GNED03

Mathematics in the Modern World

DATA
MANAGEMENT Chapter 4
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After the completion of the unit, students will be able to:
use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data;
use the methods of linear regression and correlations to predict the
value of a variable given certain conditions; and
advocate the use of statistical data in making important decisions.
VARIABLES
VARIABLES
being classified as qualitative or
quantitative, variables can be
classified by how they are
categorized, counted, or
measured.
DATA
DATA
the values (measurements or
observations) that the variables
can assume.
 EXAMPLE

A study conducted at Manatee Community College

revealed that students who attended class 95 to 100% of
the time usually received an A in the class. Students who
attended class 80 to 90% of the time usually received a B
or C in the class. Students who attended class less than
80% of the time usually received a D or an F or eventually
withdrew from the class.
Variables classified as qualitative or quantitative

Qualitative variables
variables that can be placed into distinct categories,
according to some characteristic or attribute

e.g. gender, religious preference and geographic locations

Quantitative variables
numerical and can be ordered or ranked

e.g. age, heights, weights, and body temperatures

Quantitative variables can be further classified into two
groups: discrete and continuous

DISCRETE VARIABLES

can be assigned values such as 0, 1, 2, 3 and are said to be

countable; assume values that can be counted.

e.g. number of children in a family, the number of students in a

classroom, and the number of calls received by a switchboard
operator each day for a month
Quantitative variables can be further classified into two
groups: discrete and continuous

CONTINUOUS VARIABLES

can assume an infinite number of values in an interval

between any two specific values; obtained by
measuring; often include fractions and decimals

e.g. pressure, height, mass, weight, density, volume,

temperature, and distance
MEASUREMENT
SCALES
 NOMINAL LEVEL OF
MEASUREMENT
classifies data into mutually exclusive (nonoverlapping)
categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on
the data

Example: Name, Gender, Eye color, Religion, Nationality

 NOMINAL

ORDINAL LEVEL OF
MEASUREMENT
classifies data into categories that can be ranked; however,
precise differences between the ranks do not exist

Example: Grade, Class Ranking, Rating Scale

 NOMINAL | ORDINAL

INTERVAL LEVEL OF
MEASUREMENT
ranks data, and precise differences between units of
measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero

Example: Temperature, IQ
 NOMINAL | ORDINAL | INTERVAL

RATIO LEVEL OF
MEASUREMENT
possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement,
and there exists a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist
when the same variable is measured on two different
members of the population

Example: Age, Height, Weight, Time

IDENTIFY THE LEVEL OF SCALE OF MEASUREMENT FOR THE
FOLLOWING GIVEN EXAMPLE.

Judging a
NCAE Score
singing contest

Salary Major field

Student Number Zip code

 EXAMPLE
The chart shows the number of job-related injuries for each
of the transportation industries for 1998.
1. What are the variables under study?
Industry Number of injuries 2. Categorize each variable as quantitative or qualitative.
3. Categorize each quantitative variable as discrete or
Railroad 4520
continuous.
Intercity bus 5100 4. Identify the level of measurement for each variable.
5. The railroad is shown as the safest transportation
Subway 6850 industry. Does that mean railroads have fewer accidents
than the other industries? Explain.
Trucking 7144
6. What factors other than safety influence a person’s
Airline 9950 choice of transportation?
7. From the information given, comment on the relationship
between the variables.
METHODS OF
DATA
COLLECTION
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Telephone Surveys
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Mailed Questionnaire
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Personal Interview
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Internet Survey
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Researchers use samples to collect data and information about a particular
variable from a population.
Samples save time, money, and may actually allow a researcher to collect better
information.
Samples need to be representative of the population or they are meaningless in
drawing conclusions about the population.
Sampling must be done in a way that the samples are unbiased—that each
subject in the population has an equal chance of being in the sample
Sample
the representative of the population
Probability Sampling Techniques

a sample of size n from a

Simple Random population N
all the elements of the population
Sampling nonzero chances of being part of
the sample
Probability Sampling Techniques

organizing the elements of the

population into list
Systematic first element is arbitrarily
Random Sampling selected
followed by determined kth
element after the first element
Probability Sampling Techniques

dividing the population into

groups called "strata"
Stratified Random classification of category (age,
Sampling sex, income, etc)
each element of the population
belongs exactly to stratum
Probability Sampling Techniques

the population is divided into

groups called clusters
Cluster Sampling mainly geographical such as
barangays, cities, or
municipalities
Example
Identify the sampling method used in each of the following scenarios such as simple random sampling,
systematic random sampling, stratified, or cluster sampling.
1. From a list containing the names of 500 members of an alumni association, a sample of size 50 is obtained
by including every 10th person in the list.
2. The students in agiven school are classified according to years level. Twenty students from each group
will be randomly chosen to participate in a study involving students' study habits.
3. A survey on the satisfaction of home owners living in a certain subdivision with the secretary features in
their place is to be conducted. A sample of 100 homeowners will be drawn for this survey by assigning a
number from 1 to 1000 to the homeowners based on an alphabetical list. One hundred random numbers
are generated using a random number generator available in the internet and these will be used to
determine the homeowners who will participate in the survey.
4. All students who belong to ten chosen sections in a certain school will participate in a study designed to
improve students' critical thinking skills.
Observational study
the researcher merely observes what is happening or
what has happened in the past and tries to draw
conclusions based on these observations.

Experimental study
the researcher manipulates one of the variables and
tries to determine how the manipulation influences
other variables.
Experiments have at least two groups:

Treatment Group
the group(s) in the sample that receives a treatment or
experimental condition.

