AC Theory

Example
A coil of 100 turns is rotated at 1500 rev/min in a uniform magnetic field having a uniform
density of 0.05T, the axis of rotation being at right angles to the direction of the flux. The mean
area per turn is 40cm2. Calculate;
(a) The frequency;
(b) The period;
(c) The maximum value of the generated e.m.f.;
(d) The value of the generated e.m.f. when the coil has rotated through 30˚ from the position of
zero e.m.f.
Solution
(a) Since the emf generated in a coil undergoes one cycle of variation when the coil rotates
through one revolution,
Frequency = no. of cycles per second
= no. of revolution per second
1500
= =25 Hz
60

(b) Period = time of 1 cycle

1
T= =0 . 04 s
25

(c) Em =2 ∏ fNBm A
=2 Π×0.05×0 .004×100×25=3 .14 V

(d)
e=E m sin θ Sin30˚ = 0.5
e=3 . 14×0 .5=1. 57 V

AVERAGE VALUE
The average value of alternating current is the steady current which transfers across
any circuit the same changes as it transferred by that alternating current during the
same time.
In case of a symmetrical alternating current (i.e. one whose two half cycles are exactly
similar, whether sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal), the average value over a complete
cycle is zero. However, the average value is given by adding or integrating the
instantaneous values over one half-cycle only. But in case of unsymmetrical
alternating current (like half wave rectified current), the average value must be taken
over the whole cycle.

1
 I

i3
i2

i1 in

T
Π

i 1 + i2 +i 3 +. ..+i n
I av =
n (Mid ordinate method)
In case of unsymmetrical a.c the average is taken over the whole cycle.

By integration; At any instant;

i=I m sinθ
Π id θ
I av =∫0
( Π −0) (Putting value of i)
Π I m sin θdθ
=∫0
Π
Im Π
= ∫ sin θdθ
Π 0
Im
= [−cos θ ]0Π
Π
Im
= [ 1−(−1 )]
Π
2Im
I av =
Π

ROOT MEANS SQUARE (RMS) VALUE

2
Root Means Square (RMS) value or effective value of an alternating current is that
current which will produce the same heating effect as an equivalent direct current or
is the steady (dc) current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time
produces the same heat as produced by alternating current through the same circuit
for the same time.

Consider the case of two circuits having the same resistances but one is connected to
battery and other to a sinusoidal generator. Wattmeters are used to measure heat
power produced in each circuit. The voltage applied to each circuit is so adjusted that
heat power production in each circuit is the same. In that case the alternating current
equal to direct current is called r.m.s value.

W W
Idc Irms

R E R
V ~

A A

2 i 21 +i 22 +i 23 + .. .+i 2n
I =
n
v 21 + v 22 + v 23 +. ..+ v 2n
2
V =
n

√
2 2 2 2
v 1 +v 2 + v 3 + .. .+v n
V=
n (Mid ordinate)
Then by integration;
i = Imsinωt
i=I m sin ωt
2Π i 2 dθ
I 2=∫0
(2 Π−0 ) (Putting values of i)

I=
√∫ 2Π
0
i 2 dθ
2Π

√∫
2 2
2Π I m sin θdθ
= 0 2Π

√ ∫
2
Im 2Π
= sin2 θdθ
2Π 0

3
 cos 2 θ=1−2 sin2 θ
1−cos 2 θ
sin2 θ=
2

√
2
Im 2Π
I= ∫ (1−cos 2 θ ) dθ
4Π 0

√
2
Im sin 2 θ 2 Π
= [ θ− ]0
4Π 2

√
2
Im
= ×2 Π
4Π

√
2
Im
=
2
Im
I RMS = =0 . 707 I m
√2
 The ammeters and voltmeters records the R.M.S value of alternating current and
voltage
 In electrical engineering the values of the given current and voltages are always
R.M.S. unless otherwise specified.

