with
revisable blades, bulbs have horizontal shafts coupled to a single generator. The cost per installed kilowatt drops
with turbine size, and perhaps larger turbines might be installed in a future major tidal power plant.

Fig 6 Schematic Lay out of Tidal Power House

35
5. (i) Discuss GHG emissions from the various energy sources.
(ii) Explain the design principle and operation of fuel cell and fossil fuel cell.

(or)

6. List the different types of fuel cell. Explain them with neat diagrams.

A Fuel Cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity,
with water and heat as its by-product. It may also be defined as an electrochemical device for the continuous
conversion of the portion of the free energy change in a chemical reaction to electrical energy.

Types of Fuel Cell :

✓ PEMFC, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

✓ DMFC, Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
✓ PAFC, Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
✓ AFC, Alkaline Fuel Cell
✓ CFC, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
✓ SOFC, Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

Working of Fuel Cell

The fuel cell represents one of the successful ways by passing the heacycle and converting the chemical
energy of fuels directly into electricity. It is distinguished from a battery in that it operates with continuous
replenishment of the fuel and oxidant at active electrode areas and does not require recharging.

The working of the fuel cell is explained here with reference to the Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell using aqueous
electrolyte. The fuelcell consists of an anode, a cathode and an electrolyte Hydrogen fuel is fed into the anodeside
of the cell. Positive H ions move from the anode-side and enter the electrolyte through porous cell walls. The
anode is left with a negativecharge. Air is fed into the cathode side. O2 ions enter the electrolyte leaving the
cathode side with a positive charge. Excess anode electrons flow to the cathode creating a current flow H2 and O
ions combine in the electrolyte to from water which leaves the cell as steam.

The reaction taking place at the electrodes are given below

• Hydrogen electrode (anode)
2H2 4H
4H + 4OH 4H2O + 4e

• Oxygen electrode (cathode)

O2 20
2 O + 2H2O+ 4e 4 OH

(3) Overall cell reaction

2H2+ O2 2H2 O

Fig .Fuel Cell

36
 The above reactions indicate H2 molecules break up into H Atoms at the anode and they combine with
OH ion to form water and free electron at anode. The formed free electrons travel to the cathode through the
external circuit as shown in fig. At the cathode, O2 molecules break up into two O2 atoms and these atoms
combine with the four electrons arriving by the external circuit and two molecules of water (out of 4 molecules
produced at the anode to from 4OH oins. The OH ions migrate towards the anode and are consumed there. The
electrolyte remains invariant. It is prime requirement that the composition of electrolyte should not change as the
cell operates. The major difficulty experienced in the design of fuel cell is to obtain sufficient fuel-electrode-
electrolyte reaction sites in a given volume. There are many other types of cells as ion exchange membrane cell,
direct and indirect oxidation fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells and many others.

ADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELLS:

1) The fuel cell converts its fuel directly to electric power. Pollutant levels range from 1/10 to1/50,000 of
those produced by a fossil fuel power plant as there it no combustion
2) No cooling water is needed so it can be located at any desired place.
3) As it does not make noise. It can be readily accepted in residential areas.
4) The fuel cell takes little time to go into operation.
5) It would be an ideal reserve power source with in large conventional power plants to handle peak or
emergency loads.
6) There is no efficiency penalty for part load operation. Efficiency remains constant from 100% to 25 % of
rated load.
7) There is no maximum or minimum size for a fuel cell power plant. Individual fuel cells are joined to
from stacks. The stacks are joined to form power modules. The number of modules can be tailored to
power plant requirements.
8) The land requirement is considerably less compared with conventional power plants.

9) Possibly the greatest advantage of the fuel cell is its high operating efficiency. Present-day fuel cell
efficiency is 38% and it is expected to reach to 60% before the end of this century.

10) Fuel cell power plants may further cut generation costs by eliminating or reducing line losses. Fuel cell
power plant in rural areas or highly congested residential areas would eliminate the need for long lines to
bring in power from remote generating stations.

11) A wide variety of fuels can be used with the fuel cell. Although presently limited to using substances that
produce pure H rich gas, the cell may one day be able to operate on fuels derived from low grade shale
oils or highly sulfur coals.

12) The maintenance charges are low as there are no moving parts and outages are also less.
13) Fuel cells have an overload capacity of 50 to 100% for a short duration.

14) The weight and volume of the fuel cell is considerably low compared to other energy sources.
15) In H2-O cell, the reaction product is water which is portable.

PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE (PEM):

•
This is the leading cell type for passenger car application
•
Uses a polymer membrane as the electrolyte
•
Operates at a relatively low temperature, about 175 degrees
•
Has a high power density, can vary its output quickly and is suited for applications where quick
startup is required making it popular for automobiles
•
Sensitive to fuel impurities

37
DIRECT METHANOL (A SUBSET OF PEM):

•
Expected efficiencies of 40% plus low operating temperatures between 120-190 degrees
•
Also uses a polymer membrane as the electrolyte
•
Different from PEM because the anode catalyst is able to draw hydrogen from methanol
without a reformer
•
Used more for small portable power applications, possibly cell phones and laptops

PHOSPHORIC ACID:
o
This is the most commercially developed fuel cell
o
It generates electricity at more than 40% efficiency
o
Nearly 85% of the steam produced can be used for cogeneration
o
Uses liquid phosphoric acid as the electrolyte and operates at about 450 degrees F
o
One main advantage is that it can use impure hydrogen as fuel

38
MOLTEN CARBONATE:
o
Promises high fuel-to-electricity efficiency and the ability to utilize coal based fuels
o Uses an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture
o Require carbon dioxide and oxygen to be delivered to the cathode
o
Operates at extremely high temperatures 1200 degrees
o
Primarily targeted for use as electric utility applications
o
Have been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, landfill gas, marine
diesel and simulated coal gasification products
o
Because of the extreme high temperatures, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the
anode and cathode which helps reduces cost
o
Disadvantage is durability
o The high temperature required and the corrosive electrolyte accelerate breakdown and corrosion
inside the fuel cell

ALKALINE:

•
Used mainly by military and space programs
•
Can reach 70% power generating efficiency, but considered to costly for transportation
applications
•
Used on the Apollo spacecraft to provide electricity and drinking water
•
Uses a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and operates at 75 -160 degrees
•
Can use a variety of non-precious metals as catalyst at the anode and cathode
•
Requires pure hydrogen and oxygen because it is very susceptible to carbon contamination
•
Purification process of the hydrogen and oxygen is costly
•
Susceptibility to poisoning affects cell’s lifetime which also affects the cost

Regenerative Fuel Cells:

•
Currently researched by NASA
•
This type of fuel cell involves a closed loop form of power generation
•
Uses solar energy to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen
•
Hydrogen and oxygen are fed into the fuel cell generating electricity, heat and water
•
The water byproduct is then recirculated back to the solar-powered electrolyser beginning the
process again

39
 •
Fuel Cells require highly purified hydrogen as a fuel
•
Researchers are developing a wide range of technologies to produce hydrogen economically from
a variety of resources in environmentally friendly ways
•
Hydrogen is a secondary energy resource, meaning it must be made from another fuel
•
Hydrogen can be produced from a wide variety of energy resources including:
•
Fossil fuels, such as natural gas and coal
•
Nuclear energy
•
Renewable resources, such as solar,water, wind and biomass
•
The biggest challenge regarding hydrogen production is the cost
•
Reducing the cost of hydrogen production so as to compete in the transportation sector with
conventional fuels on a per-mile basis is a significant hurdle to Fuel
• Cell’s success in the commercial marketplace

Applications of Fuel Cell Technology

•
Transportation
•
Stationary Power Stations

•
Telecommunications

•
Micro Power

40
 UNIT – II

ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY CONVERSION

Part – A

1. What is the application of reference theory?

Reference frame theory is used to eliminate Rotor Position Dependence Inductances and
Capacitances
Transforms Nonlinear Systems to Linear Systems for Certain Cases
Fundamental Tool For Rigorous Development of Equivalent Circuits
Can Be Used to Make AC Quantities Become DC Quantities
Used as a Framework for Most Controllers

2. Explain the principle of operation of induction generators?

An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of AC electrical generator that uses
the principle of induction motors to produce power. Induction generators operate by mechanically turning
their rotor in generator mode, giving negative slip. In most cases, a regular AC asynchronous motor is
used as a generator, without any internal modifications .

Distinguish between induction generator and synchronous generator.

Sl.no. Synchronous generator Induction generator

In case of inductions generators, the
In a synchronous generator, the
output voltage frequency is regulated
waveform of generated voltage
by the power system to which the
is synchronized with (directly
induction generator is connected. If
corresponds to) the rotor speed.
1. induction generator is supplying a
The frequency of output can be
standalone load, the output
given as f = N * P / 120 Hz.
frequency will be slightly lower (by 2
where N is speed of the rotor in
or 3%) that calculated from the
rpm and P is number of poles.
formula f = N * P / 120.

Induction generator takes reactive

power from the power system for
Separate DC excitation system
field excitation. If an induction
2. is required in an alternator
generator is meant to supply a
(synchronous generator).
needs to be connected to supply
reactive power.

Brushes are required in

Construction of induction generator
synchronous generator to
is less complicated as it does not
3. supply DC voltage to the rotor
require brushes and slip ring
for excitation
arrangement

41
 Fig.1

Show the merits of DFIG over SCIG for wind energy conversion?

An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of AC electrical generator that uses

the principles of induction motors to produce power. Induction generators operate by mechanically
turning their rotor in generator mode, giving negative slip. It is of two types :

1. SCIG (Squirrel cage IG) 2. DFIG (Doubly fed IG)

The DFIG consists of a stator connected directly to grid and a rotor via slip rings is connected to grid
through four- quadrant ac-to-dc converter based on insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) . The merits of
this system are :

Reduced inverter cost, because inverter rating is typically 30% of total system power.
Improved system efficiency.
Power-factor control can be implemented at lower cost.
It has a complete control of active and reactive power

Define Clarke transformation.

The inverse transformation from the dq0 frame to the natural abc frame:

Is called the Clarke Transform, it is interesting to note that the 0-component above is the same as the zero
sequence component in the symmetrical components transform. For example, for voltages Ua, Ub and Uc,
the zero sequence component for both the dq0 and symmetrical components transforms is .

42
6. Define Park transformation.

The dq0 transform (often called the Park transform) is a space vector transformation of three-
phase time-domain signals from a stationary phase coordinate system (ABC) to a rotating
coordinate system (dq0).

The transform applied to time-domain voltages in the natural frame (i.e. ua, ub and uc) is as follows:

Where is the angle between the rotating and fixed coordinate

system at each time t and is an initial phase shift of the voltage.

Why are induction generators preferred over dc generators in WECS.

The system reliability will increase by elimination of the gear boxes and the power electronic
convertersby using an IG.

Also the system efficiency will increase because the losses in the gear box and power electronic
converters are eliminated.

8. Compare the PMSG and IG used in WECS?

For a sudden blow of wind the torque to the generator is increased ,this wind leads to large
stresses on the wind turbine’s drive train.

However IG allows a small change of speed with the change of torque going to the
generator and lower stresses/tear and wear of the drive train.

As the IG and the PMSG machine have similar Stator, the cost difference is mainly due to the
rotor.

PMSG generators have higher efficiency so the higher material cost may be somewhat
compensated for the extra electricity generated. But the inductive power factor of the induction
generators require capacitors for power factor correction and may increases the overall cost of the IG.

Hence the advantage of IG and PMSG depends on the application and differ from case to
case.

9. Label slip-torque characteristics of induction generator.

43
14. Show the merits of PMSG for WECS?

IG and PMSG generators are both intended for fixed speed operations.

When the PMSG generator is connected to the grid, the speed is determined by the grid frequency and
is constant.So, if the torque to the generator is increased (sudden blow of wind), the generator will
produce electromagnetic force to resist an increase in speed. So, a blow of wind leads to large stresses
on the wind turbine’s drive train. However IG allows a small change of speed with the change of
torque going to the generator and lower stresses/tear and wear of the drive train.

As the IG and the PMSG machine have similar Stator, the cost difference is mainly due to the rotor. The
PM’s cost is always going to be more than that of aluminum and one can see that the cost of the
induction generator is expected to be much lower than the PMSG generators for the same power rating.
But PMSG generators have higher efficiency so the higher material cost may be somewhat
compensated for the extra electricity generated. Also, inductive power factor of the induction
generators require capacitors for power factor correction and may increases the overall cost of the IG. So,
a trade-off analysis is needed for case by case basis before declaring any machine as best.

11. Differentiate between synchronous generator and PMSG.

A synchronous generator is essentially the same machine as a synchronous motor. The magnetic field
of the rotor is supplied by direct current or permanent magnets. If it is supplied by permanent magnet it
is called PM SG. If the field is supplied by a dc supply it is called a synchronous generator. Brushes are
required in synchronous generator to supply DC voltage to the rotor( field) for excitation.

In both cases it is a synchronous generator because the waveform of generated voltage is synchronized
with (directly corresponds to) the rotor speed. The frequency of output can be given as f = N * P / 120
Hz. where N is speed of the rotor in rpm and P is number of poles.

12. Compose the characteristics of SCIG?

44
 13. What is the principle of DFIG.

Currently DFIG are increasingly used in large wind farms. A typical DFIG system is shown in the
below figure. The AC/DC/AC converter consists of two components:the rotor side converter Crotor and
Grid side converter Cgrid. These converters are voltage source converters that use forced commutation
power electronic devices (IGBTS) to synthesize AC voltage from DC voltage source. A capacitor
connected on DC side acts as a DC voltage source. The generator slip rings are connected to the rotor side
converter, which shares a DC link with the grid side converter in a so called back -to-back configuration.
The wind power captured by the turbine is converted into electric power by the IG and is transferred
togrid by stator and rotor windings. The control system gives the pitch angle command andthe voltage
commands for Crotor and Cgrid to control the power of the wind turbine, DC bus voltage and reactive
power or voltage at grid terminals.

When the rotor speed is greater than the rotating magnetic field from stator, the stator induces a
strong current in the rotor. The faster the rotor rotates, the more power will be transferred as an
electromagnetic force to the stator, and in turn converted to electricity which is fed to the electric grid.
The speed of asynchronous generator will vary with the rotational force applied to it.Its difference from
synchronous speed in percent is called generator‘s slip. With rotor winding short circuited, the generator
at full load is only a few percent.

With the DFIG, slip control is provided by the rotor and grid side converters. At high rotor
speeds, the slip power is recovered and delivered to the grid, resulting in high overall system efficiency. If
the rotor speed range is limited, the ratings of the frequency converters will be small compared with the
generator rating, which helps in reducing converter losses and the system cost.

14. Differentiate between SCIG and DFIG.

(SCIGs) ( DFIGs)
Stator converter controlled induction The doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs) or
generator (SCIG ) are those which double output induction generators (DOIGs) are
have a Full power bidirectional (four- also called wound rotor induction generators
1. quadrant AC–AC) PWM static (WRIGs) . They are provided with three
converters as a soft interface between phase windings on the rotor and on the stator.
squirrel cage rotor induction They may be supplied with energy at both rotor
generatorand the power grid. and stator terminals.
Four-quadrant PWM static converters They provides constant
2. may be of cascaded (indirect) type or (or controlled) voltage Vs
of direct (matrix) type allow variable and frequency f1 power

45
 speed operation of the SCIG through the
stator, while the rotor is
supplied through a static
power converter at
variable voltage Vr and
frequency f.
WRIG is adequate in
applications with limited
speed control.
For operation at the
The cascaded AC–AC PWM converter power grid,
provides for smooth motor starting and synchronization is
then motoring or required. The whole
generating to the power grid. The synchronization process
3. standard synchronization sequence IS CONTROLLED
is fully eliminated. by the static power
Safe and soft connection and converter without any
disconnection to the power system are special intervention by
inherently available. the prime mover’s
governor.
The WRIG was proven
to be reliable for
Up to ±100% reactive power exchange delivering power at
with the power grid is available, which variable speed with
4.
eliminates the very fast decoupled
external capacitor bank active and reactive
control in industry up
to 400 MW/unit
The configuration of SCIG is shown in
The configuration of
5. Fig.(a) with cascaded ac-ac PWM
DFIG is shown in Fig.(b)
converter.

46
15. List the different methods of generating synchronous electrical power . [ CO2-L1]

Systems 1,2, and 3 are all constant speed systems, which differ only in pitch control and gearbox
details. A variable pitch turbine is able to operate at a good coefficient of performance over a range of
wind speeds when turbine angular velocity is fixed. Systems 4 through 8 of Table are all variable speed
systems and accomplish fixed frequency output by one of five methods.

17. Explain the principle and operation of Induction Generator used for Wind Energy Conversion
System.

Almost all electrical power is generated by three-phase ac generators which are synchronized with the utility
grid. Engine driven single-phase generators are used sometimes, primarily for emergency purposes in sizes up to
about 50 kW. Single-phase generators would be used for wind turbines only when power requirements are small
(less than perhaps 20 kW) and when utility service is only single-phase. A three-phase machine would normally
be used whenever the wind turbine is adjacent to a three-phase transmission or distribution line. Three-phase
machines tend to be smaller, less expensive, and more efficient than single-phase machines of the same power
rating, which explains their use whenever possible.

A construction diagram of a three-phase ac generator is shown in Fig. a. There is a rotor which is supplied a
direct current If through slip rings. The current If produces a flux. This flux couples into three identical coils,
marked aa0, bb0, and cc0, spaced 120o apart, and produces three voltage waveforms of the same magnitude but
120 electrical degrees apart.

The equivalent circuit for one phase of this ac generator is shown in Fig. b. It is shown in
electrical machinery texts that the magnitude of the generated rms electromotive force

(emf) E is given by where f is the electrical radian frequency, ϕ is the flux per

47
pole, and k1 is a constant which includes the number of poles and the number of turns in each winding. The
reactance Xs is the synchronous reactance of the generator in ohms/phase. The generator reactance changes from
steady-state to transient operation, and Xs is the steady-state value. The resistance Rs represents the resistance of
the conductors in the generator windings. It is normally much smaller than Xs, so is normally neglected except in
efficiency calculations. The synchronous impedance of the winding is given the symbol Zs = Rs + jXs. The
voltage E is the open circuit voltage and is sometimes called the voltage behind synchronous reactance. The three
coils of the generator can be connected together in either wye or delta, although the wye connection shown in is
much more common. When connected in wye, E is the line to neutral voltage and one has to multiply it by √ 3 to
get the magnitude of the line-to-line voltage.

where p is the number of poles and n is the rotational speed in r/min. The speed required to produce 60 Hz is 3600
r/min for a two pole machine, 1800 r/min for a four pole machine, 1200 r/min for a six pole machine, and so on. It
is possible to build generators with large numbers of poles where slow speed operation is desired. A hydroelectric
plant might use a 72 pole generator, for example, which would rotate at 100 r/min to produce 60 Hz power.A slow
speed generator could be connected directly to a wind turbine, eliminating the need for an intermediate gearbox.
The propellers of the larger wind turbines turn at 40 r/min or less, so a rather large number of poles would be
required in the generator for a gearbox to be completely eliminated. Both cost and size of the generator increase
with the number of poles, so the system cost with a very low speed generator and no gearbox may be greater than
the cost for a higher speed generator and a gearbox.When the generator is connected to a utility grid, both the grid
or terminal voltage V and the frequency f are fixed. The machine emf E may differ from V in both magnitude and
phase, so there exists a difference voltage.

. This difference voltage will yield a line current I (defined positive away from
the machine) .

The relationship among E, V, and I is shown in the phasor diagram of Fig.c. E is proportional to the rotor flux φ
which in turn is proportional to the field current flowing in the rotor. When the field current is relatively small, E
will be less than V . This is called the underexcitation case. The case where E is greater than V is called
overexcitation. E will lead V by an angle δ while I will lag or lead V by an angle θ.

Phasors in the first quadrant have positive angles while phasors in the fourth quadrant have negative
angles. Therefore, both θ and δare positive in the overexcited case, while δ is positive and θis negative in the
underexcited case. The expressions for real and reactive power supplied by each phase is given below as P and
Q.

