Research Paper

GEOSPHERE Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sediments in the San Jacinto

Fold Belt: Paleogeographic and geodynamic implications for the
GEOSPHERE, v. 16, no. 1 northern Andes and the southern Caribbean
https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02059.1 E. Osorio-Granada1, A. Pardo-Trujillo1, S.A. Restrepo-Moreno2,3, F. Gallego1, J. Muñoz1, A. Plata1, R. Trejos-Tamayo1, F. Vallejo1, A. Barbosa-Espitia1,3,
F.J. Cardona-Sánchez1, D.A. Foster3, and G. Kamenov3
13 figures; 1 set of supplemental files 1
Departamento de Ciencias Geológicas, Grupo de Investigaciones en Estratigrafía y Vulcanología (GIEV-Cumanday), Instituto de Investigaciones en Estratigrafía (IIES), Universidad de Caldas,
Manizales 1700004, Colombia
CORRESPONDENCE: [email protected]
2
Departamento de Geociencias y Medio Ambiente, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Medellín 050036, Colombia
3
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA

CITATION: Osorio-Granada, E., Pardo-Trujillo, A.,

Restrepo-Moreno, S.A., Gallego, F., Muñoz, J., Plata,
A., Trejos-Tamayo, R., Vallejo, F., Barbosa-Espitia, A., ABSTRACT the sediments were deposited in tropical coastal and located in the Caribbean plains of northwestern
Cardona-Sánchez, F.J., Foster, D.A., and Kamenov,
shallow marine environments. The sediments were Colombia (e.g., the northern termination of the
G., 2020, Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sedi-
ments in the San Jacinto Fold Belt: Paleogeographic Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata of the San Jacinto transported by short rivers from the crystalline mas‑ Central and Western Cordilleras). This geographic
and geodynamic implications for the northern Andes Fold Belt (Colombian Caribbean) provide insights sifs of the Lower Magdalena Valley and the northern position coincides with the transition between the
and the southern Caribbean: Geosphere, v. 16, no. 1, about sedimentary environments and paleogeo‑ Central Cordillera basements, while distal transport northern Andes and the South Caribbean deformed
p. 210–228, https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02059.1.
graphic evolution in the transition between the of sediments may have occurred along longer rivers, belt (Figs. 1 and 2). Throughout the Cenozoic, this
Science Editor: David E. Fastovsky
northern Andes and the South Caribbean deformed which brought sediments from southern regions region has been strongly influenced by the conver-
Associate Editor: Andrea Fildani belt. We report new provenance (conventional located between the Central and Western Cordilleras. gence of the South American and Caribbean plates
sandstone petrography, heavy mineral analysis, and and by the collisional history of the Panamá-Chocó
Received 10 September 2018 detrital zircon U‑Pb geochronology and typology) block (Pindell and Kennan, 2009; Farris et al., 2011;
Revision received 12 June 2019 and micropaleontologic data (palynology, calcareous ■■ INTRODUCTION Montes et al., 2015).
Accepted 4 September 2019
nannofossils, and foraminifera) in samples collected Previous geological studies have proposed
Published online 21 November 2019
from the lower Eocene (San Cayetano Formation) The Paleogene period in the northern Andes different tectonic models for the evolution of the
and upper Eocene–Oligocene (Toluviejo and Ciénaga and the onshore Colombian Caribbean basins was onshore Caribbean region of Colombia. For instance,
de Oro Formations) rocks in boreholes drilled by the characterized by an increase in morphotectonic Caro and Spratt (2003) proposed a paleorift tec-
Colombian Agencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos as activity (Van der Hammen, 1961; Restrepo-​Moreno, tonic setting during the Late Cretaceous, which was
well as from recently exposed Oligocene outcrops 2009; Villagómez et al., 2011; Spikings et al., 2015; inverted, along with the Sinú fold belt, during the
from the Ciénaga de Oro Formation. Sandstone Restrepo-​ Moreno et al., 2019) that modified Cenozoic. In contrast, Rossello et al. (2011) ques-
petrography shows modal variations, with high regional paleogeography, triggering the produc- tioned the Pacific origin of the Caribbean plate and
feldspar content in the lower Eocene rocks and tion and transport of detrital materials and the suggested a passive continental margin during the
high quartz content in the Oligocene deposits. This generation of synorogenic basins (Ayala et al., 2012; Late Cretaceous–​Paleogene, which was deformed
shift in compositional maturity may be due to cli‑ Mora-​Bohórquez et al., 2017; Mora et al., 2017). Sed- by thin-skinned faulting and gravity sliding during
matic variations, tectonic activity, and/or changes in imentary sequences in this region keep a record of the middle Miocene. Currently, a widely accepted
source areas. Heavy mineral analyses indicate varia‑ uplift, exhumation, erosion, sediment production, model posits that the SJFB basin originated as an
tions that suggest sources primarily related to felsic and deposition in the northern Andes (Hernández accretionary prism that formed in the Late Creta-
igneous and/or low-grade metamorphic and mafic and Jaramillo, 2009; Nie et al., 2012; Bernal-Olaya ceous and was subsequently deformed during the
and ultramafic rocks. Zircon U‑Pb geochronology dis‑ et al., 2015; Mora et al., 2018; Cardona et al., 2018). Oligocene (Duque-Caro, 1972, 1980; Dewey and Pin-
plays age populations mainly in the Late Cretaceous, Additionally, some of these units have been the dell, 1985; Toto and Kellogg, 1992; Guzmán et al.,
Late Jurassic, Permian–Triassic, and Precambrian (ca. focus of research because the high number of oil 2004; Cardona et al., 2012). This last model implies
900–1500 Ma). In addition, zircon typology analyses and gas seeps reveals an active petroleum system the accretion of oceanic terranes (Cardona et al.,
indicate that the igneous zircons came primarily from (e.g., Barrero et al., 2007). The San Jacinto Fold 2012; Mora et al., 2017; Mora-Bohórquez et al.,
This paper is published under the terms of the monzogranites and granodiorites. Finally, the micro‑ Belt (SJFB) consists of a NE-trending, relatively low 2017) and the formation of a forearc basin related
CC‑BY-NC license. paleontologic and sedimentary data sets indicate that topographic structure (elevation <1000 m) that is to the SJFB and the Lower Magdalena Valley (LMV)
© 2019 The Authors

GEOSPHERE | Volume 16 | Number 1 Osorio-Granada et al. | Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sediments in the San Jacinto Fold Belt
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80°0'0"W 75°0'0"W
A A′
20 m NW SJFB LMV SE
m /yr 0
B-B′
Caribbean

Be ean
TWT ?
plate

ed bb
(sec)

lt
Buried accreted
OCFS

rm ri
4
oceanic basement

fo Ca
SNSM

De uth
B′ Inferred accreted

So
Caribbean oceanic crust Buried northern Andes
10°0'0"N

(poor seismic image) continental basement

A 8
Caribbean

S MB
LMV plate

B
SFB Figure 1. Tectonic framework, basement configura‑

F
A′ 0 50 100 150 km

SJF
tion, and sedimentary basins of the northwestern
Panamá-Chocó margin of South America, based on seismic pro‑
LEGEND
b lock files and well data (modified from Mora et al.,
MMV B-B′
Quaternary deposits Cross section 2017). CC—Central Cordillera; EC—Eastern Cordil‑
WC B r
m/y lera; WC—Western Cordillera; SJFB—San Jacinto
CC 6m Upper Eocene to recent Fault
Fold Belt; SFB—Sinú fold belt; LMV—Lower Mag‑
dalena Valley; MMV—Middle Magdalena Valley;

RFS
sediments
RFS—Romeral Fault System; SMBF—Santa Marta–
Cocos EC Cretaceous to lower Eocene Bucaramanga fault system; OCFS—Oca fault system;
plate sediments SNSM—Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta; SJD—San
5°0′0″N

/yr Jorge depocenter; MCH—Magangué-​Cicuco high;

54 mm Oceanic Cretaceous basement
PD—Plato depocenter; EDH—El Dificil high; TWT—
South two-way traveltime. Plate convergence vectors are
American plate Oceanic Caribbean plate from Trenkamp et al. (2002).