Peak or crest factor

Peak factor is the ratio of peak or maximum value to root mean square (r.m.s) value of
alternating current or voltage.
maximum value I
Peak factor= = m
r . m. s . value r . ms .

Form factor
Is a ratio of r.m.s value to average value of alternating voltage or current
r. ms value
Form factor= =1. 11
Form factor = Average value

Example 1
An alternating current of sinusoidal waveform has an r.m.s value of 10.0A. What are
the peak values of this current over one cycle?

4
 I 10
I m= = =14 . 14
0 .707 0 . 707 A

The peak values are therefore 14.14A and -14.14A

Example 2
An alternating voltage has the equation v = 141.4sin377t; what are the values of:
(a) r.m.s. voltage
(b) frequency
(c) The instantaneous voltage when t = 3 ms?
Solution
(a) The relation is of the form v = Vmsinωt and by comparison,
Vm = 141.4V
V m 141. 4
V rms = = =100
Vr.m.s. = √2 √2 V
(b) Also by comparison,
ω = 377 rad/s = 2Πf
377
f= =60
Hence f = 2Π Hz
(c) v = 141.4sin377t
−3
t = t=3×10 s
v = 141.4sin (377×3×10-3) = 141.4 sin1.131
= 141.4×0.904
= 127.8V

5
Numerical Example #1
A sinusoidal current has maximum value of 650 mA. What is its average value?
Solution
The average value of sinusoidal alternating current is given by
Iaν = 2Imπ = 0.637Im
Iaν = 2Imπ = 0.637Im
Iaν = 0.637×650×10−3 = 414.05mA

Numerical Example #2
The equation of alternating voltage is given by ν = 325.22 𝑠𝑖𝑛314𝑡. Find (i) RMS value
(ii) Frequency (iii) Average value.
Solution
The maximum value of the voltage is
Vm = 325.22V
Vm = 325.22V

 RMS value of voltage

VRMS = 0.707Vm =0.707×325.22 = 230V
VRMS = 0.707𝑉𝑚 = 0.707×325.22 = 230V

 Frequency
∵ω=2πf = 314
∵ω=2𝜋𝑓=314
∴f =50Hz
 Average Value
Vaν=0.637Vm=0.637×325.22=207.2V

More Examples

1. The following table gives the values of current and time for a half-cycle of
alternating current:

Time, t[ms] 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
6
 Current, i[A] 0.0 7 14 23 40 56 68 76 60 5 0

Assuming the negative half-cycle is identical in shape to the positive half-cycle,

plot the waveform and find;
(a) the frequency of the supply
(b) the instantaneous value of current after 1.25ms and 3.8ms
(c) the peak or maximum value
(d) the mean or average value and
(e) the r.m.s. value of the waveform
Solution
The half cycle of alternating current is shown plotted in the figure below.

(a) Time for half-cycle = 5ms. Hence the time for 1cycle i.e. the periodic time, T
=10ms = 0.01sec
1 1
f= = =100
Frequency, f 0 . 01 Hz

7
 (b) From the graph, the instantaneous value of current after 1.25ms is 19A, and
the instantaneous value of current after 3.8ms is 70A.

(c) Peak or maximum value from the graph is = 76A

Area under the curve

(d) Mean or average value = Length of base
Using the mid-ordinate rule with 10 intervals, each of the width 0.5ms,
gives;
−3
Area under curve = 0 . 5×10 ( 3+10+19+30+49+63+73+72+30+2 )
= ( 0 . 5×10 ) ×( 351 )
−3

Hence;
( 0 .5×10−3 )×351
=35 . 1
Mean or Average value = 5×10−3 A

√
3 2 +102 + 192 +302 +492 +632 +73 2 +722 +30 2 +22
(e) R.m.s. value = 10

√
19157
= 10
=43 . 8
A

2. An alternating voltage is given by v=282 .8 sin 314 t Volts. Find;

(a) The R.M.S. voltage
(b) The frequency and
(c) The instantaneous value of voltage when t = 4ms.