48
 A plot of P versus δ is shown in Fig. d. This illustrates two important points about the use of an ac
enerator. One is that as the input mechanical power increases, the output electrical power will increase, reaching a
maximum at δ= 90o. This maximum electrical power, occurring at sin δ = 1, is called the pullout power. If the
input mechanical power is increased still more, the output power will begin to decrease, causing a rapid increase
inδand a loss of synchronism. If a turbine is operating near rated power, and a sharp gust of wind causes the input
power to exceed the pullout power from the generator, the rotor will accelerate above rated speed. Large generator
currents will flow and the generator will have to be switched off the power line. Then the rotor will have to be
slowed down and the generator resynchronized with the grid. Rapid pitch control of the rotor can prevent this, but
the control system will have to be well designed.

If the power becomes negative for negative δ. This means the generator is now acting as a motor. Power
is being taken from the electric utility to operate a giant fan and speed up the air passing through the turbine. This
is not the purpose of the system, so when the wind speed drops below some critical value the generator must be
disconnected from the utility line to prevent motoring.

Figure d: Power flow from an ac generator as a function of power angle

PART – B

1. Explain DFIG based wind power generation system. Illustrate the independent dq control strategy
adopted for dq control. [CO2-H3]

(or)

2. Explain with neat diagram the principle of operation of DFIG used for renewable energy
conversion. [CO2-H1]

DFIG : The wound rotor induction generators (WRIGs) are provided with three phase windings on the rotor and
on the stator. They may be supplied with energy at both rotor and stator terminals. This is why they are called
doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs) or double output induction generators (DOIGs). Both motoring and
generating operation modes are feasible, provided the power electronics converter that supplies the rotor circuits
via slip-rings and brushes is capable of handling power in both directions.
As a generator, the WRIG provides constant (or controlled) voltage Vs and frequency f1 power through
the stator, while the rotor is supplied through a static power converter at variable voltage Vr and frequency
f2.The rotor circuit may absorb or deliver electric power. As the number of poles of both stator and rotor
windings is the same, at steady state, according to the frequency theorem, the speed ωm is product of number of
pole pairs and the mechanical rotor speed.
The sign of ωm is positive (+) when the phase sequence in the rotor is the same as in the stator and ωm <
ω1, that is, subsynchronous operation. The negative (−) sign in corresponds to an inverse phase sequence in the
rotor when ωm > ω1, that is, supersynchronous operation. For constant frequency output, the rotor frequency ω2
has to be modified in step with the speed variation. This way, variable speed at constant frequency (and voltage)
may be maintained by controlling the voltage, frequency, and phase sequence in the rotor circuit. It may be

49
argued that the WRIG works as a synchronous generator (SG) with three-phase alternating current (AC)
excitation at slip (rotor) frequency ω2 = ω1 − ωm. However, as ω1 ≠ ωm, the stator induces voltages in the rotor
circuits even at steady state, which is not the case in conventional SGs.
Additional power components thus occur. The main operational modes of WRIG are depicted in Figure a
through Figure d (basic configuration shown in Figure (a). The first two modes Figure b and Figure c) refer to the
already defined subsynchronous and supersynchronous generations. For motoring, the reverse is true for the rotor
circuit; also, the stator absorbs active power for motoring. The slip S is defined as follows:

FIGURE 1 : Wound rotor induction generator (WRIG) main operation modes: (a) basic configuration, (b) sub
synchronous generating (ωr < ω1), (c) super synchronous generating (ωr > ω1), and (d) rotor output WRIG
(brushless exciter).
The DFIG topology contains the following main parts:

• Stator laminated core with Ns uniformly distributed slots

• Rotor laminated core with Nr uniformly distributed slots
• Stator three-phase winding placed in insulated slots
• Rotor shaft
• Stator frame with bearings
• Rotor copper slip-rings and stator (placed) brushes to transfer power to (from) rotor windings.
• Cooling system

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF DFIG:

Fig. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF DFIG:

50
•The resistance R1m that represents the core losses depends slightly on slip frequency ω2 = Sω1, as non-
negligible core losses also occur in the rotor core for Sf1 > 5 Hz. The input electrical powers Ps and Pr and the
losses represents the mechanical power Pm:

(1.36)

where Pelm is the electromagnetic (through airgap) power.

(1.37)

Where Te is the electromagnetic torque. The sign of mechanical power for given motion direction is used
to discriminate between motoring and generating. The positive sign (+) of Pm is considered here for motoring
(see the association of directions for in Figure 1.8). The motor/generator operation mode is determined (Equation
1.36) by two factors: the sign of slip S and the sign and relative value of the active power input (or extracted)
electrically from the rotor Pr (Table 1.1). So, the WRIG may operate as a generator or a motor both
subsynchronously (ωr < ω1) and r 1 . If all the losses are neglected, from Equation 1.36 and Equation 1.37:

The higher the slip, the larger the electric power absorption or delivery through the rotor. Also,
itshould be noted that in supersynchronous operation, both stator and rotor electric powers add up to convert
the mechanical power. This way, up to a point, oversizing, in terms of torque capability, is not required when
operation at S = −Smax occurs with the machine delivering Ps(1 + |Smax|) total electric power.Reactive power
flow is similar.

From the equivalent circuit,

51
 So, the reactive power required to magnetize the machine may be delivered by the rotor or by the
stator or by both. The presence of S in Equation 1.40 is justified by the fact that machine magnetization is
perceived in the stator at stator frequency ω1.

As the static power converter rating depends on its rated apparent power rather than active power, it
seems to be practical to magnetize the machine from the stator. In this case, however, the WRIG absorbs
reactive power through the stator from the power grids or from a capacitive-resistive load.

In stand-alone operation mode, however, the WRIG has to provide for the reactive power required by
the load up to the rated lagging power factor conditions. If the stator operates at unity power factor, the rotor-
side static power converter has to deliver reactive power extracted either from inside itself (from the capacitor
in the DC link) or from the power grid that supplies it. As magnetization is achieved with lowest kVAR in
DC, when active power is not needed, the machine may be operated at synchronism (ω r = ω1) to fully
contribute to the voltage stability and control in the power system. To further understand the active and
reactive power flows in the WRIG, phasor diagrams are used.

52
STEADY-STATE EQUATIONS:

The stator and rotor equations for steady-state/phase may be written in complex numbers at frequency
ω1 in the stator and ω2 in the rotor:

4. With the neat diagram, show the principle and working of PMSG and analyze in detail.

(or)

5.(i)Draw the circuit model of PMSG and explain the methods used for the steady state analysis.
(ii)Also discuss the characteristics and issues briefly.

PMSG :

A PMSG’s output voltage amplitude and frequency are proportional to speed. In constant speed
primemover applications, PMSGs might perform voltage self-regulation by proper design; that is, inset or interior
PM pole rotors. Small speed variation (10 to 15%) may be acceptable for diode rectified loads with series
capacitors and voltage self-regulation. However, most applications require operation at variable speed, and, in this
case, constant output voltage vs. load, be it direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC), requires full static
power conversion and close-loop control.

Versatile mobile generator sets (gensets) use variable speed for fuel savings, and PMSGs with full power
electronics control can provide high torque density, low losses, and multiple outputs (DC and AC at 50 [60] Hz or
400 Hz, single phase or three phase).A high efficiency, high active power to peak kilovoltampere (kVA) ratio
allows for reasonable power converter costs that offset the additional costs of PMs in contrast to switched
reluctance generators (SRGs) or induction generators (IGs) for the same speed.

For automotive applications, and when motoring is not necessary, PM generators may provide controlled
DC output for a 10 to 1 speed range through a diode rectifier and a one insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
step-up DC–DC converter for powers above 2 to 3 kW. A series hybrid vehicle is a typical application here. Gas
turbines run at super high speeds; 3.0 megawatt (MW) at 18 krpm to 150 Kw at 80 krpm. Direct-driven super-
high-speed PM generators, with their high efficiency and high power factor, seem to be the solution for such

53
applications. With start-up facilities for bidirectional power flow, static converters allow for four-quadrant control
at variable speed, with •}100% active and reactive power capabilities. Distributed power systems of the future
should take advantage of this technology of high efficiency, reasonable cost, and high flexibility in energy
conversion and in power quality. Flywheel batteries with high kilowatts per kilogram (kW/kg), good
kilowatthours per kilogram (kWh/kg), and long life, also make use of super-high-speed PMSGs with four-
quadrant P and Q control. They are proposed for energy storage on vehicles and spacecraft and for power systems
backup. Diverse as they may seem, these applications are accommodated by only a few practical PMSGs
classified as follows:

• With radial airgap (cylindrical rotor)

• With axial airgap (disk rotor)
• With distributed stator windings (q > 1)
• With concentrated windings (q ≤ 1)
• With surface PM rotors
• With interior or inset PM rotors
• With rectangular current control
• With sinusoidal current control
• With passive AC load
• With DC load
▪ With controlled AC voltage and frequency at variable speed reversal machines (FRMs)
conceived for low speed.

The super-high-speed PM generators differ in rotor construction, which needs a mechanical shell against
centrifugal forces and a copper shield (damper) to reduce rotor losses. Also, at high fundamental frequency (above
1 kHz), stator skin effect and control imply special solutions to reduce machine and static converter losses and
overall costs. As in most PMSG surfaces PM rotors are used, the latter will be given the most attention. An IPM
rotor case will be covered in a single paragraph, when voltage self-regulation is acceptable due to almost constant
speed operation. Basic configurations for stator and rotor will be introduced and characterized. A comprehensive
analytical field model is introduced and checked through finite element method (FEM) field and torque
production analysis. Loss models for generator steady-state circuit modeling are introduced for rectangular and
for sinusoidal current control. Design issues and a methodology by example are treated in some detail.

Circuit Model of PMSG with Shunt Capacitor and AC Load

54
 Circuit Model of PMSG with Diode Rectifier Load

Diode rectifiers are used in many PMSG applications both for DC loads with or without battery
backup or as a first stage in dual-stage AC–AC pulse-width modulated (PWM) converters with constant
frequency and voltage output, for variable speed.

As the d–q circuit model of the PMSG with shunt capacitors was developed in a previous section, here
we will add the diode rectifier filter DC load equations.

The input and output relationships for lossless diode rectifier based on the existence function
model [10] is as follows:

55
The commutation angle μ increases with the rectified current Idc and with increasing machine commutation
inductance. In the absence of a damper cage on the rotor,

So, from the point of view of lowering the voltage drop along the diode rectifier due to machine inductances,
it is beneficial to place a strong damper cage on the PM rotor.

The maximum ideal value of μ should be less than (60°). Approximately, the rectified DC voltage Vdc
is related to machine line voltage [20], under steady state:

As the load was replaced by the diode rectifier, the shunt capacitor equations in d–q coordinates become

56
The DC filter and load equations are added:

Under steady state, s = 0; thus, all time derivatives are zero. With the voltage drop in the diode rectifier
neglected, the load resistance RLdc may be seen as a star-connected phase AC resistance in parallel with the
shunt capacitors at PMSG terminals as follows:

Due to diode commutation of machine commutation inductances (Lc), the DC load voltage decreases notably
with load , especially if (no damper cage) when the speed (frequency) is large, as in automotive applications.

With a more complete representation of a diode rectifier, the generator actual output voltage and current
waveforms may be obtained [19] (Figure 10.30a ,Figure 10.30b).

The presence of shunt capacitors may generate a kind of resonance phenomena with quasi-periodic oscillations
with bounded dynamics in the generator line voltage and current, especially for light load.

FIGURE(a) Simulated and (b) measured generator phase current and line voltage with shunt capacitor, diode
rectifier, and direct current (DC) load: RL = 22 Ω, n = 1350 rpm.

57
These oscillations are visible as amplitude variations in generator line voltage and phase current and in the
DC load voltage .

6. Explain the principle of operation and constructional feature of SCIG in detail. Also analyse
the merits and demerits of the above.

SCIGs may be read as stator converter induction generators or cage rotor induction generators. There are
two basic schemes:

• With AC–AC cascaded pulse-width modulator (PWM) converter (Figure 5.1a)

• With direct AC–AC PWM converter (Figure 5.1b) [1,2]

The configurations with thyristor DC current link AC–AC converter and, respectively, with thyristor
cycloconverter seem to be merely of historical interest, as their reactive power drainage and current harmonics
content are no longer acceptable in terms of power quality standards. While the matrix converter is still in
advanced laboratory status, the cascaded AC–AC PWM converter is available off the shelf for powers up to 1
MW and more, with up to ±100% reactive power capability.

The so-called high-voltage direct current (HVDC) light technology uses, in fact, IGBTs in multilevel AC–AC
cascaded power converters [3], but for higher DC link voltage levels (tens of kilovolts) for DC.

58
 current (AC)–AC pulse-width modulator (PWM) converter, and (b) with direct (matrix) converter.

MACHINE SIDE PWM CONVERTER CONTROL :

To let the control system open for motoring and generating, let us consider that only torque vs. speed is
performed. In essence, a functional generator produces the desired torque vs. speed curve desired from the IG
(Figure 5.2a through Figure 5.2c). For motor starting, the torque vs. speed may decrease notably with speed
(Figure 5.2a).

In essence, by an a priori applied optimization process involving the prime-mover characteristics and IG
capability, the optimum torque/speed curves are calculated. From now on, positive or negative torque control is
performed with the various torque speed curves stored in tables and called upon according to the operation mode.

For generating, the reference power P* is set, but then its value is translated into the torque/speed The
direct torque and flux control (DTFC) seems to be inherent to the application once torque control is required.
Stator flux ( ) control is added, and thus, the control system becomes robust and presents fast response. The stator
flux functional may also be expressed in terms of flux vs. torque, to minimize the losses in the IG over the whole
speed and power range. The space-vector modulation (SVM) is added to further reduce the IG current harmonics,
converter losses, and noise.

FIGURE : Typical desired torque/speed curves: (a) for motor starting and operation, (b) for wind turbines stall
regulated, and (c) for uncontrolled micro hydro turbine.

59
 FIGURE :The direct torque and flux control (DTFC) of machine-side converter

The two main components of DTFC for SCIGs are the state observers and the DTFC–SVM
strategy.Vector control strategies perform similarly but apparently with slightly larger online computation
efforts and higher sensitivity to machine parameter variation.

GRID SIDE CONVERTER CONTROL :

Grid-side converter control is, in general, standard vector control, where DC link voltage control provides
for active power from (to) DC link voltage to (from the power grid, while reactive power control provides for
reactive power exchange with the power grid). The reactive power exchange with the power grid is, in fact,
provided by the oversized DC link capacitor, which also “covers” the IG magnetization.The active power
exchange is controlled through the machine-side converter from (to) the IG. Adequate voltage and capacitance
oversizing of the DC link may provide for up to }100% reactive power exchange , which is so useful in the local
power grid voltage control and stabilization. may be commanded by the grid voltage error with respect to a
desired value. The DC link reference voltage is generally kept constant under normal operation circumstances, but
it may be reduced in relation to reactive power requirements. When an inductance-capacitance inductance (LCL)
filter is introduced between the grid-side converter and the grid, speed decoupling of filter inductance L along the
q axis current control is added. The measured frequency of power grid voltage is required for decoupling, to speed
up the response in the presence of the power filter.

FIGURE : Testing stator converter controlled induction generator (SCIG) to the power grid.

60
 The standard synchronous generator solutions require speed governing in the microhydroturbine for
constant speed, to provide constant frequency. Also, the acceleration and the synchronization take time, as they
are done by the turbine and are not protected from severe transients. The SCIG, on the other hand, may start with
the IG in motoring by fixing a positive torque reference to the machine-side converter to complement the
unregulated torque contribution of the turbine, after the water gate is opened. The acceleration is fast, and the
“synchronization” sequence is eliminated. All that is needed is to set a negative reference torque (or power ) to
control the system and a positive (or negative) reactive reference to the grid-side converter. If pumping is
required, the positive torque (power) reference is maintained and tailored to speed to best exploit the pump
induction motor system up to 20 to 50% above base (rated) speed . For better pumping, the turbine pump needs
more speed than that needed for good turbining. Experiments were performed on a laboratory system using two
10 kW cage rotor IMs, one playing the role of the turbine and the other the role of the SCIG (Figure 5.12). The 25
kVA four-quadrant cascaded PWM AC–AC converter was an off-the-shelf device intended for variable speed
drives with fast regenerative braking of large inertia loads. The turbine was emulated by a variable speed drive in
speed control mode. Starting can be performed either by the “turbine” up to a preset speed or simultaneously by
the turbine and the SCIG in the motoring mode.

Steady-state operations at the power grid in generating for 0 and 50% reactive power delivery are The power grid
current evolution when, for −100% reference torque (generator) at the IG side converter, control input is
maintained, and the speed is ramped down by “turbine” control from 1500 Rather smooth generating to motoring
transients were obtained. Grid current vs. voltage waveforms during motoring acceleration (for pumping ) at zero
reactive power exchange with the power grid are

It goes without saying that “synchronization” has become an irrelevant concept, as it can be done at variable
speed. Also the disconnection from the power grid can be done smoothly via the grid-side and machine-side
converters.

The two converters provide flexibility and opportunities for various actions, should power grid faults occur.

The full rating of a four-quadrant AC–AC cascaded PWM converter turns out to be a performance asset, as it
controls the whole power exchanged with the grid: active and reactive. All of this comes at higher costs than in
WRIGs, where the rating of the four-quadrant cascaded AC–AC PWM converter is 25 to 30% of the rated power.
The latter, however, has tight control only on •} 25% of the power. It should be noted that the commercial four-
quadrant PWM IGBT converter used in our experiments and built for drives requires additional LCL filtering
between the grid-side converter section and the power grid to improve the current waveforms in order to fully
comply with the contemporary strict power quality standards. Load rejection of SCIG at the power grid with
controlled turbine tends to lead to overspeeding, unless a ballast (alternative) load is provided in the DC voltage
link.

61
7. Draw the circuit model of self-excited induction generator and explain the methods used for steady
state analysis. What is the characteristics of SEIG used for renewable energy conversion. Explain it.
[CO2-H1]

The Cage Rotor Induction Machine Construction and Principle

The cage rotor induction machine is the most built and most used electric machine, mainly as a motor,
but, recently, as a generator, too. The cage rotor induction machine contains cylindrical stator and rotor cores with
uniform slots separated by a small airgap (0.3 to 2 mm in general).The stator slots host a three-phase or a two-
phase AC winding meant to produce a traveling magnetomotive force (mmf).

The cage rotor contains aluminum (or copper, or brass) bars in slots. They are short-circuited by endrings with
resistances that are smaller than those of bars .The angular speed of the traveling fields is obtained for the
following:

Figure : The cage rotor.

The speed n1 (in revolutions per second r/sec) is the so-called ideal no-load or synchronous speed and is
proportional to stator frequency and inversely proportional to the number of pole pairsp1.The traveling field in the
airgap induces electromagnetic fields (emfs) in the rotor that rotate at speed n, at frequency f2:

As expected, the emfs induced in the short-circuited rotor bars produce in them AC currents at slip
frequencyf2=Sf1.Let us now assume that the symmetric rotor cage, which has the property to adapt to almost
anynumber of pole pairs in the stator, may be replaced by an equivalent (fictitious) three-phase symmetric three-
phase winding (as in WRIGs) that is short-circuited. The traveling airgap field produces symmetric emfs in the
fictitious three-phase rotor with frequency that is Sf1 and with amplitude that is also proportional to slipS:

62
Where Lm is the magnetization inductance. E1 is the stator phase self-induced emf, generally produced by both
stator and rotor currents, or by the so-called magnetization current Im( ). The rotor phases may be represented by
a leakage inductance L2 and a resistance R2. Consequently, the rotor current I2 is as follows:

The rotor currents interact with the airgap field to produce tangential forces — torque. In Equation 4.6 and
Equation 4.7, the rotor winding is reduced to the stator winding based on energy (and loss) equivalence.