Nazca 0 100 200 Permian–Triassic and Cretaceous

plate km igneous and metamorphic basement

B′
B NE
SW CC SJD MCH PD EDH SNSM
0
Depth A-A′
(m) Buried northen Andes
500

continental basement
?
1000

0 100 200 300 km

(Mantilla-Pimiento et al., 2009; Mora et al., 2018; margin induced the first tectonic event, which is is characterized by thick successions of sandstones
Mora-Bohórquez et al., 2017). recognized by an early Paleocene unconformity interlayered with mudrocks and some coal lay-
The SJFB and adjacent LMV are composed of and an increase in coarse-grained terrigenous ers that belong to the Ciénaga de Oro Formation
sedimentary rocks spanning the Late Cretaceous to deposits of the upper Paleocene–lower Eocene San (Guzmán et al., 2004; Mora et al., 2018). During the
Pliocene, although they exhibit regional unconfor- Cayetano Formation (Guzmán et al., 2004; Mora et Neogene tectonic inversion of the SJFB and the
mities (Flinch, 2003; Guzmán et al., 2004; Cardona et al., 2017). During the early to middle Eocene, the LMV, the sedimentary environments shifted from
al., 2012; Gómez et al., 2015) (Fig. 2). During the Late increase in morphotectonic activity generated shallow marine (Tubará Formation) to continental
Cretaceous, sedimentation began with fine-grained another unconformity, which separates the San Cay- (Sincelejo Formation) (Guzmán et al., 2004).
marine deposits of the Cansona Formation (Guzmán etano Formation from the Chengue and Toluviejo Previous investigations on the provenance and
et al., 2004). Subsequently, the collision of the Carib- Formations (Guzmán et al., 2004; Mora et al., 2017). paleogeography of the SJFB have been focused
bean Plateau against the northern South American Sedimentation in the Oligocene–Miocene interval on Paleogene rocks. Abreu (2009) suggested that

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Osorio-Granada et al. | Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sediments in the San Jacinto Fold Belt 211
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middle Eocene sedimentary rocks from the north-

A 76° W 75° W B Stratigraphic S-SW
units
N-NE
ern segments of the SJFB (e.g., Pendales Formation
Sincelejo

Pliocene
conglomerates) formed as a result of erosion of Caribbean Sea
Cerrito-Tubará
sedimentary sequences such as the Cansona and

Neogene
Porquero
San Cayetano formations as well as from Creta-

Miocene
ceous igneous rocks similar to those of the Aruba Upper Ciénaga
de Oro

11° N
and Antioqueño batholiths (Restrepo-Moreno et South Barranquilla ! !

America
al., 2009; van der Lelij et al., 2010). The erosional
LMU 3 2
pulse was associated with an Eocene morphotec- Lower Ciénaga

Oligocene
de Oro
tonic event (pre-Andean orogenic phase sensu Van

a
Se
!
!
Cartagena
der Hammen, 1961) reported in many locations of

an
San Jacinto

be
the Colombian Andes (Restrepo-Moreno et al.,

t
en
ib

Paleogene
Toluviejo

10° N

ar
2009, 2019; Restrepo-Moreno, 2009; Villagómez et

am

Eocene
C
Chengue

e
al., 2011; Spikings et al., 2015) and the Caribbean

lin
(Rojas-Agramonte et al., 2006). Based on multi- LMEU 1

ú
Ma

Sin
gd
ple analytical techniques, including petrography, ANH–San Antero–1X Ri alen San Cayetano
ve a
heavy mineral analysis, conglomerate clast count, 1 !. Sincelejo r

Paleocene
geochronology, and geochemistry, Cardona et al.
LPU

9° N
(2012) proposed a model for the origin of the Paleo-
cene–Eocene rocks in the SJFB. According to these
Montería ! !
2
authors, the metamorphic (schists and gneisses)

r
Rive
and ultramafic lithics within the sandstones ana- Planeta Rica Cansona
lyzed were associated with crystalline massifs

Sinú
3

Cretaceous
adjacent to the SJFB, such as those reported in ANH–Tierralta–2X

8° N
the basement of the LMV and the Central Cordil-
Central

er
lera, while the volcanic and plutonic components

Riv
Cordillera
identified in the SJFB were attributed to a Late Cre-

ca
Cau
taceous, intra-oceanic, volcano-magmatic arc that
Basement
was accreted to the continental margin during the Western 0 25 50 km
Paleogene. Similar conclusions were advanced by Cordillera

Silva-Arias et al. (2019). Recently, Mora-Bohórquez LITHOLOGY

et al. (2017) provided new borehole data from Well
Road Sandstones/conglomerates Mafic rocks/plutons
Paleogene sedimentary rocks in the central and Field River Limestones Siliceous mudstones
section and cherts
northern segments of the SJFB showing identical Fault Mudrocks
Town Studied No data
zircon U‑Pb and εHf signatures to those reported interval
by Cardona et al. (2012), suggesting the existence
Figure 2. (A) Geographic location of the study area, northwestern Colombia, indicating the studied wells and
of crust of oceanic affinity that served as a source
outcrops. (B) Chronostratigraphic chart of the San Jacinto Fold Belt showing the time intervals and nomencla‑
of detrital materials to the Paleocene rocks pres- ture of the studied units (modified from Mora-Bohorquez et al., 2017, Mora et al., 2018). LMU—lower Miocene
ently exposed in the SJFB. From a paleogeographic unconformity; LMEU—lower–middle Eocene unconformity; LPU—lower Paleocene unconformity.
standpoint, it is important to note that distal sources
from southern segments of the Central and East-
Supplemental Tables. Table S1: Detailed methodol-
1
ern Cordilleras, with sediments being transported (MMV) and the LMV until the Miocene (Caballero more distal positions to the north (e.g., deposits
ogy description. Table S2: Locations of the wells and
field samples. Table S3: Petrographic grain counting. along the proto–Magdalena River, are unfeasible. et al., 2013). On the other hand, the Cauca River of the SJFB).
Table S4: Heavy mineral counting. Table S5: Geochro- A series of important paleo-highs such as Magan- depression, which has possibly been established This contribution is a study of the central and
nology analytical results. Table S6: Results of the zir- gué and Cicuco (see cross-section B-B′ in Fig. 1) since Eocene times (Marín-Cerón et al., 2015), may southern portions of the SJFB (Fig. 2; Supplemental
con typology analysis. Please visit https://doi.org​
/10.1130​/GES02059.S1 or access the full-text article on segmented the Magdalena basins, maintaining a have served as a route to the transport of sediments Table S11). In this region, we analyzed samples from
www.gsapubs.org to view the Supplemental Tables. separation between the Middle Magdalena Valley to the intramontane Amagá Formation and also into two wells (ANH–San Antero–1X and ANH–Tierralta–2X

GEOSPHERE | Volume 16 | Number 1 Osorio-Granada et al. | Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sediments in the San Jacinto Fold Belt
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wells), which were provided by the Agencia Nacional data sets with the aim of generating better-supported It was described in detail in the Colombian national
de Hidrocarburos (ANH), as well as outcrop samples. paleogeographic models. core repository (Litoteca Nacional, Piedecuesta,
The sedimentary rocks analyzed include the San Cay- Colombia) by Universidad de Caldas geologists.
etano, Toluviejo, and Ciénaga de Oro formations. In The ANH–Tierralta–1X well has a depth of ~2652 m.
this research, we combine previous paleogeographic ■■ METHODOLOGY This borehole intersected the Toluviejo, San Jacinto,
information (e.g., Alfaro and Holz, 2014; Bernal-Olaya and Ciénaga de Oro formations (Fig. 3) (Mora et al.,
et al., 2015; Mora et al., 2017; Mora et al., 2018) with The ANH–San Antero–1X well drilled 661 m of 2018). Two cored intervals were analyzed for biostra-
new sedimentology, provenance, and biostratigraphy cores through the San Cayetano Formation (Fig. 3). tigraphy: the lower core located between depths

ANH–San Antero –1X ANH–Tierralta–2X

Grain size

Depth
Depth
Petrography Grain size Petrography

No biostr. markers Age

Oligocene Age
Unit

Ciénaga de Oro F. Unit

(m)
(m)
Mud Sand Gravel 20 50 100% Mud Sand Gravel 60 75 100%
0
1000

Core
TA3115
-3116

100
?
LEGEND
SA463
Lithology
1250
San Cayetano Formation

200 Sandstone Conglomerate

Mudrock Limestone

No biostratigraphic data
San Jacinto Formation
Muddy breccia
M

M Petrography
Qm Qp Ch F
300
Rock fragments

Cuttings
M 1500 Figure 3. Stratigraphic logs and petrographic
S
Core

M P V
results for the ANH–San Antero–1X and ANH–
Early Eocene

M
U-Pb and heavy minerals
Tierralta–2X wells. Black dots indicate the
M sample
position of the samples used for U-Pb and heavy
400 mineral analysis. At bottom, representative
M Sedimentary structures
micro­photography of analyzed sandstones, the
M
Heterolithic bedding black bars represent 500 µm. Qm—monocrys‑
1750 (flaser , lenticular, wavy)
M talline quartz; Qp—polycrystalline quartz;
Ripple lamination Ch—chert; F—feldspar; M—metamorphic; P—
Cross-bedding plutonic; V—volcanic; S—detrital sedimentary.

