Internal Combustion Engines

Mohy S. Mansour
Professor
Mechanical Power Engineering Department
Cairo University

1
 Chapter 7
Combustion

Mohy S. Mansour

2
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

3
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
 Laser Diagnostics in Engine

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6 https://www.digitalimagecorrelation.com/en/applications/automotive/laser-imaging-in-engines/
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 Direct fuel spray injection:
liquid-vapor seaparation
Highly sensitive soot imaging
Air/fuel ratio (λ) maps
gas temperature, EGR recirculation
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9
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

Flame image data sample, bottom view double exposure at 20o BTDC and TDC, 1-port flow, spark at 40°
BTDC, øi = 0.75, MAP = 0.75 atm., 500 rpm

10
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

11
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

12
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

13
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

14
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

15
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

16
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

17
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
18
19
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

20
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

21
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
 Flame Imaging Studies of Cycle-by-Cycle
Combustion Variation in a SI Four-Stroke Engine
Stephen C. Bates
Thoughtventions Unlimited LLC
40 Nutmeg Lane
Glastonbury, CT 06033

22
⚫ http://www.tvu.com/PCycleByCycleweb.html
 Combustion

⚫ It is the process of chemical reaction

between air and fuel for energy
production.
⚫ The combustion environment determines
the combustion intensity (energy release
per unit volume)
⚫ Stability and pollution are the main
concerns for all combustion systems
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 Combustion

Spark Ignition
⚫ Air and fuel mixture enters the combustion chamber:
– Over 100 years the mixture is adjusted to be homogeneous
around stoichiometric
– The new trends:
⚫ Stratified
⚫ Lean burn

⚫ Ignition is initiated by spark

⚫ Flame propagates
⚫ Power production
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 Combustion

Spark Ignition
⚫ Flame propagation depends on:
– Turbulence level
– Cylinder geometry

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 Combustion

Spark Ignition
⚫ Combustion in SI is divided into three main stages:
– Flame initiation and development (5-10 % consumption)
– Flame propagation (80-90 % consumption)
– Flame termination (5-10 % consumption)

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 Combustion

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 Ignition and Flame Development

⚫ Flame is initiated by spark

⚫ Occurs 10o – 30o bTDC
⚫ High temperature plasma between electrodes
⚫ Flame starts slowly due to heat transfer to electrodes
⚫ Applied potential on electrodes: 25000 – 40000 Volts
⚫ Maximum current of 200 Amp lasts for 10 ns (10-8 sec)
⚫ Peak temperature of 60000 K
⚫ Total spark duration is 0.001 s with average
temperature of 6000 K
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 Ignition and Flame Development

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 Ignition and Flame Development

⚫ Hydrocarbon fuels require 0.2 mJ of energy for ignition

for stoichiometric (can be up to 3 mJ for non-
stoichiometric)
⚫ Spark plug provides 30 – 50 mJ (most is lost by heat
transfer)
⚫ Electrodes gab is 0.7 – 1.7 mm

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 Flame Propagation in SI Engines

⚫ After flame development: flame propagates

⚫ Turbulence, swirl and squish increases flame
propagation
⚫ Flame propagation speed is ten times faster than
that in laminar conditions
⚫ The mass burned creates hot less dense gases with
larger volume than unburned gases
⚫ This adds more compression on the unburned gases

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 Flame Propagation in SI Engines

⚫ Two-third of the mixture should be burned at TDC

⚫ Completed at 15o aTDC
⚫ Maximum P and T at 5o – 10o aTDC
⚫ Almost constant volume combustion
⚫ Highest efficiency if combustion occurs at const. V
⚫ However, in practice high rate of pressure rise is not
recommended (less smooth combustion)
⚫ Best rate of pressure increase: 240 kPa per degree CA
⚫ More pressure rise may lead to knock and less efficiency
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 Flame Speed

⚫ It varies with
– Air-to-Fuel ratio
– Turbulence
– Swirl
– Squish

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 Flame Speed

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 Flame Speed

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 Burn Angle

⚫ It is the crank angle during the flame propagation

mode
⚫ It is about 25o for most engines
⚫ Ignition should start at 15o bTDC to be completed at
10o aTDC