Noticing that the stator phases are also characterized by a resistance R1 and a leakage inductance L1 , the stator
and rotor equations may be written, for steady state, in complex numbers, as for a transformer but with different
frequencies in the primary and secondary. Let us consider the generator association of signs for the stator:

This way, in fact, the frequency of rotor variables becomes w1, and it refers to a machine at standstill, but with an
additional (fictitious) rotor resistance R2(1-S)/S . The power dissipated in this resistance equals the mechanical
power in the real machine (minus the mechanical losses):

63
Pelm is the so-called electromagnetic power: the total active power that crosses the airgap. Equation 4.8 and
Equation 4.9 lead to the standard equivalent circuit of the induction machine (IM) with cage rotor as shown in
Figure. The electromagnetic power P elm is positive (motoring) for S>0 and negative (generating) forS<0.From
Figure : the equivalent (total) reactance of the IM is always inductive, irrespective of slip sign (motor or
generator), while the equivalent resistance changes sign for generating. So, the IM takes the reactive power to get
magnetized either from the power grid to which it is connected or from a fixed (or controlled) capacitor at
terminals. Note that when a full power static converter is placed between the IG and the load (or power grid), the
IG is again self-excited by the capacitors in the converter’s DC link or from the power grid (if a direct AC–AC
converter is used). As the operation of an IM at the power grid is straightforward ( S< 0, w r> w1 ) the capacitor-
excited induction generator will be treated here.

Capacitor-Excited Induction Generator : Self-Excitation: A Qualitative View

The IG with capacitor excitation is driven by a prime mover with the main power switch open. As the
speed increases, due to prime-mover torque, eventually, the no-load terminal voltage increases and settles to a
certain value, depending on machine speed, capacitance, and machine parameters.

The equivalent circuit further simplified by neglecting the stator resistance and leakage inductance and by
considering zero slip (S=0: open rotor circuit) for no-load conditions .

FIGURE : Self-excitation on self-excited induction generator (SEIG): (a) the general scheme, (b)
oversimplified equivalent circuit, and (c) quasi-steady-state self-excitation characteristics.

64
 Unit – III

POWER CONVERTERS
Part – A

1. Draw and label the block diagram of solar photovoltaic system.

Generally there are two types of solar photovoltaic system :

(1) Autonomous solar photovoltaic system

(or) Standalone solar photovoltaic system
(2) Grid connected photovoltaic system (a) with battery (b)without battery

65
 2. Discuss line commutated converters. Draw the schematic diagram.

The line commutated converter is a power conditioner . It is the key link between the PV array and mains in
the grid-connected PV system. It acts as an interface that converts dc current produced by the solar cells into
utility-grade ac current. The PV system behavior relies heavily on the power-conditioning unit. They must
produce good-quality sine-wave output, must follow the frequency and voltage of the grid, and must extract
maximum power from the solar cells with the help of a maximum-powerpoint tracker. The input stage varies the
input voltage until the maximum power point on the I V curve is found. They must monitor all the phases of the
grid, and output must be controlled in terms of voltage and frequency variation using PWM Technique. The basic
diagram for a converter used for power flow control in a photovoltaic system is shown below:

3. Explain inversion mode of operation of line commutated inverter.

Line-commutated inverters are generally used for electric-motor applications. The power stage is
equipped with thyristors. A maximum-power tracking control is required in the control algorithm for solar
application. A typical grid-connected inverter may use a pulse-width modulation (PWM) scheme and
operate in the range of 2 kHz up to 20 kHz.The driver circuit has to be changed to shift the firing angle
from rectifier operation (0 < α < 90°) to inversion mode of operation (90 < α < 180°). Six-pulse or 12-pulse
inverters are used for grid interfacing, but 12-pulse inverters produce fewer harmo nics. Thyrsistor-type inverters
require a low-impedance grid interface connection for commutation purposes. If the maximum power available
from the grid connection is less than twice the rated PV inverter power, then the line-commutated inverter should
not be used.

The line-commutated inverters are cheaper but can lead to poor power quality. The harmonics injected
into the grid can be large unless taken care of by employing adequate filters. These line-commutated inverters also
have poor power factors that require additional control to improve them. Transformers can be used to
provide electrical isolation. To suppress the harmonics generated by these inverters, tuned filters are employed
and reactive power compensation is required to improve the lagging power factor.

4. Summarize the role of capacitor and the minimum value required for the boost converter.

The boost converter shown in Fig (a) output voltage Vo is always greater than the input voltage Vs as
given in the voltage gain function

Vo= Vs / [1- D] where D is the duty cycle.

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 The current supplied to the output of the boost converter circuit is discontinuous. Hence a larger filter
capacitor C is required in comparison to that in the buck-derived converters to limit the output voltage ripple.
The function of the capacitor C is to provide the output dc current to the load when the diode D is off. The
minimum value of this filter capacitance that results in the voltage ripple Vr is given by

At D = 0.5, Vr/Vo .= 1%, R .= 10 ohms, and f = 100 kHz, the minimum capacitance for the boost
converter is Cmin = 50 microFarad.

5. Generalize the significance of buck boost converter? [ CO3-L3]

The buck –boost converter operates on the principle of PWM technique uses a transformerless topology
to obtain the output voltage greater i.e Boost (when D> 0.5 ) (or) lesser than the input voltage i.e Buck
(or) (when D< 0.5 ) or equal to the input ( at D =0.5).

The output voltage is negative with respect to the ground.

The current supplied to the output is discontinuous. Hence a larger filter capacitor C is used to limit the
output voltage ripple.The minimum value of C is

It act as a power conditioner in utility grid-related application by acting as an interfaces between ac

networks and dc renewableenergy sources such as fuel cells and photovoltaic arrays.

6. Give the schematic diagram of buck boost converter. [CO3-L1]

7. What is battery sizing?

(or)
Write about the aspects of battery sizing.

The battery sizing require 2 specifications:

1. The full capacity in Ah unit.

2. The usable depth of discharge recommended for that type of battery. eg.Lead acid battery should not
be cycled over their full capacity or else its life will be shortened.
3. The size of battery depend on the total usable capacity needed in Ah.The below formula is based on a
nominal calculation of 12V battery.

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When the batteries are connected in series the voltage gets added but the total usable capacity in Ah remains the
same.

8. Define array sizing.

Sizing is about calculating the no.of solar modules and battery needed to run the required no. of
appliances. The first step in sizing is to calculate the daily requirement of electricity of each
appliance.

The second step is to determine how much electricity can be produced by one module.

The third step in sizing is to reduce the daily requirement by deciding carefully which appliance need to
be run on solar electricity and for how long the y need to be used per day.

9. Show the weakness involved in sizing the solar arrays.

The sizing of a solar photovoltaic system is complicated because the electricity generated each day depend
on the rating of the solar module and on the amount of sunlight reaching the module through the day.

(a) For calculating the daily output of the solar module we use peak hour per day.The peak hour are
equivalent to the no. of hours of sunlight at an irradiance of 1000W/m2.

The weakness in determining the average output of a module using maps of daily insolation is that
the map gives an approximate information based on daily insolation as an average over a 3 month
period.There is no indication of how long the el.output can be got for one month period.

Also , Setting the tilt angle of the module at same angle as the latitude of the site is not optimum.

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 (b) The no. of cells in the module depend on the type of charge regulation to be used and the local
temperature. The table below shows the selection of solar module based on open circuit voltage under
standard test conditions (or) the no. of cells in the module.

10. Identify the factors to be considered for the selection of inverter and batteries for solar energy
conversion.

The factors to be considered for the selection of batteries for solar energy conversion are :
i. Nominal Capacity in Ah
ii. Cost
iii. % Usable Cycle depth
iv. Life cycle of Battey (Cycles)
v. Relative value of money (or) cost of battery
vi. Usable Capacity in Ah
vii. Type of Rechargeable Battery : Low or high Antimony (or) Antimony free % of self discharge

There are two approaches to balance the cost of installation and maintainance :

(i) To minimize the installation cost , aim for high value of usable capacity in Ah.However the
battery may have short life.

(ii) To minimize the maintainance cost , aim for high value of total usable capacity over cycle
life in Ah.

The factors to be considered for the selection of inverter for solar energy conversion are

i. Type of operating voltage

ii. The maximum power point transfer (MPPT) voltage range.

iii. The solar PV string should be sized such that the inverter can operate within this range.

iv. The max. dc voltage of the solar PV string with no-load must not exceed an inverter maximum
DC voltage.

v. If 120/240 V single phase is used in residential application then the inverter would
connect to 240V ac.
vi. Type of distribution used in case of 3phase.

vii. Type of configuration (star / delta) of load in case of commercial and industrial buildings.

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11. Identify advantages and limitations of AC voltage controller.

The ac voltage controllers are used increasingly for soft-starting of induction motors, as they have a
number of advantages over the conventional starters, such as smooth acceleration and deceleration,
ease in implementation of current control, simple protection against single-phasing or unbalanced
operation, reduced maintenance and losses, absence of current inrush, and so forth.

Even for the fixedspeed industrial applications, the voltage controllers can be used to provide a reduced
stator voltage to an induction motor to improve its efficiency at light load and result in energy saving.

Operation at an optimum voltage reduces the motor flux, which, in turn, reduces the core loss and the
magnetizing component of the stator copper loss.

Considerable savings in energy can be obtained in applications where a motor operates at no load for a
significant time, such as in drills, machine tools, woodworking machines, reciprocating air-compressors,
and so forth.

The limitations of ac voltage controller is that it operates at variable voltage under constant
frequency.

12. What is a matrix converter? Compose its merits.

The matrix converter (MC) is a development of the forcecommutated cycloconverter

(FCC) based on bidirectional fully controlled switches, incorporating PWM voltage
Control . The merits of matrix converter are :

It provides a good alternative to the double-sided PWM voltagesource rectifier-inverters having the
advantages of being a single-stage converter with only nine switches for threephase to three-phase
conversion

It has inherent bidirectional power flow capability, sinusoidal input and output waveforms with
moderate switching frequency, the possibility of compact design due to the absence of dc link reactive
components .

It has controllable input power factor independent of the output load current.

13. What are the limitations in the matrix converter?

The main disadvantages of the matrix converters developed so far are

(i) complexity in the circuit.
(ii) the inherent restriction of the voltage transfer ratio (0.866),
(iii) complex control and protection strategy, and
(iv) above all the nonavailability of a fully controlled bidirectional high-frequency switch integrated in
a silicon chip.
(v) An ac filter is required to eliminate the ripples generated in the inverter when the load is inductive.

14. What are the applications of AC voltage controller or ac chopper?

i. Soft starting of induction motors

ii. Controls rms value of v or i in lighting control.
iii. Domestic and industrial heating
iv. Speed cotrol of fans,pumps, hoists.
v. Temperature control,
vi. Capacitor switching in var compensation

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 Part – B

1. Draw the block diagram of the solar PV system and describe the principle of operation in detail.

The solar Photovoltaic power systems can be classified as follows:

(i) Stand-alone Photovoltaic power systems
(ii) Grid connected Photovoltaic power systems with and without battery

Stand-alone PV systems, shown in Fig.a, are used in remote areas with no access to a utility grid. It consist of PV
module , PV charge controller, Battery connected to dc Load / AC load connected through Inverter.

A stand-alone photovoltaic energy system requires battery for storage to meet the energy demand during
periods of low solar irradiation and nighttime. Several types of batteries are available, such as lead-acid, nickel-
cadmium, lithium, zinc bromide, zinc chloride, sodium–sulfur, nickel–hydrogen, redox and vanadium batteries.
The provision of cost-effective electrical energy storage remains one of the major challenges for the development
of improved PV power systems. Typically, lead-acid batteries are used to guarantee several hours to a few days of
energy storage. Their reasonable cost and general availability has resulted in the widespread application of lead-
acid batteries for remote area power supplies despite their limited lifetime compared to other system components.

PV Charge Controllers : Blocking diodes in series with PV modules are used to prevent the batteries from
being discharged through the PV cells at night when there is no sun available to generate energy. These blocking
diodes also protect the battery from short circuits. In a solar power system consisting of more than one string
connected in parallel, if a short-circuit occurs in one of the strings, the blocking diode prevents the other PV

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strings from discharging through the short-circuited string. Charge controllers regulate the charge transfer and
prevent the battery from being excessively charged and discharged.

Three types of charge controllers are commonly used:

Series charge regulators

Shunt charge regulators
Dc–dc Converters

In the series charge controller as shown in Fig.d, the switch S1 disconnects the PV generator when a
predefined battery voltage is achieved. When the voltage falls below the discharge limit, the load is disconnected
from the battery to avoid deep discharge beyond the limit. The main problem associated with this type of
controller is the losses associated with the switches (mosfet, bipolar transistor).

In the shunt charge controller as illustrated in Fig. e, when the battery is fully charged the PV generator
is short-circuited using an electronic switch (S1). Unlike series controllers, this method works more efficiently
even when the battery is completely discharged, as the shortcircuit switch need not be activated until the battery is
fully discharged . The blocking diode prevents short-circuiting of the battery. Shunt charge regulators are used for
small PV applications (less than 20 A). Deep-discharge protection is used to protect the battery against deep
discharge. When the battery voltage reaches below the minimum set point for the deep-discharge limit, switch S2
disconnects the load. Simple series and shunt regulators allow only relatively coarse adjustment of the current
flow and seldom meet the exact requirements of PV systems.

Dc–dc Converter Type Charge Regulators are Switch mode dc-to-dc converters are used to match the
output of a PV generator to a variable load. There are various types of dc– dc converters:
Buck (step-down) converter
Boost (step-up) converter
Buck-boost (step-down/up) converter

By varying the duty cycle ‘D’, the voltage and frequency is varied is varied to match the load.

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 A controller that tracks the maximum-power-point locus of the PV array is known as an MPPT.
Because of the high cost of solar cells, it is necessary to operatethe PV array at its maximum power point. For
overall optimal operation of the system, the load line must match the PV array’s maximum-power-point
locus. Referring to Fig f. , the load characteristics can be either curve OA or curve OB, depending on the nature
of the load and its current and voltage requirements. If load OA is considered and the load is directly coupled to
the solar array, the array will operate at point A1, delivering onlypower P1. The maximum array power available
at the given insolation is P2. In order to use PV array power P2, a power conditioner coupled between the array
and the load is needed.

To operate the PV array at the maximum power point, perturb and adjust methods can be used in which
the current drawn is sampled every few seconds and the resulting power output of the solar cells is monitored at
regular intervals. When an increased current results in a higher power, it is further increased until the power
output starts to decrease. But if the increased PV current results in a lesser amount of power than in the previous
sample, then the current is reduced until the maximum power point is reached.

There are two types of load : ac and dc loads.The dc loads are directly connected to the MPPT or charge
controller , while the AC loads are connected through battery and inverter .

In grid-connected PV systems PV panels are connected to a grid through inverters without battery
storage as shown in Fig.c These systems can be classified as small systems such as residential rooftop systems.
There are no batteries to store the excess power generated. When the system is generating electricity , power
needs are provided by the PV system(up to its capacity) reducing or eliminating the power you have to draw from
the utility grid at that time. When there is excess power generated by the PV system it is fed to the utility grid
.Thus the electricity company buys the power from you at retail rate. When there is shortage of power from the
PV system your site draw energy from the power grid during cloudy conditions and at night.

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 In certain large grid-connected systems , PV panels are connected to a grid through inverters with
battery as shown in Fig.b . The grid interactive inverters must be synchronized with the grid in terms of voltage
and frequency.The inverter serve dual function .They supply the utility grid with any excess power produced bt
the PV system , plus they work with the battery bank (through thencharge controller) to provide AC power to the
back-up circuits when the grid is down.The charge controller manage the battery voltage keep it fully charged
when the grid is live and prevent them from being depleted when the system is drawing power from them

2. Draw and compose the converter topologies used for solar power generation.
Dc – Dc Converters connect the battery source to the dc load by PWM voltage control.
Refer Buck-Boost Converter in Qn.no.4.
DC-AC converters (inverter) connect the battery source to the ac load by PWM
voltage and frequency control. Refer Line commutated Inverter In Qn.No. 3.

3.Describe the operation of line commutated converter under inversion mode with the help of a neat circuit
diagram and necessary waveforms.

LINE COMMUTATED CONVERTER

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77
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4. Draw the schematic diagram of Buck-Boost converter and explain the operation in detail.

(OR)

Analyse the principle of working of buck-boost converter with time ratio and current limit control.
Draw the circuit and necessary waveforms. [CO3-H2]

BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

The buck –boost converter operates on the principle of PWM technique uses a transformerless topology to
obtain the output voltage greater i.e Boost (when D> 0.5 ) (or) lesser than the input voltage i.e Buck (or)
(when D< 0.5 ) or equal to the input ( at D =0.5).

The output voltage is negative with respect to the ground.

The current supplied to the output is discontinuous. Hence a larger filter capacitor C is used to limit the
output voltage ripple.The minimum value of C is

The output voltage is adjustable based on the duty cycle of the switching transistor.

One possible drawback of this converter is that the switch does not have a terminal at ground; this
complicates the driving circuitry.

Also, the polarity of the output voltage is opposite the input voltage. Neither drawback is of any consequence
if the power supply is isolated from the load circuit (if, for example, the supply is a battery) as the supply and
diode polarity can simply be reversed. The switch can be on either the ground side or the supply side.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:

The basic schematic diagram of the buck–boost converter as in Fig.A with its modes of operation is
simple as in Fig.B , Fig.C .

Mode 1 : While S in the On-state, the input voltage source is directly connected to the inductor (L). This results in
accumulating energy in L. In this stage, the capacitor supplies energy to the output load.

Mode 2 : While S in the Off-state, the inductor is connected to the output load and capacitor, so energy is
transferred from L to C and R.

Compared to the buck and boost converters, the characteristics of the buck–boost converter are mainly:
polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of the input;the output

voltage can vary continuously from 0 to (for an ideal converter).

The output voltage ranges for a buck and a boost converter are respectively 0 to and
to .

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Continuous Current Mode (CCM):

If the current through the inductor L never falls to zero during a commutation cycle, the converter is said
to operate in continuous mode. The current and voltage waveforms in an ideal converter can be seen in Figure D.

Fig D: Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost converter operating in continuous mode

From to , the converter is in On-State, so the switch S is closed. The rate of change in the
inductor current (IL) is therefore given by

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the switch is On.
Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).

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 During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we assume zero
voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of IL is:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy stored in each of
its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a commutation cycle. As the energy in an
inductor is given by:

it is obvious that the value of IL at the end of the Off state must be the same as the value of IL at the
beginning of the On-state, i.e. the sum of the variations of IL during the on and the off states must be zero:

Substituting and by their expressions yields:

This can be written as:

This in return yields that:

From the above expression it can be seen that the polarity of the output voltage is always negative (as the
duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that its absolute value increases with D, theoretically up to minus infinity as D
approaches 1. Apart from the polarity, this converter is either step-up (as a boost converter) or step-down (as a buck
converter). This is why it is referred to as a buck–boost converter.

Discontinuous Current Mode (DCM):

In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be transferred in a time smaller
than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the
period. The only difference in the principle described above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end
of the commutation cycle (see waveforms in figure E). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the
output voltage equation. It can be calculated as follows:

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 Fig E: Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost converter operating in discontinuous mode.

As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value (at ) is

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δ.T:

Using the two previous equations, δ is:

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure 4, the diode current is
equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore, the output current can be written as:

Replacing and δ by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as:

Compared to the expression of the output voltage gain for the continuous mode, this expression is much more
complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage not only depends on the duty cycle, but also
on the inductor value, the input voltage and the output current.

Limit between continuous and discontinuous modes.

As told at the beginning of this section, the converter operates in discontinuous mode when low current is
drawn by the load, and in continuous mode at higher load current levels. The limit between discontinuous and

86
continuous modes is reached when the inductor current falls to zero exactly at the end of the commutation cycle.
with the notations of figure F, this corresponds to -

Fig F: Evolution of the normalized output voltage with the normalized output current in a buck–boost
converter.

In this case, the output current (output current at the limit between continuous and
discontinuous modes) is given by:

Replacing by the expression given in the discontinuous mode section

yields:

As is the current at the limit between continuous and discontinuous modes of operations, it satisfies
the expressions of both modes. Therefore, using the expression of the output voltage in continuous mode, the
previous expression can be written as:

5. Describe the following in detail:

i. AC voltage controller
ii. Voltage control in PWM inverters. [Refer Line comm. Inverter Qn.No.3]

AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER :

Operating Principle:

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 (a) With phase control technique , the switches conduct the load current for a chosen period of each
input cycle of voltage and

(b) With on/off control the switches connect the load either for a few cycles of input voltage and
disconnect it for the next few cycles . This technique is also called integral cycle control.