Toluviejo Formation
500 M
Parallel bedding
M ? M Massive bedding

Late Eocene
M TA6220- Convolute bedding
6300
2000 Fossils
600 M M Carbonized plant remains

Core
Mollusks
M
Foraminifera
659.2 ? 2133

Ch S
M
V M
Qm F
Ch Qm
F S Ch Qm M Qm
S

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Osorio-Granada et al. | Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sediments in the San Jacinto Fold Belt 213
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of 2118–2027 m, and the upper core between 1130 ablation–inductively couple plasma–mass spec- Micropaleontological data, derived from pollen
and 731 m (Fig. 3). The lithological description of trometry (LA-ICP-MS) method (Košler and Sylvester, and spores (29 samples), calcareous nannofossils
this well was based on the well logs. The outcrops 2003; Gehrels, 2011) using a Nu-Plasma ICP-MS (30 samples), and foraminifera (31 samples), were
of the Ciénaga de Oro Formation were described equipped with three ion counters and 12 Faraday generated and analyzed to establish a stratigraphic
and sampled from newly exposed outcrops in the detectors. For some samples, >200 crystals were age and for paleoenvironmental interpretations.
San Jerónimo anticlinorium, and along the Mon- mounted and >100 grains were ablated and dated. Slides for calcareous nannofossils were prepared
tería–Planeta Rica road cuts (Fig. 2). The names of In samples with low zircon yields, the total num- following the decanting method of Flores and
the stratigraphic units were based on Guzmán et ber of recovered grains (60–100) was mounted Sierro (1997). The slides were analyzed using a
al. (2004) and Mora-Bohórquez et al. (2017) (Fig. 2). and dated. Nikon Eclipse LV100 optical microscope at 1000×
Our provenance study encompassed petrog- Heavy mineral and U‑Pb zircon provenance can magnification. Biostratigraphy was based on the
raphy (113 samples), heavy mineral analysis be complemented by the typological analysis of zir- Agnini et al. (2007) and Martini (1971) biozones.
(12 samples), zircon U‑Pb geochronology (nine con populations (Konsa and Puura, 1999; Capuzzo For pollen and spore analyses, we used the stan-
samples), and zircon typology (12 samples). These and Bussy, 2000; Anani et al., 2012; Osorio-Granada dard technique described by Traverse (2007). The
data were used to establish sedimentary source et al., 2017). The morphology of this ubiquitous, slides were scanned using a high-resolution Nikon
areas and reconstruct paleogeographic environ- refractory mineral is controlled by temperature and Eclipse 80i microscope at 40× and 100× magni-
ments as well as to refine maximum depositional chemical conditions during crystallization (Pupin, fication to identify biostratigraphic markers and
ages. Petrographic analyses of sandstones were 1980), making it useful for tracking the different paleoenvironmental indicators. Biostratigraphic
performed using the Gazzi-Dickinson method igneous rock types present in source regions (Dab- data were compared to the biozones defined for
(Ingersoll et al., 1984). Three hundred (300) points ard et al., 1996; Anani et al., 2012). We documented the Cenozoic of northwestern South America
per thin section were counted to evaluate the the relative development of prismatic and pyrami- by Jaramillo et al. (2011). Foraminifera samples
modal composition and textural parameters such dal faces according to the classification scheme by were prepared following the methodology of
as grain sorting and roundness. The classification Pupin (1980). Populations of types and subtypes Thomas and Murney (1985) and analyzed using a
scheme by Folk (1954) was implemented. Tec- were built, and these represent specific regions high-resolution Nikon PET SMZ1500 optical stereo
tonic provenance classification was carried out on in the index T (IT) and index A (IA) space in the microscope. Foraminifera biostratigraphic zones
sandstones with matrix-cement and organic-mat- typology plot. IT corresponds to the development were based on Kaminski and Gradstein (2005) and
ter content <30% (Dickinson, 1985). The analysis of of prismatic forms and is controlled by crystalli- Berggren and Pearson (2005).
high-density accessory minerals in the sandstones zation temperature, while IA corresponds to the All of the petrographic, heavy mineral, zircon
provides fundamental provenance information (Pet- degree of development of pyramidal forms con- typology, and biostratigraphic analyses were
tijohn et al., 1973; Morton and Hallsworth, 2007). trolled by an anticorrelation between aluminum performed at the Instituto de Investigaciones en
Heavy minerals in the sand fraction between ~65 and alkalis (Pupin and Turco, 1972; Loi and Dabard, Estratigrafía (IIES), University of Caldas (Maniza-
and 250 μm were concentrated using conventional 1997). Morphology and typological characterization les, Colombia). Isotopic analyses for zircon U‑Pb
gravimetric and magnetic susceptibility procedures of zircons were accomplished on the same samples dating were performed at the Center for Isotope
(Mange and Wright, 2007). Mineral identification used for the heavy mineral analyses. Typological Geoscience, Department of Geological Sciences,
of up to 300 grains per sample was accomplished classification of each zircon followed the scheme University of Florida (Gainesville, Florida, USA).
using the ribbon method (Mange and Wright, 2007). proposed by Pupin (1980). At least 100 zircon grains Detailed information about the methodology can
Heavy minerals were grouped by chemical stability per sample were classified with observations on be found in Table S1 (footnote 1).
according to Morton (1985) as follows: ultrastable general morphology (roundness, elongation, etc.)
and stable (zircon, tourmaline, rutile, apatite, gar- and chromatic (color, transparency, etc.) parame-
net, and staurolite), moderately stable (epidote, ters. For our typological analysis, zircon crystals ■■ RESULTS
titanite, and clinozoisite), and unstable (muscovite, were scanned under reflected and transmitted light
biotite, calcite, serpentine, pyroxene, hornblende, using a Nikon LV100 Tri-Polar and PET SMZ1500 Rocks of the ANH–San Antero–1X well were
and spinel). petrographic stereomicroscope coupled with a correlated with the San Cayetano Formation (cf.
As part of the mineral separation process, we high-resolution Nikon DS-F11 camera. Addition- Guzmán et al., 2004). In this well, the formation
obtained zircon concentrates for U‑Pb geochro- ally, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was can be divided into two intervals (Fig. 3). The lower
nology and typology analyses. Detrital zircons executed to enhance crystalline face identification interval (~661–110 m) is primarily made of thick
were mounted in resin plugs, imaged by cath- using an ESEM-Quanta 250 system under backscat- beds of gray and dark-green, massive, muddy oli-
odoluminescence, and U‑Pb dated by the laser ter conditions. gomictic breccias composed of sedimentary clasts

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Petrography
(mudrocks and fine-grained sandstones), which are
A 100% LEGEND A
interbedded with medium to thick beds of massive Petrography
80%
mudrocks and poorly sorted, fine- to coarse- Qm Qp Ch F
grained sandstones. Ripple lamination, wavy, flaser, 60% Rock fragments
lenticular, convolute, parallel, and cross-bedding M P V S
40%
are observed (Fig. 3). Plant remains and horizontal VV013 VV017 VV021 VV022 VV025 VV029 VV034 VV008 VV009
burrows are common. The upper interval (~110–0
m) is composed of thick beds of gray and green-
ish, fine- to coarse-grained, poorly to moderately
sorted sandstones, which are massive and lami- Qp Qp
nated (e.g., cross-bedding, ripple lamination, wavy,
flaser, lenticular, parallel, and convolute bedding), Qm Qp
Qm
interbedded with medium beds of gray mudrocks.
The sandstones are commonly amalgamated and
contain abundant plant remains (Fig. 3).
The lithological description for the ANH–Tierral-
ta–1X well is based on borehole logs and divided
into three intervals (Fig. 3). The first interval (~2134–
1945 m; partially cored) was correlated with the
B N
N N B
Toluviejo Formation (cf. Guzmán et al., 2004). It is
mostly composed of laminated dark-gray mudrocks,
which are calcareous in some cases, interbedded
VV023
with skeletal packstones and mudstones with
abundant foraminifera. Glauconite and dissemi- VV021
nated pyrite are common. The following interval
(~1945–1219 m; cuttings) was correlated with the
San Jacinto Formation (cf. Guzmán et al., 2004). It
VV048
is composed of thick beds of conglomeratic quartz-
rich sandstones and sandstones interbedded with N N 1600

