LES10A200 EMI: LECTURE NOTES FOR WEEK 6

BARKAT BHAYO

0.1. The fundamental theorem of calculus. Suppose f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b].
(1) If the function F is defined by
Z x
F (x) = f (t) dt
a
for all x in [a, b], then F is an antiderivative of f on [a, b].
(2) If F is any antiderivative of f , then
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a
0.2. Example. Find the area of the region between the x-axis and the graph of the function
f (x) = x3 − x2 − 2x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 2.
Solution. First find the zeros of the function f . Since
f (x) = x3 − x2 − 2x = x(x2 − x − 2) = x(x + 1)(x − 2),
the zeros are x = 0, −1 and 2. The zeros partition [−1, 2] into two sub-intervals: [−1, 0], on which
f ≥ 0 and [0, 2], on which f ≤ 0. We integrate f over each sub-interval and add the absolute values
of the calculated values.

0.5

-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

-0.5

-1.0 fHxL

-1.5

-2.0

Figure 1. f (x) = x3 − x2 − 2x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 2

0 0
x4 x3
Z 
Integral over [−1, 0] : (x3 − x2 − 2x) dx = − − x2
−1 4 3 −1
 
1 1 5
= 0− + −1 = .
4 3 12
File: "EMI -LectureNotes-Week 6-10102023".tex, printed: 2023-10-13, 14.38
1
2 BARKAT BHAYO

2 2
x4 x3
Z 
3 2 2
Integral over [0, 2] : (x − x − 2x) dx = − −x
0 4 3 0
 
8 8
= 4− −4 −0=− .
3 3
5 8 37
The total enclosed area = + − = ≈ 3.08 units.
12 3 12

1. Applications of integration
It is possible that the region bounded by the curves might accidentally have a shape whose area
we could find with geometry. But if f and g are arbitrary continuous functions we usually have to
find the area with an integral.
Suppose we want to find the area of a region that is bounded above by the curve y = f (x), below
by the curve y = g(x), and on the left and right by the lines x = a and x = b. We approximate the
region with n vertical rectangles based on a partition
P {x0 , x1 , x3 , . . . , xn }
of [a, b]. The area of the kth rectangle is
∆Ak = height · width = [f (ck ) − g(ck )]∆xk .
By applying Reimana sum, we then approximate the area of the reigon by adding the areas of the
n rectangles:
Xn Xn
A≈ ∆Ak = [f (ck ) − g(ck )]∆xk .
k=1 k=1
As ||P || → 0 the sums on the right approach the limit
Z b
[f (x) − g(x)]dx
a
because f and g are continuous. We take the area of the region to be the value of this integral, that
is,
Xn Z b
A = lim [f (ck ) − g(ck )]∆xk = [f (x) − g(x)]dx.
||P ||→0 a
k=1
The preceding discussion may be summarized as follows.
1.1. Definition. (Area between curves) If f and g are continuous with f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x in
[a, b], then the area of the region bounded by the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x) from a to b (x = a
and x = b) is the integral of of the form
Z b
A= (f (x) − g(x)) dx.
a

1.2. Example. Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y = 2 − x2 and y = −x.
Solution. The upper and lower curves are f (x) = 2 − x2 and g(x) = −x, respectively. The limits of
integration are the x-coordinate of the points of intersection of these curves, which can be obtained
by solving y = 2 − x2 and y = −x for x:
2 − x2 = x, x2 − 2x − 2 = 0, (x + 1)(x − 2) = 0, x = −1, x = 2.
Hence the limits of the integration are a = −1 and b = 2. Applying the Definition 1.1 we obtain
Z b Z 2 2
x2 x3

2
A= [f (x) − g(x)] dx = [2 + x − x ] dx = 2x + −
a −1 2 3 −1
 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 3

2
y=2-x^2
1

-1 1 2
-1 y=-x

-2

-3

-4

Figure 2. Region bounded by the curves y = 2 − x2 and y = −x

   
4 8 1 1
= 4+ − − −2 + +
2 3 2 3
3 9 9
= 6 + − = = 4.5 units.
2 3 2
□
1.3. Example. Find the area of the region R bounded by the graphs of y − x = 6, y − x3 = 0 and
2y + x = 0.