(or)

the switches are turned on and off several times within alternate half-cycles of input voltage to conduct the
load current for a chosen period of each input cycle of voltage Then the controller is called as ac chopper or
PWM ac voltage controller.

Case A : PHASE CONTROLLED AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

The principle of operation in each half-cycle is similar to that of the controlled half-wave rectifier. Figure 5.1a
shows the typical voltage and current waveforms for the single-phase bidirectional phase-controlled ac voltage
controller of above figure (a) with resistive load. The output voltage and current waveforms have half-wave
symmetry and thus no dc component.

If is the source voltage, then the rms output voltage with T1 triggered at a can be found from
the half-wave symmetry as

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Fig.5.1a : Voltage and Current Waveform for single-phase ac full-wave bidirectional ac voltage controller with
R-load

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Operation with RL Load. Figure 5.1b shows the voltage and current waveforms for the controller in Fig. (a) with
RL load. Due to the inductance, the current carried by the SCR T1 may not fall to zero at ωt=π when the input
voltage goes negative and may continue until ωt=β, the extinction angle, as shown. The conduction angle θ = β - α
of the SCR depends on the firing delay angle α and the load impedance angle γ .The expression for Io(ωt) using KVL
is :

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Fig.5.1b : Voltage and Current Waveform for single-phase ac full-wave bidirectional ac voltage controller with
RLload

Case B : SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH INTEGRAL CYCLE CONTROL.

As an alternative to the phase control, the method of integral cycle control or burst-firing is used for heating loads.
Here, the switch is turned on for time tn with n integral cycles and turned off for a time tm with m integral cycles
(Fig. 5.1 d). As the SCRs or Triacs used here are turned on at the zero-crossing of the input voltage and turn-off
occurs at zero current, supply harmonics and radio frequency interference are very low. However, subharmonic
frequency components may be generated that are undesirable as they may set up subharmonic resonance in the
power supply system, cause lamp flicker, and may interfere with the natural frequencies of motor loads causing shaft
oscillations.

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PWM AC CHOPPER : The performance of ac voltage controllers can be improved in terms of harmonics, quality of
output current and input power factor by pulsewidth modulation (PWM) control in PWM ac choppers. The circuit
configuration of one such single-phase unit is shown in Fig. 5.1e. Here, fully controlled switches S1 and S2 connected
in antiparallel are turned on and off many times during the positive and negative half-cycles of the input voltage,
respectively; S01and S02 provide the freewheeling paths for the load current when S1 and S2 are off. An input
capacitor filter may be provided to attenuate the high switching frequency current drawn from the supply and also to
improve the input power factor. Figure 5.1f shows the typical output voltage and load-current waveform for a single-
phase PWM ac chopper. It can be shown that the control characteristics of an ac chopper depend on the modulation
index M, whichtheoretically varies from zero to unity.

THREE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER: Three-phase PWM choppers consist of three single-phase
choppers either delta connected or four-wire star connected . Several possible circuit configurations for 3-phase,
phase-controlled ac regulators withstar or delta-connected loads.

The configurations in Fig. 1a and b can be realized by three 1-phase ac regulators operating independently of
each other and they are easy to analyze.

In Fig. 1a, the SCR’s are to be rated to carry line currents and withstand phase voltages,whereas

In Fig. 1b they should be capable of carrying phase currents and withstand the line voltages. Also the line
currents are free from triplen harmonics while these are present in the closed delta. The power factor in Fig.
1b is slightly higher.

The firing angle control range for both these circuits is 0 to 180° for R-load.

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The circuits in Fig.1c and d are 3-phase 3-wire circuits and are difficult to analyze.

In both these circuits, at least two SCRs—one in each phase—must be gated simultaneously to get the
controller started by establishing a current path between the supply lines. This necessitates 2 firing pulses
spaced at 60° apart per cycle for firing each SCR.

The operation modes are defined by the number of SCRs conducting in these modes. The firing control
range is 0° to 150°. The triplen harmonics are absent in both these configurations.

Another configuration is shown in Fig.1e when the controllers are delta connected and the load is connected
between the supply and the converter. Here, current can flow between 2 lines even if 1 SCR is conducting, so
each

SCR requires 1 firing pulse per cycle. The voltage and current ratings of SCR’s are nearly the same as those
of the circuit in Fig. 1b.

It is also possible to reduce the number of devices to three SCR’s in delta as shown in Fig. 1f connecting one
source terminal directly to 1 load circuit terminal. Each SCR is provided with gate pulses in each cycle
spaced 120° apart.

In both Figs.1e and f each end of each phase must be accessible. The number of devices in Fig.1f is fewer but
their current ratings must be higher.

As in the case of the 1-phase phase-controlled voltage regulator, the total regulator cost can be reduced by
replacing 6 SCR’s by 3 SCR’s and 3 diodes, resulting in 3-phase half-wave controlled unidirectional ac
regulators as shown in Fig. 1g and h for star- and delta-connected loads. The main drawback of these circuits
is the larg harmonic content in the output voltage, particularly the second harmonic because of the
asymmetry. However, the dc components are absent in the line. The maximum firing angle in the half-wave
controlled regulator is 210°

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 Unit – IV

ANALYSIS OF WIND AND PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

Part – A

1. What is fault ride through capability?

In electric power systems, low-voltage ride through (LVRT), (or) fault ride through (FRT), sometimes under-
voltage ride through (UVRT), is the capability of electric generators to stay connected in short periods of voltage dip.
It is needed at distribution level (wind parks, PV systems, distributed cogeneration, etc.) to avoid that a short circuit
on HV or EHV level which will lead to a widespread loss of generation.

In a wind energy system the Fault ride through capability is the ability of the system to maintain the grid stability and
keep the wind farm connected in the power system for a defined time period during grid fault.The voltage does not
always dip to zero, it can be just a voltage sag , hence the FRT is sometimes called low voltage ride -through problem.
The main differences in FRTs requirement of different countries are the depth of voltage drop, the time period and the
boundary where Wind Turbines can be tripped Similar requirements for critical loads such as computer systems [2] and
industrial processes are often handled through the use of an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) .

2. Label the basic block diagram of WECS.

3. What is the power obtained from the wind?

The power extracted from the wind by a wind turbine is

4. Why pitch angle control is used for WECS? Justify.

Wind turbines often are subjected to wind speeds that are very low (below cut-in speed) or high (above rated
value) , (typical wind speed limit 4.5 to 26m/s). No pitch regulation is applied when the wind turbine is operating

94
below rated speed, but pitch control is required when the machine is operating above rated wind speed to
minimize the stress.

The aims of pitch control of medium- and largescale wind turbines is

(I) to help in startup and shut-down operation,
(II) to protect against overspeed, and
(III) to limit the load on the wind turbine .

The wind turbine must be capable of being started and run up to speed in a safe and controlled manner. The
aerodynamic characteristics of some turbines are such that they are not self-starting. The required starting
torque may be provided by motoring or by changing the pitch angle of the blade. In the case of grid-connected
wind turbine system, the rotational speed of the generator is locked to the frequency of the grid. When the generator
is directly run by the rotor, the grid acts as an infinite load. When the grid fails, the load rapidly decreases to zero,
causing the turbine rotor to accelerate quickly. Overspeed protection must be provided by rapid braking of the turbine.
A simple mechanism of blade pitch-control techniques is shown below.

The power output, Pmech, of any turbine depends mainly on the wind speed, which dictates the rotational
speed of the wind turbine rotor. From the wind speed and the rotational speed of the turbine, the tip speed ratio λ is
determined. Based on the λ, the power coefficient Cp is inferred.

The controller will keep adjusting the blade pitch angle until the desired power and torque output are
achieved. This modified pitch angle and new computed λ decide the new Cp, resulting in a modified wind
generator power and torque output.

5. Discuss stand-alone operation of fixed speed WECS? State its advantages. [CO4-H1]

In case of a fixed-speed WECS, synchronous or squirrelcage induction generators are employed and are
characterized by stiff power-train dynamics. The rotational speed of the wind turbine generator in this case is fixed by
the grid frequency. The generator is locked to the grid, thereby permitting only small deviations of the rotor shaft
speed from the nominal value. The speed is very responsive to wind-speed fluctuations. The normal method to
smooth the surges caused by the wind is to change the turbine aerodynamic characteristics, either passively by
stall regulation or actively by bladepitch regulation.

Wind turbines often are subjected to wind speeds that are very low (below cut-in speed) or high (above rated
value). No pitch regulation is applied when the wind turbine is operating below rated speed, but pitch control is
required when the machine is perating above rated wind speed to minimize the stress. Figure A shows the effect of
blade pitch angle on the torque speed curve at a given wind speed.

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 Blade pitch control is a very effective way of controlling wind turbine speed at high wind speeds, hence
limiting the power and torque output of the wind machine.

Some wind-turbine generator include a gearbox for interfacing the turbine rotor and the generator. The
general drive train model for such a system is shown in Fig.(B). This system also contains the blade-pitch angle
control provision. The drive train converts the input aerodynamic torque on the rotor into torque on the low-speed
shaft. This torque is converted to high-speed shaft torque using the gearbox and fluid coupling. The speed of the wind
turbine here is low and the gearbox is required to increase the speed so as to drive the generator at the rated rpm, e.g.,
1500 rpm. The fluid coupling works as a velocity-in–torque-out device and transfer the torque . The actuator regulates
the tip angle based on the control system applied. The control system here is based on a pitch regulation scheme
where the blade-pitch angle is adjusted to obtain the desired output power.

Merit : This type of system will be very helpful in the region where grid supply is not available. We can
establish small wind energy based plant and store the generated voltage in controlled battery system for longer
and further usage.

6. Generalize the limitations of fixed speed induction generator based wind power conversion.

The limitations of fixed speed induction generator based wind power conversion are the

• lack of control possibilities of both active and reactive power,

• gearbox breakdown due to large mechanical loads (because of power fluctuations are converted to torque
pulsations) and
• (C ) the large fluctuations in output power.

Due to these reasons, wind turbine manufacturers are increasingly interested in variable speed devices.

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 7. Differentiate between fixed and variable speed wind energy conversion systems. [CO4-H1]

SL.NO. Fixed speed WECS Variable speed WECS

In the fixed speed WECS the Wind turbine
In the fixed speed WECS the
rotor speed is variable , hence they cannot
Wind turbine rotor speed is
1 be directly connected to the grid. They
fixed.the speed is determined
require a power electronic converter
by the grid frequency.
interface.
Wound-rotor induction generator
synchronous or squirrelcage
synchronous or squirrelcage induction
induction generators are
generators , DFIG are employed with power
employed with the turbine with
2 electronics device such as ac-dc-ac
soft starter and capacitor bank
converter .The induction generator are
and directly connected to the
usually high slip IG or are operated in
grid.
tandem to obtain variable speed.
The wind turbine rotor in this case is
permitted to rotate at any wind speed by the
Pitch angle and yaw control
power-generating unit.increased energy
should be used to extract max.
3 capture by maintaining the ratio of blade-tip
power from the wind turbine
speed to wind speed near the optimum
rotor.
value. MPPT is necessary for harnessing
highest energy from the wind.
Costly, less variations in the electrical
Simple robust
4 power, reduced acoustical noise at low wind
construction,cheap,and reliable.
speed.
High mechanical stress if pitch
5 Low mechanical stress .
angle control is not used.

8. Summarize the impact of high penetration of wind power in to power grid? [CO4-H1]

The speed is very responsive to wind-speed fluctuations. The normal method to smooth the surges caused by the
wind is to change the turbine aerodynamic characteristics, either passively by stall regulation or actively by
blade pitch regulation. Blade pitch control is a very effective way of controlling wind turbine speed at high wind
speeds, hence limiting the power and torque output of the wind machine The impact of high penetration of wind
power , the wind turbine is stopped to reduce wear and damage. The wind turbine must be capable of being started
and run up to speed in a safe and controlled manner. The aerodynamic characteristics of some turbines are such that
they are not self-starting. The required starting torque may be provided by motoring or by changing the pitch angle
of the blade . In the case of grid-connected wind turbine system, the rotational speed of the generator is locked to the
frequency of the grid. When the generator is directly run by the rotor, the grid acts as an infinite load. When the grid
fails, the load rapidly decreases to zero, causing the turbine rotor to accelerate quickly. Overspeed protection must be
provided by rapid braking of the turbine.

9. List out grid interconnected issues.

(OR)

Point out the major problems related with grid interconnections of WECS?

The major problems related with grid interconnections

1) Poor grid stability
2) Low-frequency operation
3) Impact of low power factor
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 4) Power flow
5) Short circuit
6) Power Quality

High penetration of intermittent wind power (greater than 20 percent of generation meeting load) and may affect
the network in the following ways and has to be studied in detail:

A. Poor grid stability :

For economic exploitation of wind energy, a reliable grid is as important as availability of strong
winds. The loss generation for want of stable grid can be 10% to 20% and this deficiency may perhaps be the
main reasons for actual energy output of WEGs compared to the predicted output in known windy areas with
adequate wind data.

B. Low-frequency operation

Low frequency operation affects the output of WEGs in two ways. Many WEGs do not get cut-in,
when tfrequency is less than 48 Hz (for standard frequency of Hz) through wind conditions are favorable,
with consequent loss in output [22].This deficiency apart, the outputWEGs at low frequency operation is
considerably reduced, due to reduced speed of the rotor. The loss in output coulbe about 5 to 10% on the
account of low frequency operation.

C. Impact of low power factor

WEGs fitted with induction generators need reactive power for magnetizing. Normally in
conventional energy systems, generators apart from supplying active power will be supplying a reactive
power. But in case of WEGs fitted with induction generators, instead of supplying reactive power to the
grid, they absorb reactive power from grid, which undoubtedly is a strain on the grid. Suitable reactive
power compensation may be required to reduce the reactive power burden on the grid.

D. Power flow

It is to be ensured that the interconnecting transmission or distribution lines will not be over-
loaded. This type of analysis is needed to ensure that the introduction of additional generation will not
overload the lines and other electrical equipment. Both active and reactive power requirements should be
investigated.

E. Short circuit

It is required to determine the impact of additional generation sources to the short circuit current
ratings of existing electrical equipment on the network.

F. Power Quality

Fluctuations in the wind power may have direct impact on the quality of power supply. As a result, large
voltage fluctuations may result in voltage variations outside the regulation limits, as well as violations on
flicker and other power quality standards.

10. Discuss some of the standards used for grid integration. The wind is an intermittent source of power.
11. List few grid connection requirement of renewable power system.
12. Label the schematic diagram grid integrated PMSG based WECS.Also mention its demerits.
13. Point out the issues created in grid integrated PMSG based WECS?
14. Show the schematic diagram of grid integrated SCIG based WECS.
15. Define grid integrated solar system.

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16. Point out the problems in grid integrated solar system.
17. What will happen if no load is connected to a solar PV system.

Part – B

1. Describe the power conditioning schemes used in WECS.

The wind energy conversion system converts the wind energy into some form of electrical energy. The
power conditioner is an interface between the generated power and the grid power. It conditions the generated
power into the grid quality power.

A variable speed WECS configuration is shown in Fig.a, the synchronous generator is allowed to run at
variable speed, producing power of variable voltage and frequency. Control may be facilitated by adjusting an
externally supplied field current.

The most common type of power conversion uses a bridge rectifier (controlled/ uncontrolled), a dc link, and
inverter as shown in Fig.a. The disadvantages of this configuration include the relatively high cost and maintenance
requirements of synchronous generators and the need for the power conversion system to take the full power
generated.

Wind power is an intermittent source. To extract maximum energy from the wind a basic layout configuration
is shown in Fig.b. The function of the dc–dc converter will be to adjust the torque on the machine and hence
ensure by measurement of wind speed and shaft speed that the turbine blades are operating so as to extract
optimum power. The purpose of the inverter is to feed the energy gathered by the rotor and dc– dc converter,
in the process of peak power tracking, to the grid system. The interaction between the two sections would be
tightly controlled so as to minimize or eliminate the need for a battery bank. The control must be fast enough that
the inverter output power set point matches the output of thedc–dc converter. For a wound rotor induction machine
operating over a two-to-one speed range, the maximum power extracted from the rotor is equal to the power rating of
the stator. Thus, the rating of the generator from a traditional point of view is only half that of the wind turbine. Since
half the power comes from the stator and half from the rotor, the power electronics of the dc–dc converter and
inverter need to handle only half the total wind-turbine output, and no battery would be required

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 A wound rotor induction machine has three-phase winding on the rotor, accessible to
the outside via slip rings. The possible methods of accessing the rotor can have the following configurations:

_ Slip power recovery

_ Use of cycloconverter
_ Rotor resistance chopper control

Slip Power Recovery (Static Kramer System) : The slip power recovery configuration behaves similarly to a
conventional induction generator with very large slip, but in addition energy is recovered from the rotor. The rotor
power is first carried out through slip rings, and fed to the grid through a power electronic interface. Which consist of
rectifier,a dc link and a line- commutated inverter . The rest of the power comes directly from the stator as it
normally does. A disadvantage with this system is that it can only allow supersynchronous variable-speed operation.In
this scheme (as shown in Fig. c), the stator is directly connected to the grid. The power converter has been
connected to the rotor of the wound-rotor induction generator to obtain the optimum power from the variable-speed
wind turbine. The diode rectifier is the most commonly used topology in the power electronics application. For a 3
phase system it consists of 6 diodes as shown in Fig.e It is simple and not possible to control it. The full power
converter for a wind turbine is shown in Fig.e. The machine side converter work as driver controlling the torque
generated using a vector control strategy.The grid side converter permis the wind transfer into the grid and controls
the amount of active and reactive power delivered to the grid. It also keeps the THD co-efficient as low as possible,
improving the quality of the energy fed to the grid. The objective of the dc link is to act as storage so that the energy
captured from the wind is stored in the capacitor and may be instantaneously injected to the grid.The main
advantage of this scheme is that the power conditioning unit has to handle only a fraction of the total power so
as to obtain full control of the generator. This is very important when wind turbine sizes are increasing for grid-
connected applications for higher penetration of wind energy, and a smaller converter can be used in this scheme.

An alternative to the power conditioning system is to use a synchronous generator instead of the IG and replac
the 3 phase converter by the 3phase diode rectifier and a chopper as shown in Fig.a. Such a choice is based on low
cost .When the speed of the generator alter, the voltage on the dc side of the diode rectifier will change. A step up
chopper as shown in Fig.g is used to adapt the rectified voltage to the dc link voltage and fed to an inverter. By
controlling the inductance current in the step up chopper the machine torque can be controlled, speed can be
controlled.

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 The generator / rectifier system can be modelled as an ideal current source and analysed as shown in Fig.f .
The principle of operation of line side converter is to adjust the phase angle δ between the source voltage U 1 and
reflected input voltage Vs1 so that the power flow is controlled. When U1leads Vs1 real power flow from the source to
the converter.If U1lags Vs1 power flow from the converter’s dc side to ac source.The real power transfer is given by
eq.4.1.The ac power factor is adjusted by controlling the amplitude of the converter voltage Vs1.The per phase
equivalent circuit and phase diagram for lead , lag and unity power factor operation is shown below:

Cycloconverter (Static Scherbius System) : A cycloconverter is a converter that converts ac voltage of one
frequency to another frequency without an intermediate dc link. When a cycloconverter is connected to the rotor
circuit, sub- and supersynchronous operation variable-speed operation is possible. In supersynchronous operation, this
configuration is similar to slip power recovery. In addition, energy may be fed into the rotor, thus allowing the
machine to generate at subsynchronous speeds. For that reason, the generator is said to be doubly fed . This system
has a limited ability to control reactive power at the terminals of the generator, although as a whole it is a net
consumer of reactive power. On the other hand, if coupled with capacitor excitation, this capability could be
useful from the utility point of view. Because of its ability to rapidly adjust phase angle and magnitude of the
terminal voltage, the generator can be resynchronized after a major electrical disturbance without going through a
complete stop/start sequence. With some wind turbines, this could be a useful feature.