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 Flame Termination

⚫ Mixture is 90 – 95 % burned at 10o – 20o aTDC

⚫ The last amount will react in a very small volume
⚫ Less turbulence and mass motion near the wall
⚫ Heat is transferred to the wall and this quenches the
flame
⚫ Thus combustion rate is reduced and flame speed is
also reduced
⚫ Self ignition may also occur in this small volume and
higher pressure

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 Example Problem 7-1 p.294

The spark plug is fired at 18o bTDC in an engine running at 1800 RPM. It
takes 8o of engine rotation to start combustion and get into flame propagation
mode. Flame termination occurs at 12o aTDC. Bore diameter is 8.4 cm, and the
spark plug is offset 8 mm from the centerline of the cylinder. The flame front
can be approximated as a sphere moving out from the spark plug. Calculate the
effective flame front speed during flame propagation.

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 Solution
The spark plug is fired at 18o bTDC in an engine running at 1800 RPM. It takes 8o of engine rotation to start combustion and get
into flame propagation mode. Flame termination occurs at 12o aTDC. Bore diameter is 8.4 cm, and the spark plug is offset 8 mm
from the centerline of the cylinder. The flame front can be approximated as a sphere moving out from the spark plug. Calculate the
effective flame front speed during flame propagation. FS TDC
Data: 8 mm FT
SI 18o
• SI = 18o bTDC
• N = 1800 rpm
• ID = 8o ID = 8o
• FT = 12o aTDC
• B = 8.4 cm
• Offset = 8 mm
Flame travel distance = 0.5 B + 8 mm = 49 mm = 0.049 m
Flame period (ca) = (18 – 8) + 12 = 22o
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𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑, sec = = 0.00204 𝑠𝑒𝑐
6𝑁
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 0.049
42 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = = 24.02 𝑚/ 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 0.00204
 Example Problem 7-2 p.294

The engine of Example problem 7-1 is now running at 3000 RPM. As speed is
increased in this engine, greater turbulence and swirl increase the flame front
speed at a rate such that Vf a 0.85 N. Flame development after spark plug
firing still takes 8o of engine rotation. Calculate how much ignition timing
must be advanced such that flame termination again occurs at 12o aTDC.

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 Solution
The engine of Example problem 7-1 is now running at 3000 RPM. As speed is increased in this engine, greater turbulence and
swirl increase the flame front speed at a rate such that Vf a 0.85 N. Flame development after spark plug firing still takes 8o of
engine rotation. Calculate how much ignition timing must be advanced such that flame termination again occurs at 12o aTDC.

N = 3000 rpm FS TDC FT

𝑉𝑓2 𝑁2 𝑉𝑓2 3000 SI ?o
= 0.85 = 0.85
𝑉𝑓1 𝑁1 24.02 1800
ID = 8o
𝑉𝑓2 = 34.03 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 0.049
𝑉𝑓2 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = = 0.00144 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑓2 34.03
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑥 6 𝑁 = 0.00144 𝑥 6 𝑥 3000 = 25.9𝑜

𝑆𝐼 = 25.9 − 12 + 8 = 21.9𝑜 𝑏𝑇𝐷𝐶

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 Variations in Combustion

⚫ Many parameters cause cycle-to-cycle variations:

– Different Air-to-Fuel ratio
– Variations in intake system
– Variations in cylinder
– Nature of turbulence

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 Effect of EGR on Stability

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 Controls and Sensors

⚫ Controls are made to give optimum combustion

⚫ Programmed electronic controls
⚫ Sensors located in intake and exhaust locations

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 Controls and Sensors

⚫ Sensors measure
– throttle position,
– throttle rate of change,
– intake manifold pressure,
– Atmospheric conditions
– Coolant temperature
– EGR position
– Crank angle
– Oxygen
– CO
– Knock
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 Controls and Sensors

⚫ Sensors methods
– Mechanical
– Optical
– Thermal
– Electronic
– Chemical
– Combination

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 Combustion in Divided-Chamber Engines and
Stratified Lean-Burn Engines

⚫ Provide different air-to-fuel ratio in different chambers

⚫ Size of small chamber is about 20 % of the clearance
volume

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 Combustion in Divided-Chamber Engines and
Stratified Lean-Burn Engines