gray mudrocks, followed by gray-brown mudrocks

interbedded with thin beds of packstones. Fora- VV008
minifera, glauconite, and disseminated pyrite are
VV009 VV009
locally present. The upper interval (~1219–914 m;
partially cored) was correlated with the Ciénaga Figure 4. (A) Petrographic results from the analyzed outcrop samples (location and analyses type
de Oro Formation. It is composed of laminated are shown in Supplemental Table S1 [see text footnote 1]). (B) Outcrops of medium to thick beds
sandstone beds (quartzarenites, subarkoses, and of sandstones interbedded with mudrocks of the Ciénaga de Oro Formation and location of some
analyzed samples. See the caption for Figure 3 for abbreviations.
sublitharenites), forming a thickening-upward
sequence. Pyrite and glauconite, as well as plant
remains, are common. In the upper part of this and 5). Thick and very thick beds (>1 m) of coal are Petrography
interval (~949–914 m; cored), the sequence is locally present. The sandstones are arranged in
dominated by gray packstones with abundant for- tabular or lens-shaped beds and are structureless or We analyzed a total of 84 sandstone sam-
aminifera and bivalves (Fig. 3). laminated (e.g., cross-bedding, parallel and ripple ples from the ANH–San Antero–1X well (lower
The studied outcrops of the Ciénaga de Oro lamination). Heterolithic beds with wavy, lenticular, Eocene San Cayetano Formation). Based on the
Formation are characterized by medium to thick and flaser bedding and load structures are pres- monocrystalline and polycrystalline quartz con-
beds of light-yellow quartzarenites, subarkoses, ent. Gastropods, bivalves, and trace fossils such tent, four intervals could be recognized in the San
and sublitharenites interbedded with thin beds as Thalassinoides and Ophiomorpha are locally Cayetano Formation (Fig. 3). They are dominated
of gray massive and laminated mudrocks (Figs. 4 abundant. by lithic arkoses, sublitharenites, and subarkoses,

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Q Qm Qt
A §§§§§
LEGEND B §§§
§§§§§§§§§ Quartzarenite Ciénaga de Oro Formation
§ § §§§§§§§§§§§§
§§§§§§ (ANH–Tierralta–2X ;
§§ §CI §§ §§
§§§ § § Sublitharenite Outcrop samples)
CI §§§ §§§§§§§§§§§
§ § §§§§§§§§
Subarkose
San Cayetano Formation § §
§ §
§§§§§ §§§
§ §§§§§§§ § (ANH–San Antero–1X well.)
§§§§§§§§§§§§
§
§ § § TC §§ §§§§§ §
§ §
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ § § Cardona et al. (2012) § § §§§§§§ §§ §§§§§§ §§
§§§§§ Late Eocene–early Oligocene § QR § §§§ §§§§ §§§§ §
§§§§§§
TC
§ § §§§§§§ § §§§ §
§ Middle Eocene § § § § §§§§§§§
§§§§§§§§§§ Late Paleocene–early Eocene § § § § §§§ § RO
§ §
§§ § §§§ §§§§§ §§§§
MA
§
§ § §§§§§ TR
§§§ §§ §
§§§§§§ §§ DA

§ §§§§§§§§ §
BU DA

§ § TA
§
Lithic Feldspathic
Arkose Litharenite LR
arkose litharenite
TA UA
UA

F L F Lt L
Figure 5. Modal classification (A) and provenance discrimination (B) diagrams of the San Cayetano and Ciénaga de Oro Formations from the San Jacinto Fold Belt. Q-F-L—quartz-feldspar-​lithics;
Qm—monocrystalline quartz; Qt—total quartz; Lt—lithics; CI—craton interior; TC—transitional continental; BU—basement uplift; MA—mixed arc; DA—dissected arc; TA—transitional arc; UA—un‑
dissected arc; RO—recycled orogen; QR—quartzose recycled; TR—transitional recycled; LR—lithic recycled.

with lesser amounts of quartzarenites and feld- Ciénaga de Oro Formation were analyzed. Most of Heavy Minerals
spathic litharenites (Fig. 5). Texturally, most of the samples are quartzarenites and sublitharenites,
the sandstones are fine grained with subangular while a restricted proportion comprises subarkoses Heavy minerals (Fig. 6; Table S4 [footnote 1]) from
and moderately sorted clasts. The main detrital (Figs. 3, 4, and 5). They vary from coarse- to very the San Cayetano Formation display the lowest con-
constituents correspond to monocrystalline and fine-grained sandstones, with subrounded to sub- tent of zircon (~8%) and the highest content of apatite
polycrystalline quartz (42%–74%) followed by rock angular grains and moderate sorting. The primary (~24%) and hornblende (~8%) with respect to the
fragments (3%–41%) and feldspar (0.3%–3.7%). The constituents correspond to monocrystalline and other analyzed samples. Furthermore, the absence of
lithic fragments are dominated by quartzites (0.7%– polycrystalline quartz (48%–71%) followed by rutile and the presence of garnet are notable. In the
15.3%), felsic plutonic rocks (0.7%–11%), volcanics lithics (1%–25%) and feldspar (1%–5%). The lithic Toluviejo Formation, zircon and apatite are in similar
(0.3%–10%), schists (0.3%–6.3%), mudrocks (0.3%– fragments include quartzites (0.3%–7.3%), shales proportions (~18%), and pyroxene (~11%), rutile (8%),
5.7%), and sandstones (1%–3%). Other components (0%–8%), schists (0%–1%), volcanics (0%–0.3%), and spinel (~3%) are present. Another aspect of the
such as micas (1%–12%), cherts (0%–5%), calcare- and acid plutonic rocks (0%–0.1%). Micas (1%–10%), heavy mineral fraction in the Toluviejo Formation is
ous foraminifera (0%–2%), glauconite and organic organic matter (5%), cherts (0%–3%), foraminifera the absence of moderately stable mineral phases
matter (<1%), and accessory minerals (0.3%–5.3%) (0%–1.5%), glauconite (0%–0.3%), and accessory (epidote, titanite, and clinozoisite) and the abundance
are also present. In the tectonic discrimination dia- minerals (0%–1.3%) are also present. Based on of muscovite (~40%). Finally, in the Ciénaga de Oro
grams, these samples fell in the recycled orogen these features, the sandstones of the Ciénaga de Formation, heavy minerals are dominated by zircon
field, i.e., the quartz and transitional fields of Dickin­ Oro Formation in both the ANH–Tierralta–2X well (~30%–40%), rutile is present in all samples, and
son (1985) (Fig. 5; Table S3 [footnote 1]). and outcrops fall mainly within the recycled oro- the content of apatite (5%) decreases relative to the
Nineteen (19) sandstone samples from the ANH– gen field, in the quartzose and interior craton fields other formations. Moderately stable minerals (epi-
Tierralta–2X well and nine outcrop samples from the of Dickinson (1985) (Fig. 5; Table S3 [footnote 1]). dote, titanite, and clinozoisite) are common in all of

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Ultrastable - Stable Moderately stable Unstable the Permian–​Triassic (230–290 Ma) and Precambrian
Zircon Rutile Tourmaline Apatite Garnet Epidote Titanite Muscovite Biotite Calcite (ca. 900–1500 Ma) populations. An age population
Staurolite Clinozoisite Serpentine Pyroxene with relatively low probability is represented by the
Hornblende Spinel Late Jurassic (ca. 157–162 Ma) in the Ciénaga de Oro
and San Cayetano Formations (Fig. 7).
VV048