Rotor Resistance Chopper Control : A fairly simple scheme for extracting rotor power in the form of heat is also
used for variable speed WECS.

In addition power conditioning device like ac voltage controller is used for soft starting of an induction
ghenerator in a WECS.When an induction generator is connected to a load, a large inrush current flows. This is
something similar to the direct on-line starting problem of induction machines . It has been observed that the initial
time constants of an induction machine are higher when it tries to stabilize initially at the normal operating conditions.
There is a need to use some type of soft-starting equipment to start the large induction generators. A simple scheme to
achieve this is shown in Fig.d. Two thyristors are connected in each phase, back to back.Initially, when the induction
generator is connected, the thyristors are used to control the voltage applied to the stator and to limit the large inrush
current. As soon as the generator is fully connected, the bypass switch is used to bypass the soft-starter unit.

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2. Explain the stand alone operation of :

(i) Fixed speed wind energy conversion system.

(ii) Variable speed wind energy conversion system (iii) Compare fixed speed system over
variable speed systems.

(i) STANDALONE OPERATION OF FIXED SPEED WECS:

Fixed speed systems are the simplest and most widely used arrangement. They operate at constant (or nearly
constant) speed [also called constant speed constant frequency (CSCF) mode of operation. This implies that regardless
of the prime mover speed, the angular speed of the rotor is fixed and determined by the frequency of supply grid and
gear ratio This arrangement, in general, has simple and reliable construction of the electrical part while the
mechanical parts are subject to higher stresses and additional safety factors need to be incorporated in the
mechanical design. This arrangement can use induction generator (IG) and the wound rotor synchronous generator
(SG) as the electric machine. But the squirrel cage induction generator has been the prevalent choice. The reasons for
this popularity are mainly due to its simplicity, high efficiency, and low maintenance requirements. To compensate
for the reactive power consumption of the induction generator, a capacitor bank (normally stepwise controlled)
is inserted in,parallel with the generator in order to obtain about unitypower factor.

Further, to reduce the mechanical stress and to reduce the interaction between supply grid and turbine
during connection and start-up of the turbine, a soft starter is used. The main advantage of this system is that it
is a simple and reliable arrangement. However, capacitors need to be cutin or cutoff regularly to maintain
power factor. This random switching gives rise to undesirable transients in the line currents and voltages. The
fluctuations in prime mover speed are converted to torque pulsations, which cause mechanical stress. This
causes breakdown of drive train and gear box. The power generated from this arrangement is sensitive to
fluctuations in prime mover speed. To avoid this pitch control of rotor blades is required.

The Fixed Speed Induction Generators (FSIG) wind turbine is a simple squirrel cage induction generator,
which can be directly coupled to the electricity supply network. The frequency of the network determines the
rotationalspeed of the stator’s magnetic field, while the generator’s rotor speed changes as its electrical output
changes. However, because of the well known steep torque- Slip characteristic of the induction machine, the operating
range of the generator is very limited.

The wind turbine is therefore effectively fixed speed. FSIGs do not have the capability of independent control
of active and reactive power, which is their main disadvantage. Their great advantage is their simple and robust
construction, which leads to lower capital cost. In contrast to other generatotopologies, FSIGs offer no inherent means
of torque oscillation damping which places greater burden and cost on their gearbox.

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 The Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) Wind Turbines is a wound rotor induction generator whose
rotors fed via slip rings by a frequency converter. The stator is directly coupled to the electrical power supply
network. As a result of the use of the frequency converter, the network frequency is decoupled from the mechanical
speed of the machine and variable speed operation is possible, permittingmaximum absorption of wind power. Since
power ratings are a function of slip, DFIGs operate over a range of speeds between about 0.75 and 1.25 pu of
synchronous frequencywhich requires converter power ratings of approximately25%. A great advantage of the DFIG
wind turbine is that ihas the capability to independently control active andreactive power. Moreover, the mechanical
stresses on a DFIG wind turbine are reduced in comparison to a FSIG.

Due to the decoupling between mechanical speed and electrical frequency that results from DFIG operation,
the rotor can act as an energy storage system, absorbing torque pulsations caused by wind gusts. Other advantages of
the DFIG include reduced flicker and acoustic noise incomparison to FSIGs. The main disadvantages of DFIG
wind turbines in comparison to FSIGs are their increased capital cost and the need for periodic slip ring maintenance.

This wind power system operates at a constant rotor speed regardless of the wind speed variations.

The rotor speed is controlled according to the grid frequency.

The electrical machine equipped with such wind turbines is SCIG.

Sometimes a PMSG can be used.

Fixed-speed WECSs have advantage of being simple, robust, and reliable with a low-cost generator and easy
control.

However, such wind power systems also have drawbacks due to limited control when wind speed changes
continuously.

(ii) STANDALONE OPERATION OF FULLY VARIABLE SPEED WECS:

With the increase in the size of turbine, the inherent problems of the constant speed systems become more and
more pronounced, especially in areas with relatively weak grids. To overcome these problems, the trend in modern
generator technology is toward variable-speed concepts. A variable-speed system keeps the generator torque constant
and it is the generator speed which changes. Variations in the incoming power are absorbed by rotor speed changes.

The variable-speed system therefore incorporates a generator control system that can operate with variable
speed. In this arrangement the variable-voltage variable frequency (VVVF) power generated by the machine is
converter to fixed-frequency fixed voltage power by the use of back to back power converters. The arrangement can
have either induction generator or synchronous generator as the electric machine. The machine side converter supplies
the lagging excitation to the machine while the line side converter maintains unity power factor at grid interface and
also regulates the dc link voltage constant. The synchronous machine offers the least possible configuration for a
variable-speed sys- tem. It can operate without gear box, with a good multi-pole design. This is an important objective
since gear box is a component that has a tendency to fail. The advantages of this scheme are that mechanical
oscillations in the drive train are absent as it is in fixed speed systems.

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 The torque is under control if Direct Torque Control or Field Oriented Control techniques are used. Thisdoes
not allow the generator to be overloaded. Gear box is not required with a multi-pole synchronous machine. However,
converters have to manage entire generated power. Therefore they have to be rated equal to machine rating. Inverter
output filters and EMI output filters are rated for 1 p.u ( with respect to output power) making filter design difficult
and expensive. Converter efficiency plays an important factor in total system efficiency over the entire operating
range. It cannot be operated above synchronous speed with full torque.

STANDALONE OPERATION OF LIMITED VARIABLE-SPEED WECS:

Compared to the squirrel-cage induction generator, the main difference that the doubly- fed induction
generator configuration provides is the access to the rotor windings, thereby giving the possibility of impressing the
rotor voltage. With this arrangement, power can be extracted from or fed to the rotor circuit and the generator can be
magnetized from either the stator circuit or the rotor circuit. Basically two methods of speed control can be applied to
the induction generator, namely rotor resistance control and back to back converter control. The effective scheme for
limited variable speed system is back to back converter used doubly-fed configuration. Fig. 4 shows this topology, the
stator is directly connected to the grid, while the rotor is connected via slip rings to the converter. The gear ratio is set
so that the nominal speed of the induction generator corresponds to the middle value of the rotor-speed range of the
turbine. This is done to minimize the size of the inverter, which will vary with rotor-speed range. A step up
transformer is required between the line side converter and utility, to match the voltage ratio between the stator and
rotor in the machine. This [38] configuration with two converters offers many advantages. The main features of this
configuration are listed below:

1) Reduced converter cost, as they have to be rated for slip power only (typically about 0.25 pu).

2) Converter on the rotor side enables both positive and negative slip power control through control of rotor
current in phase magnitude and frequency. This allows both sub synchronous and super-synchronous
operation.

3) DC link capacitor acts as a source of reactive power, which in a way can control power factor on the stator
side.

4) Line side converter has ability to work as active filter, apart from maintaining unity power factor operation
and regulating dc bus voltage.

5) Reduced cost and weight of inverter filter and EMI filters (to about 0.25pu of total system power). Inverter
harmonics represent a fraction of total system harmonics.

6) System efficiency is better, due to reduced losses in the converters.

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2.(iii) Compare fixed and variable speed WECS : (Refer Sol to Qn.No.7 of Part A.)

3.(i) Explain stand alone operation of solar energy conversion system.

(ii) Compose short notes on grid integrated solar system and draw the grid characteristics.

(i) Stand Alone Operation Of Solar Energy Conversion System :

Stand alone or autonomous systems are not connected to the grid. Some stand alone systems known as PV-
hybrid systems or island system, may also have another source of power, wind turbine, bio-fuel or diesel generator,
etc. Stand-alone PV systems, shown in Fig. a, are used in remote areas with no access to a utility grid. Conventional
power systems used in remote areas often based on manually controlled diesel generators operating continuously or
for a few hours. Extended operation of diesel generators at low load levels significantly increases maintenance costs
and reduces their useful life. Renewable energy sources such as PV can be added to remote area power systems using
diesel and other fossil fuel powered generators to provide 24-hour power economically and efficiently. Such systems
are called ‘‘hybrid energy systems.’’ Figure b shows a schematic of a PV– diesel hybrid system.

Battery : A stand-alone photovoltaic energy system requires storage to meet the energy demand during periods
of low solar irradiation and nighttime. Several types of batteries are available, such as lead-acid, nickel-cadmium,
lithium, zinc bromide, zinc chloride, sodium–sulfur, nickel–hydrogen, redox and vanadium batteries. The provision
of cost-effective electrical energystorage remains one of the major challenges for the development of improved PV
power systems. Typically, lead-acid batteries are used to guarantee several hours to a few days of energy storage.
Their reasonable cost and general availability has resulted in the widespread application of lead-acid batteries for
remote area power supplies despite their limited lifetime compared to other system components.

The following are the factors considered in the selection of batteries for PV applications :

Deep discharge (70–80% depth discharge)

Low charging=discharging current
Long-duration charge (slow) and discharge (long duty cycle)
Irregular and varying charge=discharge
Low self-discharge
Long lifetime
Less maintenance requirement
High energy storage efficiency
Low cost

Charge controllers : They regulate the charge transfer and prevent the battery from being excessively charged and
discharged. Three types of charge controllers are commonly used . They are Series charge regulators , Shunt charge
regulators , Dc–dc Converters.

105
Series Charge Regulators : The basic circuit for the series regulators is given in Fig.c In the series charge controller,
the switch S1 disconnects the PV generator when a predefined battery voltage is achieved. When the voltage falls
below the discharge limit, the load is disconnected from the battery to avoid deep discharge beyond the limit. The
main problem associated with this type of controller is the losses associated with the switches. This extra power loss
has to come from the PV power, and this can be quite significant. Bipolar transistors, MOSFETs, or relays are used as
the switches.

Shunt Charge Regulators: In this type, when the battery is fully charged the PV generator is short-circuited using an
electronic switch (S1). Unlike series controllers, this method works more efficiently discharged through the PV cells
at night when there is no sun available to generate energy. These blocking diodes also protect the battery from short
circuits.

DC-DC converters such as Boost, Buck and Buck – Boost converter are used to match the output of the PV
Generator to the variable load as shown in Fig.g .It consist of inductor to store energy, flywheel diode , which carry
current when the switch is off. The converter allows the charge current to be reduced continuously in such a way that
battery voltage is maintained constant.

MPPT : The inverter has to extract maximum power from the solar cells with the help of MPPT and the inverter input
stage varies the input voltage until the MPP on the I–V curve is found. To operate the PV array at the maximum
power point, perturb and adjust methods can be used in which the current drawn is sampled every few seconds and the
resulting power output of the solar cells is monitored at regular intervals. When an increased current results in a
higher power, it isfurther increased until the power output starts to decrease. But if the increased PV current results in
a lesser amount of power than in the previous sample, then the current is reduced until the maximum power point is
reached.

106
(ii) GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS : PV panels are connected to a grid through inverters.Grid-connected
photovoltaic systems are designed to operate in parallel with the electric utility grid as shown. There are two general
types of electrical designs for PV power systems:

Systems that interact with the utility power grid as shown in Fig. a and have no battery backup capability,
and

Systems that interact and include battery backup as well, as shown in Fig. b.

FIGURE : Grid-connected PV system: (a) without battery back-up and (b) with battery storage.

107
 The latter type of system incorporates energy storage in the form of a battery to keep “critical load” circuits
operating during utility outage. When an outage occurs, the unit disconnects from the utility and powers specific
circuits of the load. If the outage occurs in daylight, the PV array is able to assist the load in supplying the loads.

The major component in both systems is the DC–AC INVERTER or also called the power conditioning
system (PCS). Figure (c ) shows the block diagram of such a PWM inverter.

Fig.(c) PWM Inverter

The inverter, used to convert photovoltaic dc energy to ac energy, is the key to the successful operation of the system,
but it is also the most complex hardware. The active power from the PV panels is accomplished by controlling the
phase angle δ between the converter voltage and the grid voltage. The converter voltage follows the grid voltage. The
same voltage source inverter operated as a current-controlled inverter (CSI). The objective of this scheme is to control
active and reactive components of the current fed into the grid using pulse-width modulation techniques.

The most important inverter characteristics requirement are: operate over a wide range of voltages and currents,
regulate output voltage and frequency, in addition to providing ac power with good power quality. The inverters shall
produce good quality sine-wave output. The inverter must follow the frequency and voltage of the grid and the
inverter has to extract maximum power from the solar cells with the help of MPPT and the inverter input stage varies
the input voltage until the MPP on the I–V curve is found. The inverter shall monitor all the phases of the grid. The
inverter output shall be controlled in terms of voltage and frequency variation. A typical grid-connected inverter
may use a PWM scheme and operates in the range of 2–20 kHz. The grid interactive inverters must be
synchronized with the grid in terms of voltage and frequency.

Power Control through PV Inverters

The system shown in Fig. d shows control of power flow onto the grid. This control can be analog or a
microprocessor system. This control system generates the waveforms and regulates the waveform amplitude and
phase to control the power flow between the inverter and the grid. The gridinterfaced PV inverters, voltage-controlled
(VCI) or current controlled (CCI), have the potential of bidirectional power flow. They not only can feed the local
load, but also can export the excess active and reactive power to the utility grid. An appropriate controller is required
in order to avoid any error in power export due to errors in synchronization, which can overload the inverter.

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 A simple grid–inverter interface with a first-order filter and the phasor diagram is shown in Fig.e. It has been
observed that the inverter rated power export is achieved at

δ=5°. When using a voltage controller for grid connected PV inverter, it has been observed that a slight error in the
phase of synchronising waveform can grossly overload the inverter whereas a current controller is much less
susceptible to voltage phase shifts . For this reason, the current controllers are better suited for the control of power
export from the PV inverters to the utility grid since they are less sensitive to errors in synchronizing sinusoidal
voltage waveforms.

The characteristics of the grid-compatible inverters are:

• Response time must be extremely fast and governed by the bandwidth of the ontrol _ _Power factor ,_
Frequency control ,_ Harmonic output _ Synchronization
• Fault current contribution
• Dc current injection
• Protection
.
The grid-connected system can be classified as:

1) Rooftop application of grid-connected PV system.

2) Utility scale large system.

For small household PV applications, a roof mounted PV array can be the best option. For roof-integrated
applications, the solar arrays can be either mounted on the roof or directly integrated into the roof. If the roof
integration does not allow for an air channel behindthe PV modules for ventilation purpose, then it can increase the
cell temperature during the operation consequently leading to some energy losses. With a PV array on the rooftop, the
solar generated power can supply residential load. The rooftop PV systems can help in reducing the peak summer load
to the benefit of utility companies by feeding the household lighting, cooling and other domestic loads. The battery
storage can further improve the reliability of the system at the time of low insolation level, nighttime, or cloudy days.
But the battery storage has some inherent problems like maintenance and higher cost. . The disadvantage with the
rooftop application is that the PV array orientation is dictated by the roof. In case, when the roof orientation
differs from the optimal orientation required for the cells, then efficiency of the entire system would be
suboptimal.

Grid-connected PV systems must observe the islanding situation, when the utility supply fails , or fault
occurs due to overvoltage , undervoltage , under frequency , overfrequency. In case of islanding, the PV
generators should be disconnected from mains. PV generators can continue to meet only the local load, if the PV
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output matches the load. If the grid is re-connected during islanding, transient overcurrents can flow through the PV
system inverters and the protective equipments like circuit breakers may be damaged. The islanding control can be
achieved through inverters or via the distribution network. Inverter controls can be designed on the basis of detection
of grid voltage, measurement of impedance, frequency variation, or increase in harmonics. Protection shall be
designed for the islanding, short circuits, over/under- voltages/currents, grounding, and lightening, etc.

Merits of PV system :

The importance of the power generated by the PV system depends upon the time of the day specially when
the utility is experiencing the peak load. The PV plants are well suited to summer peaking but it depends upon
the climatic condition of the site. The PV users can defer their load by adopting load management to get the
maximum benefit out of the grid-connected PV plants and feeding more power into the grid at the time of peak
load.With the installation of PV plants, the need of extra transmission lines, transformers can be delayed or
avoided. The distributed PV plants can also contribute in providing reactive power support to the grid and reduce
burden on VAR compensators.

4. Give a short notes on: (i) Grid integrated PMSG (ii) SCIG based WECS.

5. (i) Explain with the aid of a diagram the operation of a grid integrated solar photo voltaic system.

(iii) Explain how the isolation and temperature affects the I-V characteristics of a solar cell.

(i) Refer Qn.No. 3 for grid integrated solar pv system.

(ii) A simplified equivalent circuit of a solar cell consists of a current source in parallel with a diode as shown in
Fig. A. A variable resistor is connected to the solar cell generator as a load. When the terminals are short-circuited, the
output voltage and also the voltage across the diode are both zero. The entire photocurrent (Iph) generated by the solar
radiation then flows to the output. The solar cell current has its maximum (Isc). If the load resistance is increased,
which results in an increasing voltage across the p-n junction of the diode, a portion of the current flows through the
diode and the output current decreases by the same amount. When the load resistor is open-circuited, the output
current is zero and the entire photocurrent flows through the diode. The relationship between current and voltage may
be determined from the diode characteristic equation.

where q is the electron charge, k is the Boltzmann constant, Iph is photocurrent, I0 is the reverse saturation current,
Id is diode current, and T is the solar cell operating temperature (K). The current versus voltage (I -V) of a solar
cell is thus equivalent to an ‘‘inverted’’ diode characteristic curve .
A number of semiconductor materials are suitable for the manufacture of solar cells. The most common
types using silicon semiconductor material (Si) are:

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 Monocrystalline Si cells
Polycrystalline Si cells
Amorphous Si cells

A solar cell can be operated at any point along its characteristic current– voltage curve, as shown in Fig. a.
Two important points on this curve are the open circuit voltage(Voc) and short-circuit current (Isc). The open-
circuit voltage is the maximum voltage at zero current, whereas the shortcircuit current is the maximum current at
zero voltage. For a silicon solar cell under standard test conditions, Voc is typically 0.6–0.7 V, and Isc is typically
20–40mA for every square centimeter of the cell area.
A plot of power (P) against voltage (V) for this device (Fig.b) shows that there is a unique point on the I V curve at
which the solar cell will generate maximum power. This is known as the maximum power point (Vmp, Imp). To
maximize the power output, steps are usually taken during fabrication to maximize the three basic cell
parameters: open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current, and fill factor (FF) a term describing how ‘‘square’’ the
I V curve is, given by

FF= (Vmp Imp ) / (Voc Isc)

For a silicon solar cell, FF is typically 0.6–0.8.

Because silicon solar cells typically produce only about 0.5 V, a number of cells are connected in series in a PV
module.

The effect of temperature on the performance of a silicon solar module is illustrated in Fig. d. Note that
Isc slightly increases linearly with temperature, but Voc and the maximum power Pm decrease with temperature.
Figure.e shows the variation of PV current and voltages at different insolation levels. From Fig.e and d, it can
be seen that the I V characteristics of solar cells at a given insolation and temperature consist of a constant-
voltage segment and a constant-current segment . The current is limited, as the cell is short-circuited. The
maximum power condition occurs at the knee of the characteristic where the two segments meet.