⚫ The goal of the secondary chamber is different for

different engines:
– Swirl for good mixing and combustion within the chamber. Gas
expands through orifice to create secondary swirl in the main
cylinder
– Provides stratified charge: rich in the secondary chamber and lean
in the cylinder

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 Combustion in Divided-Chamber Engines and
Stratified Lean-Burn Engines

– High swirl (combustion is improved and high

speed jet of combustion gases from the swirl
chamber goes into the main chamber to create
the main swirl),
– Stratified charge (The mixture is these small
chambers is almost rich, while the rest of the
mixture in the main chamber is lean). This
assures good start, better fuel economy: super
economy lean burn at AF = 25. One intake valve
may be used in the small chamber and another
one in the main chamber
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 Combustion in Divided-Chamber Engines and
Stratified Lean-Burn Engines

⚫ Passive secondary chamber: this is used

to collect high pressure gases during the
combustion process and release this
pressure during the expansion stroke to give
more power

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61
 Divided Combustion Chambers

⚫ Another case of secondary combustion chamber: it

represents 10-15 % of the clearance volume:

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 Example Problem 7-3 p.303
A six-cylinder SI engine with a total displacement of 1.86 liters operates at
2400 RPM using gasoline direct injection (GDI) with two injections per cycle
in each cylinder. The spark plug is fired 19o bTDC, and there is ignition delay
of 0.0015 seconds before combustion is established. During combustion, there
is a rich air-fuel mixture around the spark plug at AF = 11:1 and lean mixture
in the rest of the combustion chamber of AF = 20:1. The rich zone can be
modeled as a 2-cm-diameter hemisphere around the spark plug with a flame
speed of 32 m/s. The lean zone then fills the rest of the combustion chamber to
the outer edge of the bore and a flame speed of 19 m/s. The engine has a
compression ratio of 9.8, a stroke of 7.2 cm, and a connecting rod length of
13.3 cm, with the spark plug at the center of the combustion chamber.
Calculate:
1. Crank angle position at the end of combustion
Piston speed at the end of combustion
63 2.
3. Volume in combustion chamber of one cylinder at end of combustion
 Solution
A six-cylinder SI engine with a total displacement of 1.86 liters operates at 2400 RPM using gasoline direct injection (GDI) with
two injections per cycle in each cylinder. The spark plug is fired 19o bTDC, and there is ignition delay of 0.0015 seconds before
combustion is established. During combustion, there is a rich air-fuel mixture around the spark plug at AF = 11:1 and lean mixture
in the rest of the combustion chamber of AF = 20:1. The rich zone can be modeled as a 2-cm-diameter hemisphere around the
spark plug with a flame speed of 32 m/s. The lean zone then fills the rest of the combustion chamber to the outer edge of the bore
and a flame speed of 19 m/s. The engine has a compression ratio of 9.8, a stroke of 7.2 cm, and a connecting rod length of 13.3 cm,
with the spark plug at the center of the combustion chamber. Calculate:
1. Crank angle position at the end of combustion
2. Piston speed at the end of combustion
3. Volume in combustion chamber of one cylinder at end of combustion 𝜋 2
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑁𝑐 𝐵 𝑆 𝐵 = 7.4 𝑐𝑚
Data: 4
• SI = 18 bTDC
o
𝑅𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 1 𝑐𝑚
• Nc = 6
• Vd = 1.86 liter 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 0.5 𝐵 − 1 𝑐𝑚 = 2.7 𝑐𝑚
• N = 2400 rpm
• GDI 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 0.01
𝑅𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = = 0.000313 𝑠𝑒𝑐
• SF = 19o bTDC 𝑉𝑓𝑅 32
• ID = 0.0015 sec 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 0.027
• Rich AF = 11, Lean AF = 20 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = =
• Rich zone D = 2 cm, VfR = 32 m/sec 𝑉𝑓𝐿 19
64 • VfL = 19 m/sec
• rc = 9.8, S = 7.2 cm, r = 13.3 cm, Spark plug at center
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.00142 𝑠𝑒𝑐
 Solution