10
y=x+6
5
y=x^3
y=-x2
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2

-5

-10

Figure 3. Region bounded by the graphs of y − x = 6, y − x3 = 0 and 2y + x = 0

Solution. Here the area of the Region R cannot be found by using only one definite integral.
However, we divide R into two subregions R1 and R2 , see Figure 3.
For region R1 the upper and lower boundaries are the lines y = x + 6 and y = −x/2, respectively,
and the corresponding limits are x = −4 and x = 0. Applying Definition 1.1, the area A1 of R1 is

Z b Z 0  x i Z 0 
h 3
A1 = [f (x) − g(x)] dx = (x + 6) − − dx = x + 6 dx
a −4 2 −4 2
4 BARKAT BHAYO

 0
3 2
= x + 6x = 0 − (12 − 24) = 12 units.
4 −4
For region R2 the upper and lower boundaries are the lines y = x + 6 and y = x3 , respectively, and
the corresponding limits are x = 0 and x = 2. Again by applying Definition 1.1, we obtain the area
A2 of R2 as follows
Z b Z 2  2 4
 3
 x x4
A” = [f (x) − g(x)] dx = (x + 6) − x dx = + 6x −
a 0 2 4 0
= (2 + 12 − 4) − 0 = 10 units.
Therefore the area of the entire region R = R1 + R2 is,
A1 + A2 = 12 + 10 = 22 units.
□
1.4. Arc Length. A function f is said to be smooth on an interval if its derivative f ′ is continuous
throughout the interval. We intend to define what is meant by the length of arc between the two
points A and B on the graph of a smooth function.
If f is smooth on a closed interval [a, b], the points A(a, f (a)) and B(b, f (b)) will be called the
endpoints of the graph of the function f . Let us consider the partition P of [a, b] determined by
a = x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn = b,
and let pi denote the point with coordinates (xi , f (xi )). This gives us n + 1 points
p0 , p1 , p2 , . . . , pn−1 , pn
on the graph of function f . We connect each pi−1 to pi by a line segment of length d(pi−1 , pi ), then
the length LP of the resulting broken line is
n
X
LP = d(pi−1 , pi ) .
i=1
If the norem ||P || of the partition is small, then pi−1 is close to pi for each i, and we expect Lp to
be an approximation to the length of arc between A and B.
In order to formulate this concept, let us start from by considering the distance formula,
p
d(pi−1 , pi ) = [xi , xi−1 ]2 + [f (xi ) − f (xi−1 )]2 .
Applying Mean Value Theorem
f (xi ) − f (xi−1 ) = f ′ (ci )(xi − xi−1 )
where ci is in the open interval (xi−1 , xi ). Substituting this into preceding formula and letting
∆xi = xi − xi−1 , we obtain
p p
d(pi−1 , pi ) = [∆xi ]2 + [f ′ (ci ) ∆xi ]2 = 1 + [f ′ (ci )]2 ∆xi .
Consequently,
n p
X
Lp = 1 + [f ′ (ci )]2 ∆xi .
i=1
If the norm ||P || is small, then the length LP of the broken line should approximate the length of
the graph of f from A to B.
1.5. Definition. (Arc length) Let the function f be smooth on a closed interval [a, b]. The arc
length of the graph of f from (a, f (a)) to (b, f (b)) is given by
Z bp
b
La = 1 + [f ′ (x)]2 dx.
a
 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 5