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 Unit – V

HYBRID RENEWABLE ENERGYSYSTEM

Part – A

1. Define hybrid systems?

The combination of renewable energy system such as PV arrays or wind turbines, with engine-driven
generators and battery storage, is widely recognized as a viable alternative to conventional remote area power supplies
(RAPS). These systems are generally classified as hybrid energy systems (HES).
For eg. A Photovoltaic–diesel hybrid energy systems generate ac electricity by combining a photovoltaic
array with an inverter, which can operate alternately or in parallel with a conventional engine-driven generator.

2. Summarize the need for hybrid energy systems.

NEED FOR HYBRID SYSTEM

Hybrid Systems are powered by sun and wind or anyother renewanle energy source to meet the increasing
power demand.
Power electronics controllers manage multiple sources and monitor the status of the system voltage, power
and frequency based on the load requirement.
During grid failure the alternative resources supply the power demand.
In remote areas renewable energy sources such as PV can be added to power systems using diesel and other
fossil fuel powered generators to provide 24-hour power economically and efficiently. Such systems are
called ‘‘hybrid energy systems.

3. List out some of the hybrid systems used in industries.

(i) Solar PV- Diesel Hybrid system

(ii) PV-Diesel Hybrid system
(iii) Wind-PV Hybrid system
(iv) Wind-Diesel Hybrid system

4. Label the schematic diagram of PV-Diesel hybrid system.

PV-Diesel hybrid system as gvn below has 3 configurations : series,parallel and switched

4. List the merits and demerits of PV-Diesel hybrid system.

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The advantages of parallel configuration over over other system configurations is

The system load can be met in an optimal way.

Diesel generator efficiency can be maximized.
Diesel generator maintenance can be minimized.
A reduction in the rated capacities of the diesel generator,battery bank, inverter, and renewable resources is
feasible, while also meeting the peak loads.

The disadvantages are:

Automatic control is essential for the reliable operation of the system.
The inverter has to be a true sine-wave inverter with the ability to synchronize with a secondary ac
source.
System operation is less transparent to the untrained user of the system.

The switched configuration remains one of the most common installations today.
despite its operational limitations. The advantages of this system are:

The inverter can generate a sine-wave, modified square wave, or square wave, depending on the particular
application.
The diesel generator can supply the load directly, therefore improve the system efficiency and reduce the
fuel consumption.

The disadvantages are:

Power to the load is interrupted momentarily when the ac power sources are transferred.
The engine-driven alternator and inverter are typically designed to supply the peak load, which reduces
their efficiency at part-load operation.

6. What is the charge controller used for wind energy conversion system.

Charge controllers is a power conditioning device which regulate the charge transfer and prevent the battery from
being excessively charged and discharged. The charge controller control the power flow to the utility grid. The real
power is controlled by an outer maximum-power-point tracking (MPPT) algorithm with an inner dc link voltage-
control loop .Three types of charge controllers are commonly used: Series charge regulators , Shunt charge regulators,
Dc–dc converters.

7. Define MPPT? List out various MPPT algorithms used.

MPPT is maximum power point tracking and the device that perform this is called a maximum power point tracker. A
plot of power (P) against voltage (V) for solar array (Fig.b) shows that there is a unique point on the I V curve at
which the solar cell will generate maximum power. This is known as the maximum power point (Vmp, Imp). To
maximize the power output, steps are usually taken during fabrication to maximize the three basic cell
parameters: open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current, and fill factor (FF) a term describing how ‘‘square’’ the I
V curve is, given by

FF= (Vmp Imp ) / (Voc Isc)

For a silicon solar cell, FF is typically 0.6–0.8.

MPPT is the abiliy to extract the maximum available power from PV module by making them operate at the
most efficient voltage.

MPPT Algorithms

Perturb and Observe (PAO) ,

Incremental Conductance Technique (ICT), and

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 Constant Reference Voltage/Current.
Flux magnitude angle control (FMAC).
Hill climbing search (HCS).
Tip speed ratio (TSR) control.
Mapping power technique in which maps/curves are used to find out the optimum point.
Anemometer method which uses the predetermined look up table.
MPPT by maximum efficiency control and a maximum torque control.
Advance hill climb search (AHCS) technique.
MPPT algorithm by directly adjusting the DC/DC converter duty cycle.
MPPT algorithms by changing the speed reference in the desired direction.
MPPT using two converters and by adjusting the switching frequencies of the two converters achieve
maximum power tracking g and output voltage regulation.
Using matrix converter in DFIG.
Using MPPT algorithms with current feedback.
Sliding mode control using fuzzy for variable speed wind turbine.
Unity power factor and maximum power point tracking using loop control.

8. What is the need for maximum power point tracking?

A maximum power point tracking control can prevent the collapse of the solar array voltage under excessive
load demand, particularly when supplying a constant type of load.For a system without MPPT the voltage will quickly
collapse to zero. This phenomenon is understood from the I-V char of solar array.The flatness of I-V curve on the left
of MPP imply small incremental increase in the current demand lead to large voltage change. On the I-V curve the
operating point correspond to the max. power point in the knee region.

MPPT's are most effective in Winter, and/or cloudy or hazy days - when the extra power is needed the most.

Cold weather - solar panels work better at cold temperatures, but without a MPPT you are losing most of that.
Cold weather is most likely in winter - the time when sun hours are low and you need the power to recharge
batteries the most.

Low battery charge - the lower the state of charge in your battery, the more current a MPPT puts into them -
another time when the extra power is needed the most. You can have both of these conditions at the same time.

Long wire runs - If you are charging a 12 volt battery, and your panels are 100 feet away, the voltage drop and
power loss can be considerable unless you use very large wire. That can be very expensive. But if you have four
12 volt panels wired in series for 48 volts, the power loss is much less, and the controller will convert that high
voltage to 12 volts at the battery. That also means that if you have a high voltage panel setup feeding the
controller, you can use much smaller wire.

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 9. What will happen if no load is connected to a solar PV system?

10. Give the applications of solar PV system?

Water Pumping
Battery Charging
Grid-Interactive PV Power Generation
Lightning
Medical Refrigeration
Village Power
Telecommunication and Signaling

11. Discuss the significance of MPPT.

Consider a variable speed WECS, operating the turbine at constant TSR correspond to MPP at all times
generates 20 - 30 % more electricity in a year. The power Vs speed curve has a well defined peak. If we operate the
turbine at this peak point a small increase or decrease in the turbine speed would result in no change in the power as
the MPP lie in a flat neighbourhood.output. The condition for max power is given in Fig.a . This principle uses the
speed is maintained at a level ΔP/Δω is zero. This method is insensitive to errorin local wind speed measurement
and wind turbine design.

12. Classify the types of pumps used for solar water pumping applications?
Two types of pumps are commonly used for water-pumping applications:
Positive displacement
Centrifugal.

Both centrifugal and positive displacement pumps can be further classified based on the type of motor used
for the pumping application

Surface mounted, and Submersible ( those that are submerged into the water ).

Displacement pumps have water output directly proportional to the speed of the pump, but almost
independent of head. These pumps are used for solar water pumping from deep wells or bores. They may be
piston-type pumps or use a diaphragm driven by a cam or rotary screw, or use a progressive cavity system. The
pumping rate of these pumps is directly related to the speed, and hence constant torque is desired.

Centrifugal pumps are used for low-head applications, especially if they are directly interfaced with the
solar panels. Centrifugal pumps are designed for fixed-head applications, and the pressure difference generated
increases in relation to the speed of the pump. These pumps are of the rotating impeller type, which throws the water
radially against a casing shaped so that the momentum of the water is converted into useful pressure for lifting. The

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centrifugal pumps have relatively high efficiency, but it decreases at lower speeds, which can be a problem for a solar
water-pumping system.

PART – B

1. (i) What is MPPT? Discuss the types of MPPT with its merits and demerits? (ii)Explain the incremental
conduction Algorithm with a neat example.

A MPPT, or maximum power point tracker is an electronic DC to DC converter that optimizes the match between
the solar array (PV panels), and the battery bank or utility grid. The MPPT is a technique is used to maintain the PV
array operating point at maximum power point.
(or)
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is an algorithm that when included in a charge controller extracts the
maximum available power from PV module under certain conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce
maximum power is called ‘maximum power point’ (or peak power voltage). Maximum power output from the PV
array varies with solar irradiation, ambient temperature and solar cell temperature.

Types of MPPT :

(i) Constant Voltage Method : The CV algorithm is the simplest.The operating point of PV array is kept at its
maximum peak power (MPP) by regulating the array voltage and matching it with a fixed reference Vpv.
The CV does not require any input. But, the Vpv is required for controlling the duty cycle of the dc-dc
converter block in the MPP tracker as shown in Fig.(b). The main drawback of this approach is that the
current from the photovoltaic array must be set to zero momentarily to measure the open circuit voltage
and then afterwards set to 76% of the measured voltage. Energy is wasted during the time time the current
is set to zero. The approximation setting the voltage to 76% of the measured voltage is not accurate. The
CV is more effective than P&O or IC method.

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(ii) Short Current Pulse Method :The SC method achives MPP by giving operating the current Iop to the
current controlled power converter.The optimum Iop for maximum power is proportional to the short
circuit current Isc under various irradiance levels. Iop=K.Isc where k is the proportionality constant. To
obtain Isc a static switch is connected in parallel with the PV array to create a short circuit. Now to
generate Iop refer Fig.c.

(iii) Open Voltage Method : The OV method achieves the maximum power point MPP by assuming that the
voltage at this point is always close to the open ciruit voltage Vov.The temperature and solar insulation
level change the MPP by 2%.Here a static switch is connected in series with PV array to open the circuit.
Now, Ipv=0 and no power is supplied by PV system , total energy generated is zero. The Vref is
generated using two datas as shown in Fig.d.

(iv) Perturb and Observe Method: The P& O technique operate by incrementing and decrementing the array
terminal voltage or current and comparing the PV output power with the previous perturbation cycle. If
the array operating voltage changes then the MPP changes position as shown in Fig.e. Each time the array
terminal voltage perturbate the output power oscillate around the maximum, thus resulting in power loss
in the PV system. Also the condition ( dP / dV = 0 ) , output power is constant is valid only at constant
atmospheric condition.In Fig.f a perturbation of d V will bring the operating point to B .if the irradiance
increases then the operating point shift to C from the curve P1 to P2.There is an increase in power output
now.

(v) Incremental Conductance Method: The IC algorithm is based on the equation (1) where Ipv and Vpv are
the PV array voltage and current respectively.

When the operating point is to the right of MPP then

and positive to the left of

the MPP as shown in Fig.g.

IC computes the maximum power point by comparison of the incremental conductance (ΔI/ΔV) to the
instantaneous conductance (I/V). When the incremental conductance is zero, the output voltage is
ascertained to be the MPP voltage and fixed at this voltage until the MPP encounters a change due to the
change in irradiation conditions. Then the process above is repeated until a new maximum power point is
reached

The IC track the MPP even under rapidly changing irradiance levels.. It has high accuracy and does
not oscillate at the MPP. Fig.h shows the flow chart for IC algorithm .

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2.(i) Describe the operating principle of PV Maximum Power Point Tracking in energy conversion.

(ii) Explain various strategies used for the operation of an MPPT in a WECS.

Wind generation system has been attracting wide attention as a renewable energy source due to depleting
fossil fuel reserves and environmental concerns. Amount of power output from a WECS depends upon the accuracy
with which the peak power points are tracked by the MPPT controller of the WECS control system irrespective of the
type of generator used.

The maximum power extraction algorithms researched so far can be classified into three main control
methods, namely tip speed ratio (TSR) control, power signal feedback (PSF) control and hill-climb search (HCS)
control.

The tip speed ratio control : The TSR method regulates the rotational speed of the generator in order to maintain the
TSR to an optimum value at which power extracted is maximum. This method requires both the wind speed and the
turbine speed to be measured or estimated in addition to requiring the knowledge of optimum TSR of the turbine in
order for the system to be able extract maximum possible power. The block diagram of a WECS with TSR control is
given below:

Power signal feedback control : In PSF control, the maximum power curves need to be obtained via simulations or
off-line experiment on individual wind turbines. In this method, reference power is generated either using a recorded
maximum power curve or using the mechanical power equation of the wind turbine where wind speed or the rotor
speed is used as the input. The block diagram of a WECS with PSF controller for maximum power extraction is given
below:

The Hill-climb search control : The HCS algorithm continuously searches for the peak power of the wind turbine. It
can overcome some of the common problems normally associated with the other two methods. The tracking
algorithm, depending upon the location of the operating point and relation between the changes in power and speed,
computes the desired optimum signal in order to drive the system to the point of maximum power. The principle of
HCS control and a WECS with HCS controller for tracking maximum power points is given below:

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3. Discuss and classify the working of MPPT in a solar PV system. (Refer previous Qn.no.1)

4.Discuss with case study how to get maximum power generation in wind energy conversion system.
(or)

5.Explain MPPT techniques for a WECS.

A case study how to get maximum power generation in wind energy conversion system. : An MPPT
controller for variable speed WECS proposed.

The method proposed in does not require the knowledge of wind speed, air density or turbine parameters. The
MPPT controller generates at its output the optimum speed command for speed control loop of rotor flux oriented
vector controlled machine side converter control system using only the instantaneous active power as its input. The
optimum speed commands, which enable the WECS to track peak power points, are generated in accordance with the
variation of the active power output due to the change in the command speed generated by the controller.The
proposed concept was analyzed in a direct drive variable speed PMSG WECS with back-to-back IGBT frequency
converter. Vector control of the grid side converter was realized in the grid voltage vector reference frame. The
complete WECS control system is shown in Fig. A. The MPPT controller computes the optimum speed for maximum
power point using information on magnitude and direction of change in power output due to the change in command
speed. The flow chart in Fig.B shows how the proposed MPPT controller is executed.

The operation of the controller is explained below:

The active power Po(k) is measured, and if the difference between its values at present and previous sampling instants
ΔPo(k) is within a specified lower and upper power limits PLand PM respectively then, no action is taken; however, if
the difference is outside this range, then certain necessary control action is taken.

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The control action taken depends upon the magnitude and direction of change in the ac tive power due to the change
in command speed.

The magnitude of change, if any, in the command speed in a control cycle is decided by the product of
magnitude of power error Po(k) and C. The values C are decided by the speed of the wind. During the maximum
power point Tracking control process the product mentioned above decreases slowly and finally equals to zero at the
peak power point.

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6. Show with case study how to get maximum power generation in solar energy conversion system. (Refer
any case study paper )

7. (i) With a neat sketch, describe the operation of PV-Diesel hybrid system.

(ii) Draw and describe the operation of Wind-PV hybrid system.

Photovoltaic–diesel hybrid energy systems generate ac electricity by combining a photovoltaic array with an
inverter, which can operate alternately or in parallel with a conventional engine-driven generator. They can be
classified according to their configuration as follows :

1. Series PV-Diesel hybrid energy system

2. Switched PV-Diesel hybrid energy system
3. Parallel PV-Diesel hybrid energy system

The operation of a typical Series PV-Diesel hybrid energy system shown in Fig.(a) is that a large fraction of
the generated energy is passed through the battery bank, resulting in increased cycling of the battery bank and
reduced system efficiency. Ac power delivered to the load is converted from dc to regulated ac by an inverter or a
motor generator unit. The power generated by the diesel generator is first rectified and subsequently converted back to
ac before being supplied to the load, which leads to significant conversion losses.

The actual load demand determines the amount of electrical power delivered by the photovoltaic array, the
battery bank, or the diesel generator. The solar controller prevents overcharging of the battery bank from the PV
generator when the PV power exceeds the load demand and the batteries are fully charged. It may include maximum
power point tracking to improve the utilization of the available photovoltaic energy, although the energy gain is
marginal for a well-sized system. The system can be operated in manual or automatic mode, with the addition of
appropriate battery voltage sensing and start/stop control of the engine-driven generator.

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Advantages:

• The engine-driven generator can be sized to be optimally loaded while supplying the load and charging the battery
bank, until a battery SOC of 70–80% is reached.

• No switching of AC power between the different energy sources is required, which simplifies the electrical output
interface.
• The power supplied to the load is not interrupted when the diesel generator is started.

• The inverter can generate a sine-wave, modified square wave, or square-wave depending on the application.

Disadvantages:

• The inverter cannot operate in parallel with the engine driven generator, therefore the inverter must be sized to
supply the peak load of the system.
• The battery bank is cycled frequently, which shortens its lifetime.
• The cycling profile requires a large battery bank to limit the depth-of-discharge (DOD).

• The overall system efficiency is low, since the diesel cannot supply power directly to the load.

• Inverter failure results in complete loss of power to the load, unless the load can be supplied directly from the diesel
generator for emergency purposes.

The switched configuration shown in Fig.(b) remains one of the most common installations today. despite its
operational limitations.The system can be operated in manual or automatic mode, with the addition of
appropriate battery voltage sensing and start/stop control of the engine-driven generator.

The advantages of this system are:

The inverter can generate a sine-wave, modified square wave, or square wave, depending on the particular
application.

The diesel generator can supply the load directly, therefore improve the system efficiency and
reduce the fuel consumption. – main advantage The disadvantages are:

Power to the load is interrupted momentarily when the ac power sources are transferred.

The engine-driven alternator and inverter are typically designed to supply the peak load, which reduces
their efficiency at part-load operation.

The parallel configuration shown in Fig. ( c) allows all energy sources to supply the load separately at low or
medium load demand, as well as supplying peak loads from combined sources by synchronizing the inverter with
the alternator output waveform. The bidirectional inverter can charge the battery bank (rectifier operation) when
excess energy is available from the engine-driven generator, as well as act as a dc–ac converter (inverter operation).
The bidirectional inverter may provide ‘‘peak shaving’’ as part of the control strategy when the engine-driven
generator is overloaded.

By using the same power electronic devices for both inverter and rectifier operation, the number of system
components is minimized.

The advantages of this system include the following:

The system load can be met in an optimal way.

Diesel generator efficiency can be maximized.
Diesel generator maintenance can be minimized.
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 A reduction in the rated capacities of the diesel generator, battery bank, inverter, and renewable resources
is feasible, while also meeting the peak loads.

The disadvantages are:

Automatic control is essential for the reliable operation of the system.

The inverter has to be a true sine-wave inverter with the ability to synchronize with a secondary ac
source.

System operation is less transparent to the untrained user of the system.

Control of PV – Diesel Hybrid System and Modes of Operation:

The design process of hybrid energy systems requires the selection of the most suitable combination of energy
sources, power-conditioning devices, and energy-storage system, together with the implementation of an efficient
energy dispatch strategy. The different operating modes for a PV -diesel system using a typical diesel dispatch
strategy:

Mode (I): The base load, which is typically experienced at night and during the early morning hours, is supplied
by energy stored in the batteries. Photovoltaic power is not available and the diesel generator is not started.

Mode (II): PV power is supplemented by stored energy to meet the medium load demand.

Mode (III): Excess energy is available from the PV generator, which is stored in the battery. The medium load
demand is supplied from the PV generator.

Mode (IV): The diesel generator is started and operated at its nominal power to meet the high evening load.
Excess energy available from the diesel generator is used to recharge the batteries.

Mode (V): The diesel generator power is insufficient to meet the peak load demand. Additional power is
supplied from the batteries by synchronizing the inverter ac output voltage with the alternator waveform.

Mode (VI): The diesel generator power exceeds the load demand, but it is kept operational until the
batteries are recharged to a high state-of-charge level.

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 In principle, most efficient operation is achieved if the generated power is supplied directly to the load
from all energy sources, which also reduces cycling of the battery bank.

8. Is wind energy an excellent supplement to the PV? IF so justify with a suitable case study.

Yes.The wind energy can be utilized even during night time. The wind supplements the solar PV during
cloudy and winter days. The switched configuration of a hybrid system can be used as given below:

In the conventional series hybrid systems shown in Fig.1, all power generators feed DC power into a battery.
Each component has therefore to be equipped with an individual charge controller and in the case of a diesel generator
with a rectifier. To ensure reliable operation of series hybrid energy systems both the diesel generator and the inverter
have to be sized to meet peak loads. This results in a typical system operation where a large fraction of the generated
energy is passed through battery bank, therefore resulting in increased cycling of the battery bank and reduced system
efficiency. AC power delivered to the load is converted from DC to regulated AC by an inverter or a motor generator
unit.