VV009 Zircon Typology

VV008 According to the taxonomy of Pupin (1980), 17 zir-

con subtypes were identified (Figs. 8 and 9; Table S6
[footnote 1]). The main morphotype was S7 (>20%)
VV034
followed by S2, S3, and S6 (11%–20%). Other typolo-
Cienaga de Oro gies were present in lower amounts (<2%, 2%–10%).
Formation VV029
In general, the zircons have low values of IA (~355–
449) and intermediate to low IT values (~387–459).
VV021 Elongation and roundness (Gärtner et al., 2013)
indicate that the Precambrian and Permian–Trias-
VV017 sic zircons are mainly short to long stalky, and fairly
rounded to rounded, while the Cretaceous zircons
VV018 are poorly and very poorly rounded with a preva-
lence of columnar and/or prismatic shapes (Fig. 8).
VV013 The typologies in the San Cayetano Formation show
a similar trend, although an apparent equilibrium
TA3115 between the S8 and S3–S5 subtypes seems feasible,
-3116 thus shifting the populations toward the apex of the
distribution of granitic rocks in the typology diagram
Toluviejo TA6200
Formation -6300 (i.e., relatively high values of IA and low IT). Samples
from the Toluviejo and Ciénaga de Oro Formations
San Cayetano
Formation
SA463 depart from the previous trends by showing a clearly
bipolar distribution, with two well-contrasted mor-
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
phological populations that combine the S7–S8
Figure 6. Heavy mineral associations for the Paleogene sandstones of the studied samples from the San Jacinto Fold Belt. subtypes with the more equant and less complex
distribution of the crystal phases characteristic of
subtype S20, close to field 7 (tholeiitic continen-
the Ciénaga de Oro samples. For unstable phases, one lower Eocene sample from the San Cayetano tal granites) in the IA-IT diagram (Figs. 9A and 9B).
the most abundant mineral is muscovite (~25%) Formation (ANH–San Antero–1X well), two upper Ciénaga de Oro Formation outcrop samples yield a
while serpentinite is present in all of the samples. Eocene–Oligocene samples from the Toluviejo and broad typological distribution centered around the
Other identified minerals include garnet, staurolite, Ciénaga de Oro Formations (ANH–Tierralta–2X well), S7 to S8 subtypes and IA and IT values close to 300
and biotite. and six Oligocene samples from outcrops of the and 400, respectively, in the vicinity of field 2 (mon-
Ciénaga de Oro Formation (detailed U‑Pb analyt- zogranites-granodiorites).
ical results are presented in Table S5 [footnote 1]
Geochronology and Fig. 7). In general, there is not significant vari-
ation in the zircon ages analyzed from these three Biostratigraphy
We analyzed nine samples from the Paleogene formations. The population with the highest prob-
units of the SJFB for zircon U‑Pb dating (LA-MC- ability is the Late Cretaceous (ca. 70–90 Ma), which A total of 21 samples from the ANH–San Antero–​
ICP-MS [MC = multicollector]). Specifically, we dated occurred in all of the samples analyzed, followed by 1X well were used for the calcareous nannofossil

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Osorio-Granada et al. | Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sediments in the San Jacinto Fold Belt 217
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analysis. Four samples yielded recovery where Saccammina cf. S. grzybowskii, Spiroplectammina Spirosyncolpites spiralis, Tetracolporopollenites
Sphenolithus radians, Toweius spp., and Spheno­ cf. S. trinitatensis, and Spiroplectammina specta­ maculosus, Apiculatasporites aff. cingulatus, Laevi­
lithus orphanknolli at ~182 m depth were recognized. bilis. These species were distributed over a wide gato­sporites granulatus, and Polypodiaceoisporites
The co-occurrence of these taxa is associated with range between biozones E8 and E16, which sug- fossulatus. The occurrence of F. hammenii (Fig. 10)
early Eocene biozones NP11 and NP13 (Martini, gest a Late Cretaceous–late Eocene age (Kaminski between ~148 m and 429 m suggests an Eocene age
1971; Agnini et al., 2007). Foraminifera identified and Gradstein, 2005). Palynological analyses of 71 (Jaramillo et al., 2011). Thus, the age proposed for
in 28 samples included poorly preserved agglu- samples gave 1531 palynomorphs, among which the ANH–San Antero–1X well rocks is early Eocene.
tinated benthic species such as Nothia excelsa, we identified Bombacacidites gonzalezii, Brevi­ It is constrained in its lower part (~633 m) by the
Nothia robusta, Psammosphaera irregularis, Rze­ tricol­pites macroexinatus, Cyclusphaera scabrata, presence of S. spiralis, whose first appearance
hakina epigona, Praesphaerammina cf. P. gerochi, Foveotriporites hammenii, Mauritiidites franciscoi datum is located in the early Eocene (ca. 55.6 Ma;
Popovia beckmanni, Saccammina complanata, minutus, Mauritiidites franciscoi pachyexinatus, Jaramillo et al., 2011), and in its upper part (~182
m depth) by the early Eocene calcareous nanofos-
sil assemblage (biozones NP11 and NP13) (Fig. 3).
VV017 Samples from the lower core of the ANH–​Tierralta–​
A 1800 2X well had moderately preserved calcareous
VV021 nannofossils, which included Reticulofenestra
0.3
VV029 bisecta, Reticulofenestra lockeri, Reticulofenestra
reticulata, and Reticulofenestra umbilicus at depths
1400
VV008 between ~2071 and 2117 m. This association indi-
VV009 cates a biostratigraphic range between the upper
206Pb/238U

NP16 and NP19 biozones of Martini (1971), which

0.2
VV048 is equivalent to the middle–late Eocene (Perch-​
1000
Nielsen, 1985; Agnini et al., 2007). The foraminifera
TA3115-3116
are characterized by poor recovery and preser-
TA6300-6300 vation. Some of the species identified at depths
0.1 600 SA463 between ~1944 and 2119 m include the Eocene
benthic association Gyroidinoides subangulatus,
Bulimina jacksonensis, and Cibicidoides micrus
200
(Bolli et al., 1994; Holbourn et al., 2013). Cretaceous
reworked species were also identified in this inter-
0 val (e.g., Gyroidina praeglobosa, Gyroidinoides
quadratus, Eggerina subovata, and Praebulimina
reussi). Palynological species recognized at ~2122
m include a poor and badly preserved assemblage
composed partly by Cyclusphaera scabrata, Bomb­
Outcrop samples acacidites nacimientoensis, and Ranunculacidites
Error ellipse 2σ
operculatus. The latter species (Fig. 10) has its first
Age error 1σ <5%
appearance datum in the late Eocene (ca. 41 Ma;
7/5 discordance <5%
Jaramillo et al., 2011). Thus, the proposed age for
7/5 discordance >5%
this segment is late Eocene based on the nannofos-
ANH–Tierralta–2X well sils and the palynological data. As noted previously,
the presence of dinoflagellate cysts and calcareous
marine microfossils indicates coastal and shallow
ANH–San Antero–1X well 0 1 2 3 4 5 marine environments, with a considerable supply
207Pb/235U
of terrestrial organic matter.
Figure 7. Geochronological results for the Paleogene sandstones from the San Jacinto Fold Belt. (A) Concordia diagrams (gray Additionally, we analyzed seven samples
dashed lines represent same age in Ma). (Continued on following page.) from the upper core of the ANH–Tierralta–2X well

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Osorio-Granada et al. | Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sediments in the San Jacinto Fold Belt 218
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n = 396 76 Ma
B
300

Outcrop samples
150 200

100
100
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
50
160 Ma 236 Ma Ciénaga de Oro
0 Formation
265 Ma 40
20 n = 79

TA3115−3116
30

15 74 Ma 230 Ma 20

290 Ma 10
10 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
5

Number
0
232 Ma 30

20 n = 59

TA6220−6300
20

15 10
Toluviejo
10 72 Ma 273-287 Ma 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Formation
5
0
12.5 235 Ma 20
10.0 n = 51 15

SA463
7.5 271 Ma
10
San Cayetano
70,2 Ma 5
5.0 0 Formation
0 500 1000 1500 2000
2.5 370 Ma
0.0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525
Age (Ma)
Source area

LMV’b
CC
WC
Figure 7 (continued ). (B) Probability density plots (dark line) and the kernel density estimator (red dashed line). LMV’b—Lower Magdalena Valley basement; CC—Central
Cordillera; WC—Western Cordillera.

between the depths of ~900 and 1100 m. However, Cicatricosisporites dorogensis and Cricotriporites The foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils
the recovery of calcareous nannofossils is very guianensis (Fig. 10), which indicate a middle Eocene recovered were very poorly preserved, which pre-
poor (Table S2 [footnote 1]). We observed that the to early Oligocene age (ca. 48–33 Ma) (biozones cluded the identification of the formal biozones.
nannofossil abundance and preservation changed T06–T08; Jaramillo et al., 2011). Based on these data Pollen analysis of 20 samples yielded C. dorogen­
drastically relative to the lower portion of the core. and the stratigraphic relationship with the lower sis, C. scabrata, Concavissimisporites fossulatus,
A variation in the species was also identified. The part of the well, an Oligocene age is proposed Foveotriletes ornatus, Perisyncolporites pokornyi,
presence of Sphenolithus predistentus, R. bisecta, for this interval, but it requires better biostrati- Foveotricolporites etayoi, Lanagiopollis crassa, Per­
and Cyclicargolithus abisectus at ~930 m sug- graphic control as more samples are available fotricolpites digitatus, Polypodiisporites usmensis,
gests the NP24 and NP25 late Oligocene biozones (Figs. 2 and 3). Psilatricolporites costatus, T. maculosus, Reti­
(Martini, 1971; Perch-Nielsen, 1985). Palynological Outcrop samples from the Ciénaga de Oro For- stephanoporites crassiannulatus, Retitrescolpites
analyses at ~942 m revealed an assemblage with mation were also examined for micropaleontology. irregularis, Striatopollis catatumbus, Ulmoideipites