𝑅𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.000313 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.00142 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 0.001733 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 0.001733 𝑥 6 𝑥 𝑁 = 24.96𝑜
𝐼𝐷 = 0.0015 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 21.6𝑜
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 24.96𝑜 + 21.6𝑜 = 46.56𝑜
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 19𝑜 𝑏𝑇𝐷𝐶
𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 46.56𝑜 − 19𝑜 = 27.56𝑜 𝑎𝑇𝐷𝐶
Up    cos θ 
=   sin θ 1 + 
Up  2   R 2
- sin 2
θ 
U p = 2 SN 2400 𝑟 13.3
ഥ𝑃 = 2 𝑥 0.072𝑥
𝑈 = 5.76 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑅= = = 3.69
60 𝑎 3.6
65 For q = 27.56𝑜 𝑈𝑃 = 5.18 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
 Solution

V
Vc
1
2

= 1 + (rc - 1) R + 1 - cos q - R 2 - sin 2 q 
𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑 1.86
𝑟𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑,𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = = = 0.31 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝑐 6

𝑉𝑑,𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑐,𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = = 0.0352 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑟𝑐 − 1

For q = 27.56𝑜

𝑉 = 0.057 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟

66
 Engines Operating Characteristics

⚫ Power Operation
⚫ Cruising Operation
⚫ Idle and Low Engine Speed
⚫ Closing Throttle at High Engine Speed
⚫ Starting Cold Engines

67
 Power Operation

⚫ WOT (wide open throttle) for max power

⚫ Rich mixture
⚫ Retarded spark (later in the cycle)
⚫ Pressure peaks almost at TDC (rich fuel burn faster)
⚫ No EGR
⚫ Produces more NOx

68
 Cruising Operation

⚫ Less power is needed

⚫ For steady highway driving
⚫ Lean Mixture
⚫ High EGR
⚫ More fuel efficient (km/liter)
⚫ Less thermal efficiency, it operates at a lower speed (more
time per cycle for heat losses from the combustion
chamber)

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 Idle and Low Engine Speed

⚫ Throttle is almost closed

⚫ High vacuum in cylinder
⚫ Large exhaust residual
⚫ Poor combustion
⚫ Rich mixture
⚫ Produces high CO and HC
⚫ Miss fire is common. This increases the emissions.

70
 Closing Throttle at High Engine
Speed (quick deceleration)

⚫ Very large vacuum is created

⚫ High exhaust residual
⚫ Rich mixture
⚫ Poor combustion
⚫ Misfire
⚫ High exhaust emissions

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 Starting a Cold Engine

⚫ Very rich mixture (sometime AF = 1)

⚫ Cold viscous lubricant needs heat
⚫ During warm up very high emissions are generated.

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 Modern Fast-Burn Combustion
Chamber

High speed SI engines should:

⚫ Fast burn of mixture without exhaust emissions
⚫ Smooth power stroke
⚫ Low specific fuel consumption
⚫ Maximum thermal efficiency (a high compression
ratio)

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 Design of Combustion Chamber

⚫ Two designs are used to satisfy those requirements:

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75
 Modern Fast-Burn Combustion
Chamber

High speed SI engines should have:

⚫ Minimum combustion time without having constant
volume reaction (detonation)
⚫ Knock is avoided if combustion time < ignition delay after
reaching self ignition temperature
⚫ Minimum flame travel distance with maximum
turbulence, swirl and squish (this is satisfied in the
chambers above). These effects can increase the flame
speed by a factor of 10

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 Modern Fast-Burn Combustion
Chamber

High speed SI engines should have:

⚫ Two spark plugs may be used (most aircraft engines use
two spark plugs per cylinder)
⚫ The spark plug should be near the intake valve to assure
rich mixture for fast burn
⚫ The spark plug should be near the exhaust valve where the
temperature is high and fuel evaporates faster.