The power generated by the diesel generator is first rectified and subsequently converted back to AC before being
supplied to the load, which incurs significant conversion losses. The actual load demand determines the amount of
electrical power delivered by the PV array, wind generator, the battery bank, or the diesel generator. The solar and
wind charger prevents overcharging of the battery bank from the PV generator when the PV power exceeds the load
demand and the batteries are fully charged. It may include MPPT to improve the utilization of the available PV
energy, although the energy gain is marginal for a well-sized system. The system can be operated in manual or
automatic mode, with the addition of appropriate battery voltage sensing and start/stop control of the engine-driven
generator.

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 The parallel hybrid system can be further classified as DC and AC couplings as shown in Fig.3. In both
schemes, a bi-directional inverter is used to link between the battery and an AC source (typically the output of a diesel
generator). The bi-directional inverter can charge the battery bank (rectifier operation) when excess energy is
available from the diesel generator or by the renewable sources, as well as act as a DC–AC converter (inverter
operation). The bi-directional inverter may also provide “peak shaving” as part of a control strategy when the diesel
engine is overloaded. In Fig.(a), the renewable energy sources (RES) such as photovoltaic and wind are coupled on
the DC side. DC integration of RES results in “custom” system solutions for the individual supply cases requiring
high costs for engineering, hardware, repair, and maintenance.

Furthermore, power system expandability for covering needs of growing energy and power demand is also
difficult. A better approach would be to integrate the RES on the AC side rather than on the DC side as shown in
Fig.(b). Parallel hybrid energy systems are characterized by two significant improvements over the series and
switched system configuration.

The inverter plus the diesel generator capacity rather than their individual component ratings limit the
maximum load that can be supplied. Typically, this will lead to a doubling of the system capacity. The capability to
synchronize the inverter with the diesel generator allows greater flexibility to optimize the operation of the system.
Future systems should be sized with a reduced peak capacity of the diesel generator, which results in a higher fraction
of directly used energy and hence higher system efficiencies. Also mention the merits and demerits of each
configuration.

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 GE6075 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IN ENGINEERING
TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
UNIT I HUMAN VALUES

1. What are human values?

Values decide the standard of behaviour. Some universally accepted values are freedom justice and equality.
Other principles of values are love, care, honesty, integrity, self-respect.

2. What are ethical values?

Trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring is ethical values

3. Distinguish values from ethics and culture.

Values are mainly related to individuals and since they are related to justice, they remain the some for everyo
ne. E.g. truth, honesty, empathy, self respect. Values do not change from individual to individual. Ethics is
common to a group of individuals; the group may be religious or professional. Ethics is mostly based on some
code or law and judgment of any action is based on code of conduct or law. Ethics change from individual to
individual Culture commonly refers to conduct of a group. E.g system of worship, marriage. It may differ from
society to society, nation to nation or religion to religion.

4. What is integrity?

Integrity is the unity of character based on moral values. Consistency in attitudes, emotions and conduct in
relations to morally justified actions and values are also the part of integrity of individual. It implies honesty,
trustworthiness.

5. Define work ethics

By one‟s work one cannot harm others. Any worker cannot escape accountability. Worker has the moral
responsibility to see that no other person‟s right, private or freedom is impaired or transgressed.

6. What is service learning?

Service learning tells that one has moral responsibility to increase the desirable effects and to decrease the
harmful effects. Any service should increase the desirable result.

7. Mention some civic virtues?

Good citizen demand civic virtue. It is the principle of not harming the surroundings .it also includes living
peacefully, respect for others, protecting the environment and being normally and ethically good.

8. Write short notes on caring and sharing.

Caring is the essence of moral life. Caring involves feelings, relationship, contends with other persons and
protecting others and causing least damage to others. Sharing means sharing of feelings, ideas

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 thoughts, resources and profits. Sharing is always mutually beneficial. Sharing morally acceptable
feelings, resources and materials is a value.

9. Write notes on honesty.

Any human being should imbibe honesty-honesty in acts, honesty in speech and honesty in beliefs. Honesty
is the fundamental virtue in human relationship even though in may be difficult to follow some times.

10. What is courage as a value?

Courage implies self-respect and governs confrontations with danger and risk. It isnot excessive rashes or
cowardice, but it is the middle ground. Taking calculated risks and boldness in facing crises are the
hallmarks of courage as a human value. It defines the mental make up of an individual in taking bold
decisions even under adverse situations.

11. Define co-operation.

Co-operation means extending help to others, for a good cause. Co-operation may be through an idea, a
suggestion, an assistance or physical work which extends to others for common benefit.

12. Define empathy.

Empathy means putting self in a position of someone else and thinking as the later and reasoning suitable
action.

13. Define spirituality.

Spirituality raises a man above the materialistic world into a realm where he seeks peace and real happiness.

14. Define Integrity?

Integrity is the bridge between responsibility in private and professional life.

15. Define Compromise?

In a negative sense it means to undetermined integrity by violating one‟s fundamental moral principles. In a
positive sense, however, it means to settle differences bymutual concessions or to reconcile conflicts
through adjustments in attitude and conduct.

16. Give the two aspects of Honesty?

Truthfulness – meeting responsibilities concerning truth-telling. Trustworthiness –Meeting responsibilities

concerning trust.

17. Differentiate Self-respect and Self-esteem? Self-respect: It is a moral

concept; refers to the virtue properly valuing oneself.

Self-esteem: It is a psychological concept; means having a positive attitude toward Oneself, even if the
attitude is excessive or otherwise unwarranted.

18. What are Human values? Explain briefly.

Values are the rules by which we make decisions about right and wrong, should and shouldn't, good and
bad. “Emotional beliefs in principles regarded as particularly favorable or important for the individual.”

Types of Values: (a) Right conduct, (b) Peace (c) Truth, (d) Love, (e) Nonviolence.
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19. Factors That Demonstrate a Strong Work Ethic:
Integrity,
Sense of Responsibility, Emphasis on Quality, Discipline, and
Sense of Teamwork.

20. Five Characteristics of a Good Work Ethic:

Reliability, Dedication, Productivity, Cooperation, and Character

21. Explain CIVIC VIRTUE.

Civic virtues are the moral duties and rights, as a citizen of the village or the country or an integral part
of the society and environment.

Civic virtues are divided into four categories:

2. Civic Knowledge
3. Self-Restraint
4. Self-Assertion
5. Self-Reliance

22. Explain Respect for others.

Respect is a positive feeling of admiration or deference for a person. Respect can be a specific feeling of
regard for the actual qualities of the one respected. It can also be conduct in accord with a specific ethic of
respect. Treating people with respect makes your world a nicer place to live in, whether it's at home, at
school, or out in your community. Don't insult people or make fun of them.

23. Explain Living Peacefully.

To live peacefully, one should start install peace within (self). Charity begins at home. Then one can
spread peace to family, organization where one works, and then to the world, including the environment.
Only who are at peace can spread peace. You cannot gift an article which you do not possess. The essence
of oriental philosophy is that one should not fight for peace. It is oxymoron. War or peace can be won only
by peace, and not by wars !

One should adopt the following means to live peacefully, in the world
24. Explain Stress Management.

Stress management refers to the wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a
person's levels of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose of improving every day
functioning. Stress is a normal psychological and physical reaction to the ever-increasing demands of life.
Surveys show that many Americans experience challenges with stress at some point during the year.

25. Define spirituality?

Spirituality raises a man above the materialistic world into a realm where he seeks peace

and real happiness

26. Explain Self- Confidence, Character and Spirituality.

Self- Confidence: Certainty in one‟s own capabilities, values, and goals. These people are usually positive
thinking, flexible and willing to change. They respect others so much as they respect themselves.
Character: To determine the ideals.

Spirituality: Spirituality is a way of living that emphasizes the constant awareness and recognition of the
spiritual dimension (mind and its development) of nature and people, with a dynamic balance between the
material development and the spiritual development.

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27. What are the values?
Values denote something‟s degree of importance, with the aim of determining what action of life is best
to do or live or to describe the significance of different actions.

28. What are the qualities of a self-confident people?

Ambitious
Self-Love
Risk-takers
Self-awareness
Change agent

Part –B (16 marks)

• Write short notes honesty.

• What is courage? What are the salient features of courage?

• What is service learning?

• Distinguish values from ethics and culture.

• What do you understand by the term spirituality? Explain in detail.

• Spirituality raises a man above the materialistic world into a realm where he seeks peace and real
happiness

• Define the terms Values, Morals & Ethics?

• Define Human Values? ?

• Explain the importance of self-confidence in ethics.

Course Outcome: Students understand the core values that shape the ethical behavior of an engineer and
Exposed awareness on professional ethics and human values.

UNIT II ENGINEERING ETHICS

PART A

1. Define moral Dilemma? (MAY/JUNE 2012)

Dilemmas are certain kind of situations in which a difficult choice has to be made. Moral dilemmas can
also be called moral problems. Moral Dilemmas have two or more folding„s - moral obligations, duties,
rights, goods, or ideals come disagreement with each other.

2. What are the chief characteristics of a profession? (MAY/JUNE 2012)

Knowledge Organization Public Good
3. What is the significance of engineering ethics? (MAY/JUNE 2011)

An activity and an area of inquiry. Ethical problems, issues and controversy Set of beliefs, attitudes and
habits. Morally correct.

4. What is engineering ethics? (MAY/JUNE 2011, MAY/JUNE 2014)

Study of the moral issues and decisions confronting individuals and organizations engaged in engineering
/ profession. Study of related questions about the moral ideals, character, policies and relationships of
people and corporations involved in technological activity. Moral standards /values and system of morals.

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 5. What is meant by normative inquiry? (MAY/JUNE 2011)

Engineering ethics involves normative inquiry in order to aim at identifying and justifying the morally
desirable norms or standards that ought to guide individuals or groups. Normative questions include
what ought to be? and what is good?

6. What do you mean by ethical pluralism?(APRIL/MAY 2010)

Ethical pluralism is the view that there may be alternative moral perspectives that are reasonable, but no
one of which must be accepted completely by all rational and morally concerned persons.

7. Differentiate Moral and Ethics? (MAY/JUNE 2010)

Moral:

Refers only to personal behavior.

Refers to any aspect of human action.

Social conventions about right or wrong conduct.

Ethics:

• Involves defining, analyzing, evaluating and resolving moral problems

• Developing moral criteria to guide human behavior.
• Critical reflection on what one does and why one does it.
• Refers only to professional behavior.

8. State Rawls principles? (NOV/DEC2010)

Each person is entitled to the most extensive amount of liberty compatible with an equal amount for
others.

Differences in social power and economic benefits are justified only when they are likely to benefit
everyone, including members of the most disadvantaged groups.

9. Write any three uses of ethical theories. (NOV/DEC2010, MAY/JUNE 2014)

Ethical theories are very useful in understanding and resolving moral dilemmas. In
estimating the professional obligations and ideals.

Determine to what extent, the obligations can be exercised in a given situation.

10. What are the types of Theories about Morality/ Right action? (MAY/JUNE 2009)
Virtue ethics – Virtues and vices
Utilitarianism – Most good for the most people

Duty ethics – Duties to respect people

Rights ethics – Human rights

11. Explain Ethical Egoism (MAY/JUNE 2009)

It deals with self-interest. Each person is the best judge of their own self-interest and is
responsible for maximizing their own interest. Egoism preaches selfishness but morality should
encourage love, compassion etc.

12. Differentiate Ethical Relativism and Ethical Egoism? (MAY/JUNE2008)

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 • Ethical egoism – the view that right action consist in producing one„s own good.

• Ethical relativism – the view that right action is merely what the law and customs of one„s
society require.

13. Explain moral integrity? (MAY/JUNE2008)

Moral integrity is the strength of character on the basis of moral concern and moral values.

Integrity is the bridge that links the responsibilities between personal life and professional carrier.

14. Explain profession and professionalism? (NOV/DEC 2008)

Profession is a job through which someone makes living.

Professionalism cover comprehensively all areas of practice of a particular profession. It requires

skills and responsibilities involved in engineering profession.

15. Give the importance of Lawrence Kohlberg‟s and Carol Gilligan‟s theory?

(NOV/DEC 2008)

Kohlberg gives greater emphasis to recognizing rights and abstract universal rules. Gilligan
Stresses the importance of maintaining personal relationships based onmutual caring.

16. What is consensus and controversy?

Consensus means agreement and controversy means disagreement. Both plays the vital roles
while considering moral autonomy.

17. What is the relationship between moral autonomy and authority?

Moral' autonomy is exercised on the basis of moral concern for other people and recognition of
good moral reasons. Authority provides the frame work inwhich learning can takes place in class
room/work place.

18. What are the types of virtues?

Self-direction – commitment, self-discipline, courage

Public spirited – justice, generosity.

Teamwork – cooperation, loyalty, respect for authority, leadership qualities.

Proficiency- technical skill, creativity.

19. What are the cardinal virtues/ Chief Virtues?

Wisdom - courage -temperament -justice

20. What are the concepts of pre-conventional & conventional level in Gilligan's theory?
Carol Gilligan recast the theory of Kohlberg as follows.

Pre conventional level: Desire to derive benefits for oneself. Right conduct is viewed in a selfish
manner as solely what is good for oneself.

Conventional level: Here the basic motive is willingness to sacrifice one's own interests and a strong
desire to hurt other's interests. Mostly women are always willing to give up their personal interests in
order to serve the needs of others.
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21. Define Ethics. Mention some universally accepted ethical standards. (NOV/DEC 13)

"Ethics" as the "discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligation," "a set of
moral principles or value" or "a theory or system of moral values." Ethics assists individuals in deciding
when an act is moral or immoral, right or wrong. Ethics can be grounded in natural law, religious tenets,
parental and family influence, educational experiences, life experiences, and cultural and societal
expectations. Ethical Standard such as Focus on ethics, Corporate culture, Managerial

22. Define moral values with suitable Example. (NOV/DEC 2013),(APR/MAY2015)

Moral values are the standards of good and evil, which govern an individual„s behavior and choices.
Individual„s morals may derive from society and government, religion, or self-Honesty, respect for others,
loyalty, responsibility for personal actions, generosity and kindness are all examples of moral values.

23. What is meant by normative enquiry?(APRIL/MAY 2011)

Normative ethics an approach to ethics that works from standards of right or good action. There are
three types of normative theories: virtue theories, deontological theories, and teleological theories.

24. Define “Professionalism‟. (APRIL/MAY 2015)

Professionalism means behaving in an ethical manner while assuming and fulfilling your rightful
responsibilities in every situation every time, without fail. To get a bit more granular, one can say that it
means, in part, conducting your affairs in such a way as to engender trust and confidence in every aspect
of your work.

25. Define Moral Autonomy (NOV/DEC2014)

Moral autonomy, usually traced back to Kant, is the capacity to deliberate and to give oneself the moral
law, rather than merely heeding the injunctions of others. Personal autonomy is the capacity to decide for
oneself and pursue a course of action in one's life, often regardless of any particular moral content.

PART-B
1. What are the stages of moral development according to Gilligan? Discuss

(R)(8)(MAY/JUNE 2012, (MAY/JUNE 2014)

2. Giilligans and Kohlsberg Theory.

(8)(MAY/JUNE2011,MAY/JUNE2012, (MAY/JUNE 2014), (APR/MAY2015)(NOV/DEC 2014 )

3. What are the uses of ethical theories explain? (16) (U)(MAY/JUNE 2012)

4. Explain

Professional responsibility (4)

Integrity and self-respect. (8)

Utilitarianism (4) (MAY/JUNE 2011) (U)

5. Explain Kohlberg„s theory in detail?(12)(U)(MAY/JUNE2011) (APR/MAY2015)

6. What are the scopes of engineering ethics? (R)(16) (MAY/JUNE 2011)

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7. What are the different ethical theories available for right action, self-interest, duty Ethics.

(MAY/JUNE 2010, (NOV/DEC 2013), (APR/MAY2015)

8. Discuss the different models of professional roles?(16)(U) (MAY/JUNE 10)

9. Highlight the importance of engineering ethics? (16) (R)(MAY/JUNE 11)

10. What are the general types of inquiries involved in engineering inspection? Explain in detail the specific
virtues of professional responsibility (U) (MAY/JUNE 2014, (NOV/DEC 2013), (APR/MAY2015)
(NOV/DEC 2014)

11. Explain the vital role of consensus and controversy while considering moral autonomy in engineering
ethics.(U) (MAY/JUNE 2014)

12. Write short notes on Moral autonomy(R) ( NOV/DEC 2013)

UNIT –III
ENGINEERING AS SOCIAL EXPERIMENTATION

PART A

1. What are the pros and cons of industrial standardization? (MAY/JUNE 2012)
• Accuracy in measurement, interchange ability, eases of handling.

• Prevention on of injury, death and loss of income or property.

• Fair value of price.

• Competence in carrying out tasks.

• Sound design, ease of communications.

2. What are the limitations of ethical code? (MAY/JUNE 2011)(NOV/DEC 2014)

Codes are restricted to general and vague wording.Codes can„t give a solution or method for
solving the internal conf Codes cannot serve as the final moral authority for professional conduct.

3. Define ethical accountability?(MAY/JUNE 2011)

The inherent tendency of accepting moral responsibility for the actions of an individual and also the
spontaneous willingness to subject himself to the moral scrutiny in an open-minded manner is called ethical
accountability.

4. Name the aerospace ace experts and scientists who were associated with the Launching of
challenger? (MAY/JUNE 2010)

Allan McDonald of Morton-Thiokol at Cape Kennedy, Arnold Thomson and Roger Bois joly who were the
seal experts at Morton-Thiokol and engineering managers, Bob Lund and Joe Kil minster were the experts
associated with the launching of challenger space program.

5. Name some of the important code of ethics published by engineering societies. (MAY/JUNE

2010)

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 National society of professional Engineers.
Board of Ethical review.

NSPE opinion of the Board of ethical review. American

Association of Engineering societies(AAES). Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).

6. What was the primary reason that caused the failure of space shuttle program

“challenger” (NOV/DEC 2010)

The consequent rupturing of O-ring that constitute the field joints due to extreme cold
weather was the primary reason that resulted in the failure of challenger space shuttle.

7. What are the problems with the law in engineering?(NOV/DEC 2010) a.

Minimal compliance

b. Many laws are without enforce able sanctions.

8. How engineering could be regarded as preventive technology?(MAY/JUNE 2009)

As per the familiar proverb that "prevention is better than cure", the ultimate process of
solving the scientific-based problems is not by curing alone, but effectively by the preventive
measures. Such type of defensive measures to prevent scientific ills is called preventive
technology.

9. What are the general features of morally responsible engineers?(MAY/JUNE 2009)

a.Conscientiousness.
b.Comprehensiveperspective
. c.Autonomy.
d.Accountability.

10. What is the specific role of informed consent in engineering experimentation?

• Informed consent is the vital concept to interact engineers with public society.

• It reflects the respects for the fundamental rights of minority people involved in the
experimental procedures.

• It enables both the public and clients to be aware of the practical risks and benefits of
that experimentation.

11. What are the differences between engineering and standard experiments?
Engineering experimentation involves human subjects as control groups,

unlike in the standard experimentation .The process of obtaining the informed consent from the human-
engineering experimentation. Unlike in the scientific experiments, new knowledge is not gained in
engineering experiment.

12. Differentiate scientific experiments and engineering projects?

Scientific experiments are conducted to gain new knowledge, while ―engineering projects are
experiments that are not necessarily designed to produce very much knowledge‖.

13. How Titanic tragedy be brought under engineering as social experimentation?

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 Failure in the far-sighted approach of not providing enough number of lifeboat sand non-
availability of proper safe exits handled to the sinking of titanic ship that caused the death toll of 1522
persons on board . These in designing are the reasons for bringing titanic tragedy under engineering as
social experimentation

14. Define the term moral autonomy.

The moral beliefs and attitudes of an individual with a committed action towards the specific principles
and goals is called moral autonomy.

15. What are the uncertainties occur in the model designs?

• Model used for the design calculations.

• Exact characteristics of the materials purchased.

• Constancies of materials used for processing and fabrication.

• Nature of the pressure, the finished product will encounter.