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Osorio-Granada et al. | Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sediments in the San Jacinto Fold Belt 219
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krempii, and Venezuelites distinctus (Fig. 11). The

coexistence of C. fossulatus, F. etayoi, and C. doro­
gensis suggests an Oligocene age (Jaramillo et al.,

S3 S4 S5 S7 S8 2011). These data agree with the study performed

by Dueñas (1980) in the same area, which reported
Magnaperiporites spinosus and Crassiectoapertites
columbianus, whose first appearance datums corre-
spond to the early Oligocene (Jaramillo et al., 2011).
Biostratigraphic ages could not be correlated
with geochronological U‑Pb zircon dates because
the minimum zircon ages are ca. 70 Ma. The lack
S11 S12 S13 S16 S18 of zircon ages <70 Ma can be explained by the
relatively low number of dated zircons (Gehrels,
2014), the granulometry of the dated sedimentary
rocks (Ibañez-Mejia et al., 2018), the overwhelm-
ing amount of Cretaceous and Permian–Triassic
zircons from potential source areas, and/or the lack
of sources with younger ages.
S19 S20 S23 L5 P1
■■ DISCUSSION

Paleoenvironments

In the lower interval (~661–110 m) of the ANH–

S2 S5 S6 S20 S10 San Antero–1X well (San Cayetano Formation), the
presence of massive, muddy oligomictic breccias
indicates gravity-flow processes (e.g., debris flows)
associated with escarpments or slope failures that
can be triggered by earthquakes or by rapid sed-
iment deposition (Talling et al., 2013). The clast
composition indicates the erosion of older sed-
imentary rocks, mainly fine-grained sandstones
S16 S17 S15 P3 S7 and mudrocks. Dinoflagellates and calcareous
microfossils indicate marine environments influ-
enced by rivers, as confirmed by the presence
of plant remains, pollen, and spores. The pres-
ence of pollen grains associated with plants that
currently live in humid tropical zones (e.g., Bom­
bacacidites, Mauritiidites, Tetracolporopollenites),
Figure 8. Scanning electron microscopy–backscatter (top) and petrographic microscope (bottom) images of
together with pteridophyte spores and abundant
selected zircons representing the main typologies found in the San Jacinto Fold Belt samples. White bar rep‑ fungal remains, suggests warm humid conditions.
resents 50 μm. Letters and numbers represent the typology classification categories proposed by Pupin (1980). In the upper interval (~110–0 m), the dominance of
amalgamated sandstones and matrix-supported
conglomerates, as well as the plant remains and
marine and terrestrial palynomorphs, suggest
nearshore environments. Some of the poorly

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A Outcrop samples ANH–San Antero–1X well

100 IA 800 100 IA 800 B IA
100 800

100

1
2 Figure 9. (A) Typological distribution of the ob‑
IT IT served zircon populations. (B) Distribution of granitic
rocks in the typology diagram from the mean
value of IA (alumina + alkalis) and IT (temperature)
800 800 indexes (Pupin, 1980): 1—alumina leucogranites; 2—
IT 3 monzogranites-​granodiorites, (sub)autochthonous;
5
ANH–Tierralta–2X well 3—monzogranite-​granodiorite aluminum intrusive;
4—calc-alkaline and K-rich calc-alkaline–series gran‑
4 7 ites; 5—subalkaline-series granites; 6—alkaline-series
100 IA 800 granites; 7—tholeiitic continental granites; 8—tholeiitic-​
800 6
series oceanic granites.
<2% 8

2%–10% Outcrop samples

ANH–Tierralta–2X well

IT 10%–20% ANH–San Antero–1X well

>20%
800

preserved benthic foraminiferal assemblages, mollusk shells and ichnofossils (e.g., Ophiomorpha) located in proximal and/or moderately distal posi-
which suggest a bathyal environment (Kaminski point to deltaic and shallow marine conditions (see tions (Dickinson, 1985). This model is supported
and Gradstein, 2005; Berggren and Pearson, 2005), also Dueñas [1983] and Guzmán et al. [2004]). Addi- by the poor to moderate sorting and low degree of
could be related to a reworking of older sedimen- tionally, the presence of Tetracolporopollenites sp. roundness of the sediments. Another important fac-
tary units. (Sapotaceae), Retitrescolpites irregularis (Amanoa, tor to consider is the climate. As mentioned above,
For the Toluviejo and San Jacinto Formations in Leguminosae), Striatopollis catatumbus (Legumi- the palynological evidence indicates wet tropical
ANH–Tierralta–2X well, the dominance of mudrocks, nosae), Retitricolpites simplex (Euphorbiaceae), conditions, which agrees with paleogeographic
some of them calcareous, as well as marine and ter- Bombacacidites sp. (Bombacaceae), Perisyncol­ and paleoclimate models for the region (Erlich
restrial microfossils suggests a low-energy marine porites pokornyi (Malpighiaceae), Mauriitia spp., et al., 2003; Jaramillo et al., 2010). In this sense,
environment with continental input. The progres- and abundant fungal and pteridophyte spores sug- petrographic evidence, such as the occurrence of
sive increase in sandstones towards the upper part gests a lowland tropical humid forest. For instance, feldspar, the content of apatite, and the presence of
(~1219–949 m, Ciénaga de Oro Formation) imply modern Mauriitia occupies floodplains and gallery unstable mafic and ultramafic minerals, suggests
nearshore conditions, probably associated with forests (Hofmann, 2002) in the Llanos Orientales that sediments for San Cayetano Formation came
a delta front. The uppermost part of the studied basin (Marchant et al., 2002). from igneous and metamorphic massifs located
sequence (~949–914 m), dominated by gray pack- close to the depositional site.
stones with abundant foraminifera and bivalves, Paleocene strata recorded, for the first time, syn-
indicates shallow marine conditions. Sediment Sources of the SJFB during the tectonic deposition and erosion of nearby source
In the Ciénaga de Oro Formation (outcrop Early Eocene and Late Oligocene areas (Ayala et al., 2012). This means that the sed-
samples), the presence of coal beds, channel sand- imentary cover above those basement blocks was
stones, marine microfossils, pollen and spores, In our study, the nature of the sandstones was very thin and was rapidly eroded. Additionally, the
mangrove pollen (Lanagiopollis crassa, related to related to a recycled orogen in the transitional and identification of Cretaceous reworked microfossils
extant Pelliciera rhizophorae), and marine palyno- quartz subfields (Fig. 5). In general, the recycled oro- in the Toluviejo Formation can be associated with
morphs in conjunction with the local abundance of gen character is indicative of mixed source areas the erosion of preexisting sedimentary deposits

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ANH–San Antero–1X
90° 45°

A B C Figure 10. Some biostratigraphic markers identified in the San

Cayetano, Toluviejo, and Ciénaga de Oro Formations in the
analyzed samples from the San Jacinto Fold Belt. (A–I) Nanno‑
fossils under cross polarized light (scale bar represents 10 µm):
(A) Sphenolithus radians; (B) Sphenolithus orphanknolli; (C) To-

Calcareous nannofossils
weius spp; (D) Sphenolithus predistentus; (E) Cyclicargolithus cf.
abisectus; (F) Reticulofenestra reticulata; (G) Reticulofenestra bi-
90°
secta; (H) Reticulofenestra umbilicus; (I) Reticulofenestra lockeri.
45°
D E (J–T) Palynomorphs (bar represents 10 µm): (J) Bombacacidites

Upper core
gonzalezii; (K) Brevitricolpites macroexinatus; (L) Cyclusphaera

~914 m
scabrata; (M) Foveotriporites hammenii; (N) Mauritiidites

ANH–Tierralta– 2X
franciscoi minutus; (O) Spirosyncolpites spiralis; (P) Apicu-
latasporites? aff. cingulatus; (Q) Cicatricosisporites dorogensis;
(R) Cricotri­porites guianensis; (S) Retistephanoporites minuti-
porus; (T) Ranunculacidites operculatus. (U–Y) Foraminifera (bar
represents 100 µm): (U) Spiroplectammina spectabilis; (V) No-
F G H I thia robusta; (W) Spiroplectammina cf. S. trinitatensis; (X) Rzeha​

Lower core
kina epigona; (Y) Bulimina jacksonensis.