Solution
(a) The general expression for alternating voltage is v=V Μ sin ωt ; comparing th
v=282 .8 sin 314 t with the general expression gives;
VM = 282.8V
V Μ 282 . 8
= =200
Hence VRMS = √ 2 √2 V

(b) Angular velocity; ω=314 rad/s

ω=2 Πf
ω 314
f= = =50
2Π 2 Π Hz
(c) when t = 4msec;

8
 v=282 .8 sin ( 314×4×10−3 )

(
=282 . 8 sin 314×4×10−3 ×
180 °
Π )
=282 . 8 sin 71. 96 °
v = 268.9V

3. An alternating voltage is given by v=75 sin ( 200 πt−0 . 25 ) Volts. Find;

(a) the amplitude
(b) the peak to peak value
(c) the r.m.s. value
(d) the periodic time
(e) the frequency, and
(f) the phase angle

Solution
Comparing v=75 sin ( 200 πt−0 . 25 ) with the general expression,
v=V Μ sin ( ωt ±φ ) , gives;

(a) amplitude, VM = 75V

(b) Peak-to-peak value = 75×2=150 V

(c) The r.m.s. value = 0 . 707 V Μ =0 .707×75=53 V

(d) Angular velocity, ω = 200л rad/s, hence;
ω=2 Πf
ω 1
f= Τ=
2 Π , but f
2Π 2Π
Τ= = =0 . 01
ω 200 Π s or = 10ms
1 1
f= = =100
(e) Frequency, T 0 . 01 Hz

(f) Phase angle, φ=0 . 25 radians lagging 75 sin 200 πt

180 °
φ=0 . 25× =14 .32 °
Π

9
AC CIRCUITS

Ac through resistance, inductance and capacitance

In each case we assume that the alternating voltage is given by the equation
v=V m sin ωt

Ac through pure resistance

R
I

VR

Let the applied voltage be given by the equation

v=V m sin ωt
Let R = Ohmic resistance
i = instantaneous current

The supply voltage has to supply Ohmic voltage drop only.

Hence
v =iR
But
v=V m sin ωt
V m sin ωt=iR
Vm
i= sin ωt
R
I is maximum when sin ωt is unity
Vm
I m=
R
10
Then
i=I m sin ωt
By comparing the two equations we find that alternating voltage and current are in phase with
each other.

This is also shown graphically:

v=V m sin ωt

i=I m sin ωt

AC through Pure inductance

Is one which does not contain Ohmic resistance. When alternating current is applied to a purely
inductive coil, back emf is built due to self-inductance of the coil. The back emf opposes the
rise or fall of current through the coil. Because no Ohmic voltage drops, therefore the applied
voltage has to overcome this self emf only.
VL

v
di
v= L
dt
di
V m sin ωt=L
dt
Vm di
sin ωt=
L dt
11
 Vm
di= sin ωtdt
L
Vm
i= ∫ sin ωtdt
L
Vm
i=− cosωt
ωL
Vm
i= sin(ωt−Π /2 )
ωL
ωL=X L (inductive reactance )

Maximum value of i is when sin( ωt−Π /2)=1

Vm
I m=
ωL
i=I m sin(ωt−Π /2 )
v=V m sin ωt
i=I m sin(ωt−π /2 )
t

 In inductive coil the current lags behind the applied voltage by quarter cycle or phase angle
of Π/2 (90˚).
 ωL is called inductive reactance X L of the coil and its given in Ohms, L is in Henrys and ω
is in rad/sec. X L=2 Π fL
 XL depends directly on the frequency of the voltage: the higher the frequency the greater
the reactance and vice versa.