Control Group
the group in the sample that is treated identically in all
respects to the treatment group EXCEPT that they don’t
receive the active treatment.
Placebo
a treatment that looks like a real drug but has no active
ingredient

Placebo Effect
when people take a placebo and it works like the
treatment or better
Independent Variable
the variable that is being manipulated by the researcher
(also called the explanatory variable).

Dependent Variable
the response to the independent variable or the result of
the explanatory variable (also called the response or
outcome variable).
Advantages of Experiments
The effect of an explanatory variable can be studied
more precisely.
Researcher has (some) control over selecting
participants, assigning them to groups, and
manipulating the independent variable.
Cause and effect relationships can be established using
randomized experiments (e.g., smoking causes cancer
in lab rats). Note: In order to make cause and effect
conclusions in an experiment, the subjects must be
randomly assigned among the treatment groups.
Disadvantages of Experiments

May occur in unnatural settings (e.g., laboratories).

Hawthorne Effect - when subjects know they are
participating in an experiment and change their
behavior in ways that affect the results of the study.
(weight loss studies)
Not all variables can be controlled for in a study.
Advantages of Observational
Studies
Occur in natural settings.
Allows us to study situations for which it would be
illegal/unethical to conduct an experiment (e.g., rape,
suicide, illegal drug use).
Disadvantages of
Observational Studies
Cannot make cause and effect conclusions
because of confounding variables.
Data quality may be poor if researcher didn’t
collect the data.
Confounding variables – one that influences the
dependent or outcome variable but was not
separated from the independent variable (e.g.,
vitamins and health, weight and income).
 GATHERING, ORGANIZING,
REPRESENTING AND
INTERPRETING DATA

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION | METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION | FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

DATA PRESENTATION
An essential step before further statistical
analysis is carried out
Data are summarized and displayed enabling
researchers, managers and decision-makers to
observe important features of the data and
provide insight into the type of model and
analysis that should be used.
 Text presentation
Text is the main method of conveying information
as it is used to explain results and trends and
provide contextual information.
Using text to present data, is fundamentally the
use of paragraphs or sentences.
Text can be used to provide interpretation or
emphasize certain data.

example
In a bandh call given on 08 September 2005 protesting the hike in
prices of petrol and diesel, 5 petrol pumps were found open and
17 were closed whereas 2 schools were closed and remaining 9
schools were found open in a town of Bihar.
 Tables
A table shows the raw data presented in rows and
columns. It is designed to simplify the presentation and
to facilitate quick comparison.
A table shows all data at once and is Precise too.
However, when using a table for data presentation, it
can be hard to interpret or see patterns

Classification used in tabulation is of four kinds:

Qualitative • Quantitative • Temporal and • Spatial
Qualitative classification
Quantitative classification
Temporal classification
Spatial classification
 Diagrams
a translates quite effectively the highly abstract ideas
contained in numbers into more concrete and easily
comprehensible form
may be less accurate but are much more effective than
tables in presenting the data

There are various kinds of diagrams in common use

Geometric diagram
Frequency diagram
Arithmetic line graph
Geometric Diagram
Bar diagram and pie diagram come in the category of
geometric diagram
Frequency Diagram
Data in the form of grouped frequency distributions are
generally represented by frequency diagrams like
histogram, frequency polygon, frequency curve and
ogive.
Arithmetic Line Graph
An arithmetic line graph is also called time series
graph. In this graph, time(hour, day/date, week, month,
year, etc.) is plotted along x-axis and the value of the
variable (time series data) along y-axis.
It helps in understanding the trend, periodicity, etc., in
a long term time series data.
 GATHERING, ORGANIZING,
REPRESENTING AND
INTERPRETING DATA

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION | METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION | FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
the organization of raw data in table form,
using classes and frequencies
Suppose a researcher wished to do a study on the ages of the top 50 wealthiest
people in the world. The researcher first would have to get the data on the ages of the
people. In this case, these ages are listed in Forbes Magazine. When the data are in
original form, they are called raw data and are listed next.

49 57 38 73 81
74 59 76 65 69
54 56 69 68 78
65 85 49 69 61
48 81 68 37 43
78 82 43 64 67
52 56 81 77 79
85 40 85 59 80
60 71 57 61 69
61 83 90 87 74
 class
a quantitative or qualitative category
where raw data value is placed

frequency
the number of data values contained in a specific class
frequency distribution
Two types of frequency distributions that are most often used

CATEGORICAL FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
CATEGORICAL FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTIONS
used for data that can be placed in specific
categories, such as nominal- or ordinal-level
data
Distribution of Blood Types
Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood test to determine their blood type.
The data set is

Construct a frequency distribution for the data

CATEGORICAL FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
Class Tally Frequency Percent
GROUPED FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTIONS
When the range of the data is large, the data
must be grouped into classes that are more
than one unit in width
GROUP FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
Class limits Class boundaries Tally Frequency

These numbers are

lower class limit - used to separate the
upper class limit classes so that there
are no gaps in the
class width frequency
distribution

the class limits should have the same decimal place value as the data, but the class
boundaries should have one additional place value and end in a 5
GROUP FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
Rules in constructing a frequency distribution

1. There should be between 5 and 20 classes.

2. It is preferable but not absolutely necessary that the class
width be an odd number
3. The classes must be mutually exclusive
4. The classes must be continuous
5. The classes must be exhaustive.
6. The classes must be equal in width.
Record High Temperatures
These data represent the record high temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit (‘F) for
each of the 50 states. Construct a grouped frequency distribution for the data using
7 classes
MPGs for SUVs
The data shown here represent the number of miles per gallon (mpg) that 30
selected four-wheel-drive sports utility vehicles obtained in city driving. Construct a
frequency distribution, and analyze the distribution