~2133 m
of the SJFB (e.g., Cansona Formation and clasts
of the San Cayetano Formation conglomerates;
J K L M Fig. 2) and the Western Cordillera (e.g., Penderisco
Formation; Álvarez and González, 1978). The petro-
graphic evidence of this work differs from that of
ANH–San Antero –1X

previous studies (e.g., Cardona et al., 2012; Mora et

al., 2017) where the upper Paleocene–lower Oligo­
cene sandstones are mainly lithic arkoses related
to transitional and dissected arc fields. This com-
N O P positional variation is the result of a combination
of factors such as lateral variation of sedimentary
Palynomorphs

environments, local variations of the source area,

and variations of distance from the source area
(Fig. 12).
For the Ciénaga de Oro Formation, the quartz
contents increased while plutonic and metamor-
Q R S T phic lithics decreased with respect to San Cayetano
ANH–Tierralta– 2X

Formation, thus reflecting changes in the composi-

tion of the source area. The presence of tourmaline,
muscovite, rutile, clinozoisite, staurolite, horn-
blende, biotite, and garnet is indicative of the
erosion of granitoids and low- to medium-grade
metamorphic rocks, such as those reported in the
Central Cordillera and/or crystalline basement of
U V W X Y
Foraminifera

the LMV. In contrast, highly unstable minerals

such as spinel and serpentine, which are typical
of ultramafic source rocks, were derived from the
basement of the SJFB (e.g., Planeta Rica and Cerro
Matoso peridotites) or from some segments of the
Western Cordillera and the structural complexes

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Osorio-Granada et al. | Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sediments in the San Jacinto Fold Belt 222
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are related to Grenvillian-age rocks that crop out

A B C D E in the northern Central Cordillera (e.g., San Lucas
Gneiss; Leal-Mejía, 2011). Furthermore, they can
be related to reworked zircons coming from Cre-
taceous–Cenozoic sedimentary rocks in either the
Central Cordillera or Western Cordillera. Finally, the
Late Jurassic population (ca. 157–162 Ma) can be
linked to magmatic units of the Central Cordillera
F G H I J (e.g., Segovia batholith; Leal-Mejía, 2011) and com-
mon volcanic rocks located between the Central
Cordillera and the Santander massif (e.g., Norean
Formation; Leal-Mejía, 2011). Jurassic rocks in the
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (e.g., Aracataca,
Pueblo Bello, and Atanquéz batholiths; Tschanz
et al., 1974) show older Jurassic zircon ages than
K L M N those identified in the analyzed rocks and can be
discarded as a potential source.
Finally, our zircon typological analysis indicates
that the igneous source rocks correspond mostly
to calc-alkaline monzogranites and granodiorites
(Fig. 9), which can be associated with some plutonic
rocks described in the Central Cordillera and LMV
Figure 11. Pollen and spore species identified for the Ciénaga de Oro Formation outcrop samples (bar represents 20 µm). basement (Silva et al., 2017; Mora-Bohórquez et
(A) Cicatricosisporites dorogensis. (B) Concavissimisporites fossulatus. (C) Foveotricolporites etayoi. (D) Foveotriletes
al., 2017; Vinasco et al., 2006; Montes et al., 2010).
ornatus. (E) Grimsdalea minor. (F) Ilexpollenites aff. tropicalis. (G) Lanagiopollis crassa. (H) Polypodiisporites usmensis.
(I) Psilatricolporites costatus. (J) Perisyncolporites pokornyi. (K) Retistephanoporites crassiannulatus. (L) Retitrescolpites
irregularis. (M) Striatopollis catatumbus. (N) Ulmoideipites krempii.
Paleogeographic and Geodynamic
Implications
linked to the Romeral fault system (e.g., Arquía and Zircon U‑Pb age populations, especially the Late
Quebradagrande complexes; Maya and González, Cretaceous (ca. 70–90 Ma) population, are associ- Recent investigations on the structure of LMV
1995) (Figs. 1 and 12). ated with plutonic-volcanic rocks (Fig. 12) located basement rocks (Silva et al., 2017; Mora-Bohórquez
Petrographic results display a modal variation in the LMV basement (e.g., Bonga-1, Coral-9, and et al., 2017) reported the presence of Cretaceous
that progresses from the relatively high feldspar Cicuco-22 plutons; see Silva et al., 2017; Mora- intrusive igneous units with positive εHf values (e.g.,
content in the lower Eocene (lithic arkoses, sub- Bohórquez et al., 2017), northern Central Cordillera Bonga-1 pluton) intruding the western basement of
arkoses, and sublitharenites) of the San Cayetano (Antioqueño, Ovejas, and Sabanalarga batholiths, the LMV. The nature of this basement is unknown.
Formation (ANH–San Antero–1X well) to a quartz- and Altavista stock; Leal-Mejía, 2011; Villagómez However, the highly positive values of εHf suggest
rich sediment (quartzarenite, subarkose) in the et al., 2011; Restrepo-Moreno, 2009), and Western no continental crust contamination, which is an
Oligocene Ciénaga de Oro Formation (ANH–Tier- Cordillera (Mistrató pluton; Gómez et al., 2015). The argument that was used to suggest that the base-
ralta–2X well and in the outcrop samples; see Fig. 5). Permian–Triassic age population (230–236 Ma) can ment of the LMV was be composed of mafic crust
This shift in compositional maturity may be due to be correlated with metamorphic units present in related to the Quebradagrande Complex (Fig. 12;
increased weathering and erosion associated with the Central Cordillera (e.g., Cajamarca and Puquí Mora-Bohórquez et al., 2017). In contrast, reported
climatic variations (Smith et al., 2008; Wan et al., complexes; Maya and González, 1995; Restrepo et Triassic and Permian igneous and metamorphic
2009). Alternatively, since these two boreholes are al., 2011; Villagómez and Spikings, 2013) and the rocks suggest the continuation of the continental
separated more than 120 km, the changes in com- metamorphic and plutonic rocks found in the LMV crust of the Northern Andean block toward the
position and/or geographic location of the source basement (Silva et al., 2017; Mora-Bohórquez et eastern part of the LMV basement (Montes et al.,
areas can explain shifts in compositional maturity al., 2017; Vinasco et al., 2006; Montes et al., 2010). 2010; Mora-Bohórquez et al., 2017; Silva et al., 2017;
as quartz-rich sources became more prevalent. Precambrian-population (ca. 900–1500 Ma) zircons Vinasco et al., 2006).

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77° W 76° W 75° W 74° W Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta as potential sources
for the SJFB or the LMV because Piraquive et al.
LMV BASAMENT STRUCTURE (2018), using thermochronological data, demon-

11° N

11° N
Silva et al. (2017) strated that these rocks had not yet been exhumed
Cretaceous igneous rocks (70–84 Ma) SNSM during Oligocene–Miocene times.
Upper Cretaceous oceanic crust The model we propose is corroborated by the
Permian–Triassic granite (230–300 Ma) isotopic and geochronological correlation (εHf and
Mora-Bohórquez et al. (2017) U‑Pb values) between the plutonic zircons of the
Continental basement Cretaceous and Permian–Triassic realms of the LMV

10° N

10° N
Oceanic affinity basement basement and the Central Cordillera relative to the
No basement data Paleogene sandstones and conglomerate clasts in
the SJFB basin (Mora et al., 2017; Mora-Bohórquez

SMB
_
^ et al., 2017; Cardona et al., 2012). Uplift and exhu-
mation pulses during the Eocene–Oligocene have

F
been identified for the northern portion of the Cen-

9° N

9° N
^^
__ LMV tral and Western cordilleras (Restrepo-Moreno et

SL
al., 2009; Restrepo-Moreno, 2009; Cochrane et al.,
SFB ^^
__ 2014) as well as the basement of the LMV (Mora-
Bohórquez et al., 2017; Silva et al., 2017). These
8° N
_
^ upheavals help explain the production of detrital

8° N
materials carried to the Caribbean by rivers (proto–
SJFB Cauca River and shorter drainages), and the area
MMV

UF
occupied by the modern SJFB was covered mainly
PCB by terrigenous fluvial, coastal, and marine sedi-

RFS
ments. Finally, further sources (Eastern Cordillera
CC
WC and Santander Massif) are discarded because
7° N