1.6. Example. If f (x) = 3x2/3 − 10, find the arc length of the graph of f from the point A(8, 2) to
B(27, 7).
Solution. Since f ′ (x) = 2x−1/3 . Using Definition 1.5 we obtain
s
Z 27 p 2/3
2 2
Z 27   Z 27 r
27 4 x +4
L8 = 1+ 1/3
dx = 1 + 2/3 dx = dx.
8 x 8 x 8 x1/3
1.7. Solids of revolution. The volume of an object plays an important role in many problems
that arise in the physical sciences. For example, it is essential to know the volume in order to find
the center of gravity or moment of inertia of a homogeneous solid. The task of determining the
volume of of an irregularly shaped objects is often difficult.
If a region in a plane is revolved about a line in the plane, the resulting solid is called a solid of
revolution, and the solid is said to be generated by the region.
The line about which the revolution takes place is called an axis of revolution.
If the region bounded by the graph or continuous non-negative valued function f , the x-axis and
the graph of x = a and x = b (see Figure 4) is revolved about the x-axis, a solid of the type show
in Figure 5.

Figure 4. Region bounded by f , the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b

For example,
• if f is a constant function, then the region is rectangular and the solid generated in a right
circular cylinder.
• if the graph of the function f is a semicircle with end points of a diameter at the points
(a, 0) and (b, 0) where b > a, then the solid of revolution is a sphere with diameter b − a.
• if the given region is right triangle with base on x-axis and two vertices at the points (a, 0)
and (b, 0) with the right angle at one of these points, then a right circular cone is generated.
If a plane perpendicular to the x-axis intersects the solid, see Figure 4, then a circular cross
section is obtained. The plane passes through the point on the x-axis with x-coordinate at c, then
the radius of the circle is f (c) and hence its area is π[f (c)]2 . We can obtain the definition for the
volume of solid revolution by using Riemann sums. P
Suppose f is continuous and f (x) ≥ 0 for all x in [a, b]. Consider a Riemann sum i f (ci )∆xi ,
where ci is any number in the ith subinterval [xi−1 , xi ] of a partition [a, b]. Observe that the ith
rectangle generates a circular disc (a “flat” right circular cylinder) of base radius f (ci ) and altitude
(thickness) ∆xi = xi − xi−1 . The volume of this disc is the area of the base times altitude, that is,
π[f (ci )]2 ∆xi .
6 BARKAT BHAYO

Figure 5. Solid generated by revolving the region given in Figure 4

The sum of the volumes of all such discs is the volume of the solid (see Figure 6) is given by
X
π[f (ci )]2 ∆xi .
i

Figure 6. Disks generated by the partitioning the solid

Now we are in the position to define the volume of revolution as the limit of this sum as follows.
1.8. Definition. (Volume of the solid of revolution) Let f be a continuous on [a, b]. The
volume V of the solid of revolution generated by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of
f, x = a, x = b and the x-axis about the x-axis is
Xn Z b
V = lim π[f (ci )]∆xi = π[f (x)]2 dx.
||P ||→0 a
i=1
 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 7

1.9. Example. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region under the graph of
the function f (x) = x2 + 1 from −1 to 1 about the x-axis.

Solution. Applying Definition 1.8 we obtain

Z 1 Z 1
2 2
V = π[x + 1] dx = [x4 + 2x2 + 1] dx
−1 −1
1
x5 2x3

= π + +x
5 3 −1
   
1 2 1 2
= π + +1 − − − −1
5 3 5 3
56π
= ≈ 11.73 units.
15
□
1.10. Definition. Let f be a continuous on [a, b]. The volume V of the solid of revolution generated
by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of x = g(y), y = a, y = b and the y-axis about the
y-axis (see Figure 7) is
Xn Z b
V = lim π[g(ci )]∆yi = π[g(y)]2 dy.
||P ||→0 a
i=1