12
AC through pure capacitance
When the alternating voltage is applied to the plates of capacitor, the capacitor is charged first
in one direction and then in the opposite direction.
I

VC

v = p.d. across the plates of capacitor at any time

q = charges on the plates at that time

q=Cv
q=CV m sin ωt
dq d
i= = (CV m sin ωt )
Current, dt dt

m V
i=CV m ωcosωt or i= 1/ ωC cos ωt

Vm
i= sin( ωt+ π /2 )
1/ ωC
Vm
I m=
1/ ωC

i=I m sin(ωt + π /2)

But
1/ωC= X C
 XC is the capacitive reactance and it is given in Ohms. If C is in Farad, ω is in rad/sec.

13
 π
 Therefore current in a pure capacitor leads the applied voltage by 2 (90˚).

AC through resistance and inductance connected in series.

Consider a pure resistance R and pure inductance L connected ion series.
Let V = r.m.s value of the applied voltage
I = r.m.s of the value of the resultant current
VR = IR - voltage drop across R (in phase with I)
VL = IXL – voltage drop across coil (ahead of I by 90˚)

VR VL

VL

ϕ
I
VR
The applied voltage V is the vector sum of VL and VR

V = √ V 2R +V 2L
14
 V = √(IR )2 +( IX L )2

√
V =I ( R2 + X 2 )
L

V
I √
= R 2 + X 2 =Z =
L Impedance of the circuit
Z 2= R 2 + X 2L

Z=√ R 2 + X 2L )

 The applied voltage V leads the current I by an angle φ such that

VL IX L XL Re ac tan ce XL
tan ϕ= = = = ϕ=tan −1
VR IR R Re sis tan ce , R

Z
XL = ωL

φ
R

Power Factor (p.f.)

Is the cosine angle (cosφ) between current and voltage its lag or lead.
V R IR R True Power
p . f =cosϕ= = = =
V IZ Z Apparent Power

AC through Resistance and Capacitance connected in Series

R C VR I

I VR VC V -VC

VR = IR - voltage drop across R (in phase with I)

15
VC = IXC – voltage drop across C (behind I by 90˚)
 the capacitive reactance XC is taken negative

V = √(V R )2 +(−V C )2 =√( IR )2 +( IX C )2 =I √ R2 + X 2C

V
=√ R 2 + X C2 =Z=
I Impedance of the circuit

∴ Z= √ R2 +X 2C
−X C
tan ϕ=
I leads V by an angle φ such that R

R I
φ

Z -XC

∴ Z=R−jX C

Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in series

VL I
VR VC
I
R L C

VR VL VC

VR = IR = voltage drop across R (in phase with I)

VL = IXL = voltage drop across L (leads I by 90˚)

16
VC = IXC = voltage drop across C (lags I by 90˚)

V VL –VC

φ
VR

V = √(V R )2 +(V L−V C )2

V = √(IR )2 +( IX L−IX C )2

V =I √ R 2 +( X L−X C )2
V
=Z
But I

∴ Z= √ R2 +( X L− X C )2

Z
XL – XC
φ
R I

 The positive sign to be used when XC>XL i.e. current leads

 The negative sign to be used when XL > XC i.e. current lagging

X L−X C
tan ϕ=
R
R R
cos ϕ= = 2
Z √ R +( X − X )2
Power factor = L C

If
v=V m sin ωt the equation of resulting current is i=I m sin(ωt±φ)

Example

17
A resistance 10Ω and inductance 0.1H is connected in series with a capacitor of capacitance
150μF, across a 200V, 50Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) The inductive reactance
(b) The capacitive reactance
(c) The circuit impedance
(d) The current
(e) The power factor

Solution

(a) Inductive reactance, XL = 2 π fL=2 π×50×0 . 1=31 . 4 Ω

1 1
= =21 .2
(b) Capacitive reactance, XC = 2 π fC 2 π ×50×150×10
−6
Ω

(c) Impedance, Z = √ R 2
+( X L −X C )2
= √ 102
+(31 . 4−21. 2 )2
=14 . 28 Ω
V 200
= =14 . 0
(d) Current, I = Z 14 .28 A
R 10
= =0. 7
(e) Power factor, pf = Z 14 . 28 lagging because the circuit is net inductive

Questions
1. (a) Define the following;
(i) R.M.S. value of alternating current
(ii) Average value of alternating current
(iii) Form factor
(iv) Peak factor
(b) An alternating current of sinusoidal waveform has an R.M.S. of 10.0A. What are the of
peak values of this current over one cycle?