16. What is meant by engineering as experimentation? (MAY/JUNE2014) (APR/MAY

2015)(NOV/DEC 2014)

Experimentation (Preliminary tests or Simulations) plays a vital role in

the design of a product or process.

In all stages of converting a new engineering concept into a design likes,

• first rough cut design,

• usage of different types of materials and processes,

• detailed design,
• further stages of work design

17. State the importance of Ethics codes. (MAY/JUNE2014)

Engineers shall uphold and advance the integrity, honor, and dignity of the engineering

profession by:

• using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of the human race;

• being honest and impartial and serving with fidelity the public, their employers, and
clients.

• striving to increase the competence and prestige of the engineering profession.

• supporting the professional and technical societies of their discipline

18. What are the senses of engineering ethics?(NOV/DEC 2013)

An activity and area of inquiry.
• Ethical problems, issues and controversies.

• Ethical problems, issues and controversies. o Particular set of beliefs, attitudes

and habits.

• Morally correct.

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19. Define Engineering Ethics.(NOV/DEC 2013)

• Study of the moral issues and decisions confronting individuals and organizations
Engaged in engineering / profession.
• Study of related questions about the moral ideals, character, policies and relationships

• Of people and corporations involved in technological activity.

Moral standards / values and system of morals

20. List the advantages of industrial standards.(APR/MAY 2015) o

Increased marketability

o Reduced operational expenses

o Better management control

o Increased customer satisfaction

o Improved internal communication

PART-B

1. What is meant by professional responsibility and discuss the theories

about virtues? (MAY/JUNE2012)(R)

2. Explain a Balanced Outlook on Law (NOV/DEC2010)(U)

3. Where and how do moral problems arise in engineering?(An) (MAY/JUNE2009)

4. Discuss on the different roles played in the code of ethics set

by professional societies?
(U, MAY/JUNE 2012,MAY/JUNE2011,NOV/DEC 2013)(NOV/DEC2014)

5. Give justification on how the challenger disaster could have been avoided
by engineers?

6. How engineering project differ from standard experimentation? (U)(NOV/DEC 2013)

7. Discuss on the different roles played in the code of ethics set by professional societies?

8. Explain Engineers as responsible Experimenters.(U) (NOV/DEC 2012)

9. Briefly discuss the space shuttle challenger accident. What is the ethical problem involved in this?

10. Discuss about Research ethics. ?(U) (MAY/JUNE 2014) (NOV/DEC 2014)

11. What is meant by informal consent when bringing an experimental product to the market?

12. How the ethical codes provide discipline among the engineers?(An) (MAY/JUNE2014)

13. Explain the work ethics in detail. (U) (NOV/DEC 2013)

14. Whom do you think should take public accountability „for unsafe machine? From the Designer to the
final promoter, identify the roles and responsibilities towards safety and justify your views through a
detailed case study. (E)(APRIL/MAY 2012)
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15. Discuss briefly the role of industrial standards.(U) (APRIL/MAY 2015)

16. Discuss the ethical issues involved in challenger case study (U) (APRIL/MAY 2015)

17. Compare and contrast engineering experiments with standard experiments.(An) (NOV/DEC2014)

COURSE OUTCOME:

The students will understand various social issues, industrial standards, code of ethics and role
of professional ethics in engineering field.

UNIT-IV

SAFETY, RESPONSIBILITIES AND RIGHTS

SYLLABUS: Safety and Risk – Assessment of Safety and Risk – Risk Benefit Analysis and Reducing Risk –
Respect for Authority – Collective Bargaining – Confidentiality – Conflicts of Interest – Occupational Crime –
Professional Rights – Employee Rights – Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) – Discrimination.

COURSE OBJECTIVE: To inculcate knowledge and exposure on Safety and Risk, Risk Benefit

Analysis and have an idea about the Collective Bargaining, Confidentiality, Professional, Employee,
Intellectual Property Rights

PART A

(ii) What is conflict Interest?( MAY/JUNE 2012)

Types of Conflicts of interest

Actual conflict of interest

Potential conflict of interest
Apparent conflict of interest

Interest in other companies

Moonlighting

Insider information

• What are the reasons for Risk-Benefit Analysis? (NOV/DEC 2011, NOV/DEC 2013))

Risk-benefit analysis is concerned with the advisability of undertaking a project.

It helps in deciding which design has greater advantages.

It assists the engineers to identify a particular designs cores higher with that of t h e another one.

• What are the safety measures an engineer must know before assessing a risk of any
product?(MAY/JUNE 2009)

The factors are:

Does the engineer have the right data?

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 Is he satisfied with the present design?

How does he test the safety of a product?

How does he measure and weight he risks with benefits for a product.

• Explain the two types of Risk?( (MAY/JUNE 2012)

Personal Risk:

An individual, who is given sufficient information, will be in a position to

Decide whether to take part in a risky activity or not . They are more ready to take on voluntary risks than in
voluntary risks.

ii. Public Risks:

Risks and benefits to the public are more easily determined than to individuals, as
larger number of people is taken in to account .Involuntary risks are found here.

5. Give the reasons for the Three Mile Island disaster?

In adequate training to the operators.

Use of B&W reactors.

6. Define “risk‟.(May/June 2011)(NOV/DEC2014)

A risk is the potential that something unwanted and harmful may occur.Risk = Probability X
Consequences.

7. What do you mean by voluntary risk? (May/June 2010, May/June 2010)

If a person knowingly takes any risk, then he feels it safe. In contrast, if the same risk is
forced to him, then he feels it unsafe.

In simple terms the voluntary risks are considered as safe and the involuntary risks are considered
as unsafe.

8. What is safe risk and acceptability of risk? (IT Dec 2009,May 2010)
Acceptability of risk:

A risk is acceptable when those affected are generally no longer apprehensive about it.
Apprehensiveness mainly depends on how the risk is perceived by the people.

Safe Risk:

If a person knowingly takes any risk then he feels it safe. In the same way voluntary risks
are considered as safe risk

9. List the methods that can be applied when testing is inappropriate. (May/june 2009
)(NOV/DEC2014)

Scenario Analysis
Failure modes and effects analysis

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 Fault free analysis
Event free analysis

10. What is the use of knowledge of risk acceptance to engineers?

Though past experience and historical data give better information about safety
of products designing there are still inadequate .The reasons are

a. The information is not freely shared among industries

b. There also new applications of old technologies that provides available data, which are less useful.

c. So, in order to access the risk of a product, the engineers must share their knowledge and
information with others in a free manner.

• What are the positive uncertainties in determining risks?

Purpose of designing

Application of the product

Materials and the skill used for producing the product

What is the Risk Transfer?

It refers to the legal assignment of the cost of certain potential losses from one party to
another. The most common way of affecting such transfer is by insurance.

What are the steps involved in design for safety?

1. Define the problem 2.Generate alternate solutions

3. Analyses each solution 4.Test the solution
5. Select the best solution 6 .Implement the chosen solution.

State the industrial definition on safety .(MAY/JUNE 2014)

A ship in harbor is safe, but that is not what ships are built for‖ – John A. Shedd

‗A thing is safe if its risks are judged to be acceptable„ - William W. Lawrence

We buy an ill-designed Iron box in a sale-> Underestimating risk

We judge fluoride in water can kill lots of people -> Overestimating risk
We hire a taxi, without thinking about its safety -> Not estimating risk

What is meant by Disaster? (MAY/JUNE 2014, NOV/DEC 2013))

A DISASTER = A seriously disruptive event + A state of unprepared ness. e.g.,

Titanic collision with an iceberg, at night: Emergency

Fewer lifeboats, inadequate training and warnings of icebergs unheeded ->Disaster

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 What is informed consent? (MAY/JUNE 2011)(APR/MAY 2015)

Informed consent is the process by which the treating health care provider discloses appropriate information to
a competent patient so that the patient may make a voluntary choice to accept or refuse treatment. It originates
from the legal and ethical right the patient has to direct what happens to her body and from the ethical duty of the
physician to involve the patient in her health care.

17. What is the use of risk analysis? (APR/MAY 2015)

Risk analysis is the process of defining and analyzing the dangers to individuals, businesses and government
agencies posed by potential natural and human-caused adverse events.

8. What is collegiality?( May/June 2011, Nov/June 2009, NOV/DEC 2014),(APR/MAY2015) Collegiality is a kind
of connectedness grounded in respect for professional expertise and in a

commitment to the goals and values of the profession and collegiality includes a disposition to support and
cooperate with one„s colleagues.

What are the elements of collegiality? ( May/June 2010, NOV/DEC 2014)

Respect

Commitment

Connectedness

Cooperation

20. What do you meant by employee rights and lists its categories? (Nov/Dec 2012)

Employee rights are rights, moral or legal, that involve the status of being an employee. They include some
professional rights that apply to the employer-employee relationship.

21. What is the Basic Right of Professional Conscience? (MAY/JUNE 2011)

The right to do what everyone agrees it is obligatory for the professional engineers to do the

basic professional right is an entitlement giving one the moral authority to act without interference from others.

22. What is Institutional Recognition of Rights? (NOV/DEC 2011)

One should have moral right, having it respected by others and given

Recognition with in the institution is the other. Koning states in 1975, conference on Engineering Ethics- that
one item that should be in the code of ethics is that engineers have the right at all times to exercise the dictates of
their own conscience.

23. State the specific right.

Specific rights can be stated as a particular professional obligation to apply

Professional rights according to specific circumstances.

24. What are the two basic rights of professional/conscience

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 First is to proceed piecemeal by reiterating the justification given for the specific professional duties
Second, is to justify the right of professional conscience, which involves grounding it more directly in the ethical
theories, for organizing moral reflections and approaching practical probles.

25. What is Duty Ethics? (May/June 2011)

Duty ethics rights are not the ultimate moral appeal . Engineers have a right to do something it is only because
other have duties or obligations to allow him to do it . No employer has the right to threat engineers with loss of
the jobs for refusing to work on project they see as likely to lead to the death or injury of unsuspecting victims.

26. What is Utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism will justify the right of professional conscience by referring to the

Basic goal of producing the most good for the greatest number of people the public good is certain to observed
by allowing professionals to meet their obligations to the public.

27. What is meant by collective Bargaining?(May/June 2014)

Collective bargaining is a process of negotiations between employers and a group of employees aimed at
reaching agreements to regulate working conditions. The interests of the employees are commonly presented by
representatives of a to which the employees belong. The collective agreements reached by these negotiations
usually set out wage scales, working hours, training, health and safety, overtime, grievance mechanisms, and
rights to participate in workplace or company affairs

28. What is meant by Occupational crime? (May/June 2014)

Occupational Crime

Occupational crimes are illegal acts made possible through one„s lawful employment. It is the
secretive violation of laws regulating work activities.

When committed by office workers or professionals, occupational crime is called ‗white collar crime„.

29. List the factors that shape the self confidence in a person. (NOV/DEC 2013),(APR/MAY2015)

Emphasize Strengths

Take Risks.

Use Self-Talk.
Self-Evaluate.

30. Difference between Bribe and Gift. (NOV/DEC 2014)

Gift: Something of value given without the expectation of return

Bribe: Something of value given with the hope of a future influence or benefit

PART-B

1. Discuss the notion of safe exit using evacuation plans for communities near power plants or
Chemical processing plants? (U) (May/June 2010) (MAY/JUNE 2014)

2. What is risk -benefit analysis? Explain the different analytical method used when testing is

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 inappropriate? (U) (Nov/Dec 2010, May/June2011) (NOV/DEC 2014)

3. State the necessity of risk benefit analysis (R)(MAY/JUNE 2014)

4. Discuss the Bhopal disaster .Explain the responsibility of engineer in the design stage itself before the
event of an accident. (U) MAY/JUNE 2014)(APR/MAY 2015)

5. Define the term risk and safety .How will an engineer assess the safety? (An)(NOV/DEC 2014)

6. What are the factors that affect risk acceptability? What is the use of knowledge of risk acceptance
to engineers? (U) (NOV/DEC 2013)

7. Describe the concept of (16) (R) (Apr/May 2015)

1) Risk benefits analysis.

2) Fault tree analysis.

8. Explain in detail the effect of information on risk assessment with an example

9. Discuss t h e concept o f safety exists in the Chernobyl Case Studies(U)(NOV/DEC 2014)

10. Write short notes on

Whistle blowing

Occupational crime

Intellectual property rights

Discrimination

Institution Authority (R, APRIL/ MAY 2013,NOV/DEC 2013)( APRIL/ MAY 2015)

11. Name and describe four important responsibilities of engineers as employees.(U)(NOV/DEC 2011)

12. Write a detailed note about the employee rights and professional rights that the engineers are
entitled. (APRIL/ MAY 2010), (NOV/DEC 2013) ,(APRIL/ MAY 2015)(R)

13. Discuss about Collegiality and Loyalty(U)(MAY/JUNE 2014) (NOV/DEC 2014)

14. What are the main element of IPR ?Give example of discrimination(MAY/JUNE 2014)(R)

15. Discuss human rights,professional rights and employee rights in an engineer field.(U)

16. Discuss the significance of intellectual property rights.Also explain the legislations covering
intellectual property rights in india.(NOV/DEC 2013) (NOV/DEC 2014)(U)

17. Discuss the significance of loyalty and collegiality in team work? (APRIL/ MAY 2015)(U)

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 UNIT V

GLOBAL ISSUES

PART A

1. What is embezzlement? (APRIL/ MAY 2011)

The process of computing computer crimes such as stealing or cheating clients and conspiracy in the fraudulent
uses of computer networks is called embezzlement.

2. What the hired guns? (APRIL/ MAY 2011)

Engineers are hired by attorneys to help them to establish the facts in away favorable to their clients. The hired
guns violate the standards of honesty and also due care in conducting investigations.

3. What is technology transfer? (APRIL/ MAY 2010)

Technology transfer is a process of changing the technology to a new setting and implementing it. Technology
includes hardware such as machines and installations as well as techniques such as technical, organizational and
managerial skills and procedures.

4. What does moral leadership mean?(APRIL/MAY2010) (NOV/DEC 2014)

Whenever the goals of a leader become permissible and also morally valuable, it is known as moral leadership.
Moral leadership also means that employing morally acceptable ways to motivate the groups to move towards morally
desirable ways. The ways are depending on the situations.

5. State the most important ethical mistake made by the multinational corporation which caused Bhopal gas
plant disaster. (NOV/DEC 2010)

The tanks used to store Methyl Iso-cyanate were overloaded to a tune of 75%. o The
emergency plant was also filled with a large amount of chemicals.

o The entire refrigeration unit had been shut down as a measure to reduce the cost and this led to
increase of temperatures to a higher level.

o One of the disappointed workers unscrewed a pressure gauge on a tank and inserted a hosepipe into it,
knowing that it would cause damage, but not to this extent.

o Scrubber has also been shut down.

o Flare tower was also not in an operating condition.

o Unfortunately there were no emergency drills or evacuation plants available.

6. Define Conflict resolution. (APRIL/ MAY 2010)

Conflict resolution is the result based on some objective standard and corporate usually uses general standards
for evaluating the results.

7. What is contextualize? (APRIL/MAY 2010)

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 In accordance to Gilligan women try hard to preserve personal relationship will all people. This context-
oriented emphasis on maintaining personal relationship is called as ethics of care in contrast with ethics of rules and
rights.

8. What are ethical pluralism and ethical relativism? (APRIL/MAY 2010)

Ethical pluralism: According to this view there may be alternative moral perspectives that are reasonable, but
no one of which must be accepted completely by all rational and morally concerned persons.

Ethical relativism:

Actions are morally right when they are approved by law or custom they are wrong when they violate laws or
customers.

9. What should an ethical expert witness, even though hired by a company, expected to do? ( APRIL/MAY
2010)

Engineers should not become the hired-guns to their clients, but instead remain as objective as humanly
possible in their investigations and the conclusions they reach .they should avoid biases resulting from money ego,
and sympathy.

10. What are the international rights listed by Donaldson? (NOV/DEC 2014)

Thomas Donaldson in his book ‗The ethics of International Business„ has listed the following as

the International rights:

The right to freedom of physical movement
The right to ownership of property
The right to freedom from torture

The right to a fair trial

The right to nondiscriminatory treatment

The right to physical security

The right to freedom of speech and association

The right to minimal education

The right to political participation

The right to subsistence.

11. Define appropriate technology? (IT Nov 2008)

Appropriate technology refers to the identification, transfer and implementation of the most

suitable technology for a new set of conditions.

12. List out four examples for Multinational Corporation. (IT Nov 2010)

Large corporations having investment and business in number of countries are known as Multinational or
Transnational corporation. Some of them are : Hindustan Lever, Ford, Toyota, Sony, LG, Smith Kline Beecham, ITC,
Ponds etc.
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13. Define computer ethics?(DEC/NOV2010)

Computers contribute to a variety of moral problems. In order to evaluate andact appropriately

with such problems, a new field of applied ethics termed as ‗computer ethics„ has been developed.

The study of ethical issues that are associated with computer, its peripheral and accesses series and the
computing profession is called as computer ethics.

14. What is meant by globalization?

Our lives are increasingly dependent upon the goods/services produced over the world and are
influenced by the business from around all the corners of the world. In general world has become a global village and
have a global economy. The increasing international flow of capital, technology, trade, and people have had the effects
of changing the nature of local organizations governments and people of countries and have led to social changes and
developments.

15. What are the three senses of relative values? (DEC/ NOV 2012)
Ethical Relativism

Descriptive Relativism

Moral Relativism

16. What are the normal issues arise in Multinational Corporation?(MAY/JUNE 2014)

Ethical dilemmas faced by certain companies may be specific to their industry or company, other types of
ethical issues are common to all types of companies. Handling ethical decisions with wisdom is especially important for
small businesses, given the potentially devastating effects these companies may face if such issues aren't handled
correctly.

17. Differentiate the Eye witness and expert witness in the legal system (MAY/JUNE 2014)

An eyewitness is one who testifies what they perceived through his or her senses (e.g. seeing, hearing, smelling,
touching). That perception might be either with the unaided human sense or with the aid of an instrument, e.g.,
microscope or stethoscope, or by other scientific means, e.g.a chemical reagent which changes color in the presence of a
particular substance

An expert witness is one who allegedly has specialized knowledge relevant to the matter of interest, which
knowledge purportedly helps to either make sense of other evidence, including other testimony, documentary evidence
or physical evidence (e.g., a fingerprint)

18. What is meant by Moral Leadership (NOV/DEC 2013)

Moral Leadership is a very different kind of leadership. Rather than aspiring to being followed, Moral
Leaders aim to serve. Instead of showcasing their own skills, Moral Leaders tend to develop the capacities of others.

19. Define the term „honesty‟ and „moral leadership‟

Honesty :A facet of moral character that connotes positive and virtuous attributes such as integrity,
truthfulness, and straightforwardness, along with the absence of lying, cheating, or theft „Moral L
eadership‟: A process of social influence in which one person enlists the aid and support of others in
accomplishing a common task.
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20. What do you understand by „business ethics‟?

Business ethics (also corporate ethics) is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics that examines
ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment. It applies to all aspects of
business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations.

PART B

1. Explain in detail the issues pertaining to environment issues?

2. Describe the Bhopal Gas Tragedy and its effects?(R)(APRIL/MAY 11)

3. Is there any relationship among engineering ecology and economics? discuss.(An)(NOV/DEC 2012)

4. Write briefly on(R)

Engineer used as expert witness.

Engineers as good managers.

(iii) Engineers with social responsibilities.(MAY/JUNE 2013)

5. Discuss the following in detail(MAY/JUNE 2014)(U)

Business Ethics

Environmental Ethics
Computer Ethics
Weapons Development(NOV/DEC 2013)

6. What is environment ethics?Why it is important to study. Discuss any environment issues in the ethical point of
view to engineers. (NOV/DEC 2013),(APR/MAY 2015) (NOV/DEC 2014)(An)

7. Discuss the following in detail (MAY/JUNE 2014)(U)

Engineers as Managers

Engineers as advisors

Engineers as consultant

Moral leadership

8. Discuss the various global issues that have an impact on business.(U)(APR/MAY2015)

9. Discuss the ethical issues related to computer ethics and internet (U)(NOV/DEC2014)

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