1.11. Example. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region by the y-axis under
the graphs of f (x) = x3 , y = 1 and y = 8 (see Figure 8).
Solution. Write g(x) = y 1/3 . Applying Definition 1.10 we obtain
Z 8 Z 8
V = = π[y 1/3 ]2 dy = π y 2/3 dy
1 1
3π 2/3 8 3π 2/3
= [y ]1 = [8 − 1]
5 5
8 BARKAT BHAYO

Figure 7. Revolution about y-axis

Figure 8.
 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 9

93π
= ≈ 58.43 units.
5
□
1.12. The washer formula for finding volume. Let us consider a region bounded by the graphs
of x = a, x = b and of two continuous functions f and g where f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 for all x in [a, b]. If
this region is revolved about the x-axis may be obtain a solid of the type illustrated in Figure ??.
Note that if g(x) > 0 for all x in [a, b], then there is a hole through the solid.

Figure 9. Volume of washer

The volume V may be found by subtracting the volume of the solid generated by the smaller
region from the volume of the solid generated by the larger region. This can be obtained by using
Definition 1.8
Z b Z b Z b
2 2
V = π[f (x)] dx − π[g(x)] dx = π{[f (x)]2 − [g(x)]2 } dx,
a a a
equivalently,
Z b
(1.13) V = π{[f (x)]2 − [g(x)]2 } dx.
a
In other words, formula (1.14) can be written as
(1.14) Volume of the washer = π[(outer radius)2 − (inner radius)2 ] · (thickness).
1.15. Example. Find the volume of the solid, which is obtained by revolving the region bounded
by the graphs of the equations x2 = y − 2, 2y − x − 2 = 0, x = 0, and x = 1 about the x-axis.
Solution. We obtain y = x2 + 2 and y = 21 x + 1 by solving the first two equations for y in terms of
x. Using formula (1.14) we obtain
Z 1 "  2 #
2 2 1
V = π (x + 2) − x+1 dx
0 2
Z 1 
4 15 2
= π x + x − x + 3 dx
0 4
10 BARKAT BHAYO

 1
1 5 1
= π x5 + x3 − x2 + 3x
5 4 2 0
79π
= ≈ 12.41 units.
20
□
1.16. Example. Find the volume of the solid generated by the region described in Example 1.15
about the line y = 3.
Solution. As we know that the line of revolution is y = 3. Therefore the radii of this washer are as
follows:
Inner radius = 3 − (x2 + 2)
= 1 − x2
Outer radius = 3 − 21 x + 1 = 2 − 12 x.
Utilizing the formula (1.14) we obtain
Z 1 " #
1 2

2 2
V = π 2 − x − (1 − x ) dx
0 2
Z 1   
1 2 2 4
= π 4 − 2x + x − (1 − 2x + x ) dx
0 4
Z 1 
9 2 4
= π 3 − 2x + x − x dx
0 4
3 3 1 4 1
 
2
= π 3x − x + x − x
4 5 0
 1
3 1
= π 3−1+ −
4 5 0
51π
= ≈ 8.01 units.
20
□
1.17. Example. The region in the first quadrant bounded by the graphs of y = 18 x3 and y = 2x is
revolved about the y-axis. Find the volume of the resulting solid.
Solution. Since we need to integrate with respect to y, we solve the given equations for x in terms
of y, and obtain
1
x = y and x = 2y 1/3 .
2
Using the formula (1.14) by considering that the axis of revolution is y, so we integrate with respect
to y, which gives
1 3 8
Z 8    
2/3 1 2 12 5/3
V = π 4y − y dx = π y − y
0 4 5 12 0
 
12 5/3 1
= π (8) − (8)3
5 12
512π
= ≈ 107.20 units.
15
□

2. Techniques of integration
In previous chapter we evaluated the basic forms of the integrals, which are listed below:
 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 11