2. A 12poles generator has a speed of 3600 rev/min. Calculate the frequency of the generated
voltage.

3. Define each of the following terms as applied in marine electrical technology;

(a) time period
(b) frequency
(c) amplitude
(d) cycle

5. (a) Briefly explain with the aid of simple sketch how ac voltage is generated
(b) Voltage induced in a conductor depends on three factors. Name them.
(c) Explain each of the parameter in the equation
e=E m sin ωt and write down the formula for ω.

18
Resonance in R-L-C series circuits

R L C

VR VL VC

Let such circuit be connected across an a.c. source of constant voltage V but of frequency
varying from zero to infinity. There would be a frequency of applied voltage which would
make XL equal to XC in magnitude. In that case, X = 0 and Z = R as shown in figure (a) below.
Under this condition, the circuit is said to be in electrical resonance. VL = IXL and VC = IXC
and the two are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase. Hence they cancel each other out.
The two reactances taken together act as a short-circuit since no voltage develops across them.
Whole of applied voltage drops across R so that V = VR. The circuit impedance Z = R. The
phasor diagram for series resonance is shown in figure (b) below.
VL XL

V I
V = VR I Z=R I
XC
VC
(a) (b)

Calculation of Resonance Frequency

19
The frequency at which the net reactance of the series circuit is zero is called the resonant
frequency
f 0 , its value can be found as under:-
1
ω 0 L=
XL – XC = 0 or XL = XC or ωo C

1
ω 2 L=
0 LC
2 1
( 2 πf 0 ) = LC
1
f 2=
0 2 π √ LC ; If L is in Henry and C in Farad, the f0 is given in Hertz
When a series R-L-C circuit is in resonance, it possesses minimum impedance Z = R. Hence,
V
I 0=
circuit current is maximum, it being limited by value of R alone. The current R and in
phase with V.

Since circuit current is maximum, it produces large voltage drops across L and C. but drops
being equal and opposite, cancel each other out.

Graphical Representation

I XL cos ϕ=1 lagging

Leading
Z V
Ι=
X = (XL~XC) R

R Z=R

A
f0 f
f0 f
-XC

Q-Factor of a resonant series circuit

The Q-Factor of an R-L-C series circuit can be in the following different ways;
(i) By the voltage magnification produced in the circuit at the resonance.

20
 V
We have seen that at resonance, current has maximum value I0 = R , Voltage across
Either coil or capacitor = I0XL0 or I0XC0 supply voltage V = I0R

VL0 I 0 X L0 ω0 L
= =
Voltage magnification = V I0 R R
VC0 I 0 XC 0 1
= = =
V I0 R ω0 CR

ω0 L 2 πf 0 L
= =tan ϕ
Q-Factor, Q0 = R R
Where φ is the power factor of the coil.

(ii) The Q-factor may also be defined as under

1 1 2
LI L ( √ 2 I ) I 2 2 πf L ω L
maximum stored energy 2 02 2 0 0 1
2π =2 π 2 = 2 = = =
energy dissipated per cycle I RT 0 I R ( 1/ f 0 ) 2
I R R ω0 CR
Q-factor, Q =

V V
I 1= and I 2=
Z1 Z2
Resolving into active and reactive components, using arbitrary signs, we have

R1 R2

Z1 Z2

X1 X2

√
I = I 2+ I
a r2

Ia
cos ϕ=
I

21
 VT
I T=
ZT

3+ j 4
ZT =
8+ j6

22