7° N
regional basement-involved uplifts (e.g., Cáchira
0 15 30 60 90 120
km high in the northern MMV) did not allow fluvial
LEGEND GEOLOGY connection between the MMV and LMV basins until
Studied wells Cretaceous
the middle Miocene (Reyes et al., 2004; Mora et
_
^ and outcrops
River Oligocene
continental
Permian–Triassic
al., 2018; Caballero et al., 2013; Horton et al., 2015).
Subduction Cretaceous
# #
zone
Eocene
oceanic
Precambrian During the Oligocene, the sediments were depos-
Fault Paleocene Jurassic ited in deltaic and shallow marine environments,
such as those represented by the Ciénaga de Oro
Figure 12. Main chronostratigraphic units in the northern Andes of Colombia and the Panamá-Chocó block (PCB) that
Formation (Duque-Caro, 1972; Guzmán et al., 2004).
are considered as potential source areas for lower Eocene–upper Oligocene rocks from the San Jacinto Fold Belt (SJFB) The predominance of Cretaceous zircon populations
(modified from Gómez et al., 2015). All Paleogene rocks for the SJFB are sedimentary. UF—Uramita fault; SL—Sinú suggests significant contributions from LMV and/or
lineament; RFS—Romeral fault system; SMBF—Santa Marta-Bucaramanga fault; SFB—Sinú fold belt; LMV—Lower
the Central Cordillera basement rocks (Fig. 13).
Magdalena Valley; MMV—Middle Magdalena Valley; SNSM—Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta; WC—Western Cordillera;
CC—Central Cordillera. Further research involving more specific and
high-resolution data sets (e.g., stratigraphic, geo-
chemical, geochronology, isotopic) is necessary
The integration of provenance data available model. We suggest that the main detrital sources to fully characterize and differentiate basement
from the SJFB (Abreu, 2009; Cardona et al., 2012; correspond to the LMV and the Central Cordillera rocks in the northern Andes, and thus, to increase
Mora et al., 2017; this work) and the LMV (Montes basements, while smaller contributions of detri- the accuracy of provenance models. Major uncer-
et al., 2010; Mora-Bohórquez et al., 2017; Silva et tal material were sourced from crystalline massifs tainties remain concerning the provenance and
al., 2017; Vinasco et al., 2006) allows us to propose of the Western Cordillera. We do not consider the paleogeographic models described here due to
an early Eocene–late Oligocene paleogeographic Permian–Triassic and Late Cretaceous rocks of the the following reasons:

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Osorio-Granada et al. | Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sediments in the San Jacinto Fold Belt 224
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(1) There are no reported zircon εHf isotopic data Early Eocene 75°W Oligocene 75°W
for the Magangué magmatic arc (84–70 Ma)
proposed by Silva et al. (2017). This pre-
PD
PD PD
cludes comparisons against available data
from the northern Central Cordillera (e.g.,
Antioqueño batholith), which exhibit slightly Cachira Cachira
MCH high
high
negative to slightly positive εHf values (e.g., MCH
Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2009; Restrepo-
Moreno, 2009; Cochrane et al., 2014) relative SJD SJD
to the positive εHf signatures of LMV base- Cienaga de
Oro Fm.
ment granitic bodies, such as those obtained
San
from samples of the Bonga-1X well (Mora- Cayetano Fm LMV’b
LMV’b
Bohórquez et al., 2017). In the transition San Lucas San Lucas
Range Range
from the Central to the Western Cordillera,
Northern Northern MMV
there is a variety of Cretaceous granitoids CC MMV CC
with contrasting compositions for which εHf
Cretaceous basic oceanic Permian–Triassic igneous
data are nonexistent. Positive εHf values are volcanic and plutonic rocks and metamophic rocks
Deep marine deposits
reported for Cretaceous zircons in granitic (locally ultramafic )
clasts from Paleogene conglomerates and Upper Cretaceous plutons Precambrian metamophic Delta and fan delta
(70–90 Ma) rocks deposits
detrital zircons in the SJFB (Cardona et al.,
2012; Mora et al., 2017). Cretaceous-Paleocene Shallow marine siliciclastic
marine deposits Fluvial deposits
deposits
(2) The lack of data from wells reaching the
litho-structural blocks of oceanic affinity Jurassic plutonic and Shallow marine
volcanic rocks Mass flow deposits carbonates
intruded by the Cretaceous plutons gen-
erates uncertainty about the extent of the Drainage Escarpments Current coast line

Quebradagrande Complex below the LMV Figure 13. Eocene–Oligocene paleogeographic reconstruction of the San Jacinto Fold Belt (data modified from
(Mora-Bohórquez et al., 2017). Bernal-Olaya et al., 2015; Cardona et al., 2014; Ayala Calvo et al., 2009; Montes et al., 2010; Cediel et al., 2011;
Mora et al., 2018). MCH—Magangué-Cicuco high; SJD—San Jorge depocenter; LMV’b—Lower Magdalena
Valley basement; CC—Central Cordillera; MMV—Middle Magdalena Valley; PD—Plato depocenter.

■■ CONCLUSIONS
over time. While the San Cayetano Formation metamorphic, and mafic to ultramafic rocks. Our
The biostratigraphic data obtained for the stud- (lower Eocene) shows a wider modal composition lines of evidence suggest that that the source of
ied borehole and outcrop samples in the central (Fig. 5), from lithic arkoses to quartzarenites, the the studied sedimentary rocks can be related to the
and southern portion of the SJFB allowed us to con- sandstones of the Ciénaga de Oro Formation (Oli- basements of the LMV, Central Cordillera, and, in a
strain the age of the sampled units, varying from gocene) are mainly quartzarenites. Heavy mineral lesser percentage, the Western Cordillera.
lower Eocene to upper Oligocene. The sedimentary assemblages indicate variation between the three
rocks of the San Cayetano Formation, in the ANH– analyzed stratigraphic units. Changes here reported
San Antero–1X well, accumulated during the early may be related to climatic shifts, the variations in ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Eocene, while the Toluviejo, San Jacinto, and Ciénaga the composition of the source area and/or change This project was conducted with financial support from
Agencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos (ANH, Colombia) project
de Oro Formations, in the studied interval of the in its geographic location, and transport distance,
“Estratigrafía del Cretácico Superior–Paleógeno del sector Sinú–
ANH–Tierralta–2X well, accumulated during the late because the two wells and outcrop samples are at San Jacinto, Caribe Colombiano: Aporte al conocimiento de su
Eocene–late Oligocene. The outcrop samples from different localities (>120 km apart). evolución geológica y sistemas petrolíferos”. Special thanks are
the Ciénaga de Oro Formation indicate an Oligocene Zircon U‑Pb geochronology and zircon typolo- due to Jairo Alonso Osorio, José William Garzon, Carlos Rodrí-
age. These sediments were deposited mostly in tropi- gies do not show such marked variations compared guez, Edgar Bueno, and José Fernando Osorno (ANH) for their
technical and administrative support. The Instituto de Investi-
cal, humid, coastal and shallow marine environments. to petrography and heavy minerals. These data gaciones en Estratigrafía, Universidad de Caldas (Colombia),
The studied rocks can be related to a recycled indicate that the sediments of the SJFB basin and the Departamento de Geociencias y Medio Ambiente, Uni-
orogen. The composition of the sandstones changed came from the erosion of felsic igneous, low-grade versidad Nacional de Colombia (Medellín), provided important

GEOSPHERE | Volume 16 | Number 1 Osorio-Granada et al. | Provenance of Eocene–Oligocene sediments in the San Jacinto Fold Belt
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225
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logistic and institutional support. We also express our grati- and Potential of the Colombian Caribbean Margin: American Dewey, J.F., and Pindell, J.L., 1985, Neogene block tectonics of
tude to the Center for Isotope Geoscience, University of Florida Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 108, p. 345–397, eastern Turkey and northern South America: Continental
(Gainesville), and for their support during sample preparation https://​doi​.org​/10​.1306​/13531943M1083645. applications of the finite difference method: Tectonics, v. 4,
and analyses. Finally, we greatly appreciate the comments and Bolli, H.M., Beckmann, J.-P., and Saunders, J.B., 1994, Ben- p. 71–83, https://​doi​.org​/10​.1029​/TC004i001p00071.
suggestions from Dr. Cesar Witt (Université de Lille 1, Villeneuve thic Foraminiferal Biostratigraphy of the South Caribbean Dickinson, W.R., 1985, Interpreting provenance relations from
d’Ascq, France) and Dr. German Bayona (Corporación Geológica Region: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 408 detrital modes of sandstones, in Zuffa, G.G., ed., Prove-
ARES, Bogotá, Colombia), whose thorough revision helped to p., https://​doi​.org​/10​.1017​/CBO9780511564406. nance of Arenites: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Company,
improve the quality of this manuscript. Caballero, V., Mora, A., Quintero, I., Blanco, V., Parra, M., Rojas, p. 333–361.
L.E., Lopez, C., Sánchez, N., Horton, B.K., Stockli, D., and Dueñas, H., 1980, Palynology of Oligocene–Miocene strata of
Duddy, I., 2013, Tectonic controls on sedimentation in an borehole QE-22, Planeta Rica, Northern Colombia: Review
intermontane hinterland basin adjacent to inversion struc- of Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 30, p. 313–328, https://​
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