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 Combustion in CI Engines

⚫ Combustion occurs in a very non-homogeneous mixture

⚫ No air throttle
⚫ Engine torque and power are controlled by fuel injection
⚫ Intake pressure is almost equal atmospheric and thus
pump work is small
⚫ Compression ratio between 12 and 24
⚫ High thermal efficiency as compared to SI engines: better
fuel control

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 Combustion in CI Engines

⚫ Equivalence ratio is about 0.8

⚫ Injection starts at 15o bTDC and ends at 5o aTDC
⚫ High injection velocity is required

79
80 https://www.google.com.eg/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjA_Mzo8r_XAhVKbBoKHZTpDjAQjRwIBw&url=https%3
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ricardo%2F&psig=AOvVaw3xsdmPLKOGXIWMn7rANLAp&ust=1510811835915352
 Combustion sequence in CI
engines

⚫ Injection: Atomization
⚫ Vaporization
– 90 % evaporates within 0.001 sec
⚫ Mixing
– See distribution of AF below
⚫ Self-ignition
– At about 6-8o after injection starts

81
 Combustion sequence in CI
engines

⚫ Combustion
– Multiple flame fronts occur after self ignition within
the region of 1-1.5 equivalence ratio. 70 – 95 % of the
fuel in the vapor phase.

82
 Example Problem 7-4 p.312

The diesel engine of Example problem 5.9 has a compression ratio of 18:1 and
operates on an air-standard Dual cycle. At 2400 RPM, combustion starts at 7o
bTDC, and lasts for 42o of engine rotation. The ratio of connecting rod length
to crank angle offset is R = 3.8. Calculate:
1. Ignition delay
2. Cycle cutoff ratio

Example 5.9
An automobile has a 3.2-liter, five-cylinder, four-stroke cycle diesel engine
operating at 2400 RPM. Fuel injection occurs from 20o bTDC to 5o aTDC. The
engine has a volumetric efficiency of 0.95 and operates with fuel equivalence
ratio of 0.8. Light diesel fuel is used (AFst = 14.5).

83
 Solution

The diesel engine of Example problem 5.9 has a compression ratio of 18:1 and operates on an air-standard Dual cycle. At 2400
RPM, combustion starts at 7o bTDC, and lasts for 42o of engine rotation. The ratio of connecting rod length to crank angle offset is
R = 3.8. Calculate:
1. Ignition delay
2. Cycle cutoff ratio

Data:
• Injection starts at IS = 20o bTDC
• rc = 18
• Dual cycle
• N = 2400 rpm
• Combustion starts CS = 7o bTDC
• Angle of combustion (flame propagation) = 42o
• R = 3.8
-----------------------------
13
𝐼𝐷 = 20 − 7 = 13𝑜 𝐼𝐷 = = 0.000903 𝑠𝑒𝑐
84 6𝑥2400
 Solution

The diesel engine of Example problem 5.9 has a compression ratio of 18:1 and operates on an air-standard Dual cycle. At 2400
RPM, combustion starts at 7o bTDC, and lasts for 42o of engine rotation. The ratio of connecting rod length to crank angle offset is
R = 3.8. Calculate:
1. Ignition delay
2. Cycle cutoff ratio

𝑉𝜃,𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝛽 =
𝑉𝑐
V
Vc
1
2

= 1 + (rc - 1) R + 1 - cos q - R 2 - sin 2 q 
𝛽 = 2.91

85
 Example Problem 7-5 p.312

It is desired to have combustion in a medium-size CI engine operating on a

Diesel cycle start at 1o aTDC, using fuel with a cetane number of 41. The
engine is a straight six operating at 980 RPM, with a total displacement of
15.6 liters and bore and stroke are related as S = 2.02 B. The compression
ratio is 16.5:1, and the temperature and pressure of air entering the cylinders
are 41 oC and 0.98 bar. Calculate:
1. Crank angle at which fuel injection should start
2. Ignition delay in milliseconds