Z Z
Z
sin x dx = − cos x + C sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
1 dx = x + C Z Z
Z n+1
x cos x dx = sin x + C cosecx cotx dx = −cosecx + C
xn dx = +C
n+1 Z Z
1 x
Z
1 tanx dx = ln | sec x| + C √ dx = arcsin +C
dx = ln |x| + C a2 − x2 a
x Z Z
1 1 x
Z ′
f (x) cotx dx = ln | sin x| + C dx = arctan +C
dx = ln |f (x)| + C a 2 + x2 a a
f (x) Z Z
1 1 x
Z sec2 x dx = tan x + C √ dx = arcsec +C
ex dx = ex + C x x2 − a 2 a a
Z Z
1 1 x
Z
au cosec2 x dx = −cotx + C √ dx = arcsec +C
ax dx = +C x x2 − a 2 a a
ln a

2.1. Different procedures. We need to rewrite an integral to match it to a standard formula.

A simplifying substitution
2.2. Example. Evaluate
2x − 9
Z
√ dx.
x2− 9x + 1
Solution. Let u = x2 − 9x + 1, then du = (2x − 9)dx. We obtain
2x − 9
Z Z Z
1
√ dx = √ dx = u−1/2 dx
x2 − 9x + 1 u
u−1/2+1 √ p
= + C = 2 u + C = 2 x2 − 9x + 1 + C.
−1/2 + 1
□
Completing the square
2.3. Example. Evaluate Z
1
√ dx.
8x − x2
Solution. We make the radicand in the complete square form
Z Z
1 1
√ dx = p dx
8x − x 2 −(x2 − 8x)
Z Z
1 1
= p dx = p dx
2
−(x − 8x + 16 − 16) 4 − (x − 4)2
2
 
x−4
= arcsin + C.
4
□
Using trigonometric identity
2.4. Example. Evaluate Z
(sec x + tan x)2 dx.

Solution. By expanding the integrand and utilizing the identity

tan2 x = sec2 x − 1,
12 BARKAT BHAYO

we get
Z Z
2
(sec x + tan x) dx = (sec2 x + 2 sec x tan x + tan2 x) dx
Z
= (sec2 x + 2 sec x tan x + sec2 x − 1) dx
= 2 tan x + 2 sec x − x + C.
□
Eliminating a square root
2.5. Example. Evaluate Z p
1 + cos(4x) dx.

Solution. We use the identity

2 cos2 θ = 1 + cos(2θ).
With θ = 2x, this becomes
2 cos2 (2x) = 1 + cos(4x).
Hence
Z p Z p
1 + cos(4x) dx = 2 cos2 (2x) dx
√ Z p √ Z
= 2 2
cos (2x) dx = 2 cos(2x) dx
√
2 sin(2x) sin(2x)
= +C = √ + C.
2 2
□
Reducing an improper fraction
2.6. Example. Evaluate
3x2 − 7x
Z
dx.
3x + 2
Solution. The integrand is an improper fraction. By division we get a proper fraction
3x2 − 7x 6
=x−3+ .
3x + 2 3x + 2
Hence
3x2 − 7x
Z Z  
6
dx = x−3+ dx
3x + 2 3x + 2
x2
= − 3x + 2 ln |3x + 2| + C.
2
□
Separating a fraction
2.7. Example. Evaluate Z
3x + 2x
√ dx.
1 − x2
Solution. By seperating the integrand we get
Z Z Z
3x + 2x x x
√ dx = 3 √ dx + 2 √ dx.
1−x 2 1−x 2 1 − x2
p
= −3 1 − x2 + 2arcsin x + C.
 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS I 13

□
Multiplying by a form of 1
2.8. Example. Evaluate Z
sec x dx.

Solution. Multiplying and dividing by sec x + tan x we get

Z Z Z
sec x + tan x
sec x dx = sec x · 1 dx = sec x · dx
sec x + tan x
sec2 x + sec x tan x
Z
= dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C.
sec x + tan x
□
The integral formula for cosecant may be obtained similarly. The secant and cosecant integrals
are
Z
sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C.
Z
cosec x dx = ln |cosec x + cot x| + C.

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