86
 Solution
It is desired to have combustion in a medium-size CI engine operating on a Diesel cycle start at 1o aTDC, using fuel with a
cetane number of 41. The engine is a straight six operating at 980 RPM, with a total displacement of 15.6 liters and bore and
stroke are related as S = 2.02 B. The compression ratio is 16.5:1, and the temperature and pressure of air entering the cylinders
are 41 oC and 0.98 bar. Calculate:
ID TDC
1. Crank angle at which fuel injection should start FS
2. Ignition delay in milliseconds FI FT
Data:
• Diesel cycle
• Combustion starts at CS = 1o aTDC
• CN = 41
• Nc = 6
• N = 980 rpm
• Vd = 15.6 liter, S = 2.02 B
• rc = 16.5
• Pi = 0.98 bar, Ti = 41o C
----------------------------- 0.63
1 1 21.2
ID ca = 0.36 + 0.22 U𝑝 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝐸𝐴 ഥ −
87 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑖 𝑟𝑐𝑘−1 17190 𝑃𝑖 𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 12.4
 Solution
It is desired to have combustion in a medium-size CI engine operating on a Diesel cycle start at 1o aTDC, using fuel with a
cetane number of 41. The engine is a straight six operating at 980 RPM, with a total displacement of 15.6 liters and bore and
stroke are related as S = 2.02 B. The compression ratio is 16.5:1, and the temperature and pressure of air entering the cylinders
are 41 oC and 0.98 bar. Calculate:
ID TDC
1. Crank angle at which fuel injection should start FS
2. Ignition delay in milliseconds FI FT
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑁𝑐 𝐵 𝑆 = 2.02𝑁𝑐 𝐵3
4 4
𝐵 = 0.1179 𝑚 𝑆 = 0.2382 𝑚
980
ഥ
𝑈𝑃 = 2 𝑆 𝑁 = 2𝑥0.2382𝑥 = 7.78 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
60
618840
𝐸𝐴 = = 9376
𝐶𝑁 + 25 0.63
1 1 21.2
ഥ
ID ca = 0.36 + 0.22 U𝑝 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝐸𝐴 −
𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑖 𝑟𝑐𝑘−1 17190 𝑃𝑖 𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 12.4
𝐼𝐷 = 3.91𝑜
88 𝐹𝐼 = 𝐹𝑆 − 𝐼𝐷 = 1𝑜 − 3.91𝑜 = 2.91𝑜 𝑏𝑇𝐷𝐶
 Fuel Injection

A. Too rich to burn

B. Rich combustible
C. Stoichiometric
D. Lean combustible
E. Too lean to burn

89
90
91
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 Mercedes-Benz

Stepped recess combustion process.

⚫ This is the first time the stepped recess combustion process is

used in the diesel engine of a passenger car. Its name refers to
the shape of the combustion pocket in the piston. The
combustion process is an entirely new development. The
stepped recess has a positive effect on the combustion
process, the thermal stress on the components in critical piston
areas and soot accretion in the engine oil. Increased
combustion speed also increases the overall efficiency.

93
94
95
96
 World premiere in the new E-Class.
⚫ The completely newly developed OM 654 four-cylinder diesel engine
was launched as the E 220 d in the new E-Class. Installed in a
comparable vehicle, the new engine consumes around 13 percent less
fuel than its predecessor. Besides the optimized air ducting on both
the intake and exhaust sides, and the use of fourth-generation
common-rail injection with pressures up to 2,050 bar, the
approximately 25-percent reduction of internal friction forces also
played a major role in achieving this. The new OM 654 is the first
member of a modular-construction engine family which will be used
across the entire Mercedes-Benz product portfolio. Several power
stage variants are planned as well as longitudinal or transverse
mounting in vehicles with front, rear or 4MATIC all-wheel drive
systems.
97
98
 Fuel Injection

⚫ Liquid droplets in the order of 0.01 mm

⚫ High injection pressure leads to smaller droplet size
⚫ Injectors in small engines inject fuel against the cylinder
wall (this increases the evaporation rate)
⚫ Large engines have slow rpm and injection should not
done against the wall (the walls are cold and hence
evaporation is not efficient)

99
10
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10 https://www.howacarworks.com/illustration/1742/the-compression-igntion-engine.png

1
 Dual Fuel Injection

10
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http://etrucking.com/forum/attachment.php?attachmentid=9443&d=1393879301
 Dual Fuel Injection

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 Ignition Delay (ID) and Cetane
Number (CN)

⚫ ID within the range of 0.4 – 3 msec

⚫ ID decreases by
– Increasing P
– Increasing T
– Increasing engine speed, N
– Increasing compression ratio
⚫ ID is almost constant in crank angle degree for all N
⚫ Cetane number (CN) should match ID. CN in the range of
10 40-60 for normal fuels
4 ⚫ ID a 1/CN CN a 1/ON
 Soot

⚫ Generated in a very rich environment

⚫ It reacts with Oxygen

10
5
 Soot

⚫ To keep soot within the tolerable limit:

– The overall A/F ratio is lean
⚫ High soot concentration is generated during
high load demand. This results rich mixture
and thus high soot concentration.
⚫ Soot occurs in large engines.
⚫ Running lean leads to high combustion
efficiency, about 98%.
10
6
 Cold weather problems

Cold weather leads to

⚫ Fuel evaporation is very slow
⚫ Long ignition time
⚫ Lubricant viscosity is high (i.e. poor lubrication), more
blowby past the piston: then low compression ratio
⚫ Slower N than normal
⚫ Cold cylinder and slower N leads to large heat losses:
lower air temperature and difficulty to reach self ignition
⚫ For CI an additional glow plug is used (10-15 sec
10
before engine start), or electrically heated intake
7
 Cold weather problems

⚫ Difficult to start large size engine:

– Use small engine for start up
– For medium size: use of large compression ratio
– Preheating lubricating oil electrically
⚫ Pumping fuel from the tank is another problem:
– Use of electric heater in the tank.
– Recirculating the fuel through warm engine compartment
– Use higher grade fuel in winter

10
8
 Homogeneous Charge
Compression Ignition HCCI

⚫ Fuel is added to air as in SI

⚫ Burns in CI way
⚫ Some fuel is added with intake port injectors
⚫ Can use dual fuel:
– Natural gas for the homogeneous charge
– Diesel fuel by injection

10
9
11
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%2F%2Fwww.enginelabs.com%2Fnews%2Fvideo-is-hcci-the-future-of-the-internal-combustion-
engine%2F&psig=AOvVaw0JIqVNksu9OuGSgz0pwjno&ust=1510812015830015
 GDI

Less
soot
and
NOx

11
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%2F%2Fwww.enginelabs.com%2Fnews%2Fvideo-is-hcci-the-future-of-the-internal-combustion-
engine%2F&psig=AOvVaw0JIqVNksu9OuGSgz0pwjno&ust=1510812015830015
 Variable Compression Ratio
Engine

11
2
 Example Problem 7-6 p.319

A small airplane has a modified supercharged 2.4-liter SI engine equipped

with variable compression ratio. The Otto cycle engine is operated in two
different modes, high-load takeoff and low-load cruising, with the following
conditions:
Takeoff Cruising
Engine Speed 3600 RPM 2200 RPM
Compression ratio 8:1 14:1
Volumetric efficiency 120% 88%
Fuel Stoichiometric Gasoline AF = 22
Combustion efficiency 97% 99%
11 Calculate:
3 1. Indicated thermal efficiency at takeoff and at cruising
 Example Problem 7-6 p.319

Calculate:
1. Indicated thermal efficiency at takeoff and at cruising
2. Rate of fuel flow into engine at takeoff and at cruising
3. Indicated power at takeoff and at cruising
4. Indicated specific fuel consumption at takeoff and at cruising

11
4
 Solution
Takeoff cruising
𝑟𝑐 8 14
𝑘−1
1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 51.7% 60.3%
𝑟𝑐
𝑚𝑎𝑜
𝜂𝑣 = 120 % 80 %
𝑁
𝜌 𝑉𝑑 60𝑛

𝑚𝑎𝑜 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐 0.102 0.0457

𝐴𝐹 14.6 22
𝑜
𝑚 𝑎
𝑚𝑓𝑜 = 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐 0.00699 0.00208
𝐴𝐹
𝑊𝑖𝑜 = 𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑓𝑜 𝐻𝑉𝜂𝑐 𝑘𝑊 151 53
𝑚𝑓𝑜
115 𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑐 = 𝑥3600 𝑠/ℎ𝑟𝑥1000𝑔𝑚/𝑘𝑔 167 𝑔𝑚/𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟 141 𝑔𝑚/𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
𝑊𝑖𝑜
 Assignment

⚫ Chapter 7: 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12
⚫ Due date:

11
6