Computer Networks

MCA205
Data Communication

● When we communicate we share information.

● This sharing can be local or remote.
● Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face,
while remote communication takes place over distance.
● The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
● Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
The four characteristics of effectiveness of data
communication
1. Delivery (Data must be received by the intended device or user)
2. Accuracy (Data altered during transmission and left uncorrected are unusable)
3. Timeliness (Data delivered late are useless. Imagine case of video and audio
delivery)
4. Jitter (Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.)

Imagine Jitter in networking is like inconsistent postal delivery times: just as letters
sent at regular intervals might arrive at varying times due to factors like traffic, data
packets sent over a network can experience varying delays in arrival due to network
congestion or routing changes.

In applications like video conferencing or online gaming, high jitter can lead to
issues like choppy audio/video or lag, as the "flow" of data packets isn't smooth and
consistent.
The Five components of a Data Communication System

1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Medium
5. Protocol
Data Representation

● Text
● Numbers
● Image
● Audio
● Video
Data flow between two devices
● Simplex Communication: Data transmission is one-way only, like a radio
broadcast where information flows from the station to listeners, but listeners
cannot respond back to the station.

● Half-Duplex Communication: Data transmission is two-way, but not

simultaneous; like a walkie-talkie where one person talks while the other
listens and then they switch roles.

● Full-Duplex Communication: Data transmission is two-way and

simultaneous, similar to a phone conversation where both parties can talk and
listen at the same time.
Data flow between two devices
Networks

● A computer network is a group of computers/devices (Nodes) that

use a common set of communication protocols over digital
interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on or
provided by the network nodes.
In other words…
● A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and
devices that communicate with each other to share resources,
exchange information, and facilitate communication
Networks
● The nodes: In the context of computer networking, a "node" is a broad
term that refers to any physical device within the network that can
send, receive, or forward information over a communication channel.
It may include personal computers, servers, networking hardware, or
other specialised or general-purpose hosts.

● The interconnections between nodes are formed using a broad

spectrum of telecommunication network technologies, based on
physically wired, optical, and wireless technologies.

● A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information

over a network.
Networks: Key Components

● Nodes: Computers, printers, servers, and other devices connected

within the network.

● Communication Media: Wires (like Ethernet cables), fiber optics, or

wireless signals that enable data transfer between nodes.

● Networking Devices: Routers, switches, hubs, and modems that

manage data traffic and maintain efficient network operations.
Networks: Advantages

● Resource Sharing: Allows sharing of hardware (like printers) and

software (applications), reducing costs.

● Data Exchange: Facilitates the quick and efficient transfer of

information, enhancing collaboration and decision-making.

● Connectivity and Accessibility: Connects users and devices across

locations, enabling remote access and cloud computing.
The Network Diagram

Image Source: SilverStar

The Network Diagram
Methods of Sending Data over a Network
1. Unicast (one to one)
In unicast, data is sent from one sender to one receiver. It's a one-to-one
communication. For example, when you load a webpage on your computer,
the server is sending data specifically to your device using unicast.

2. Multicast (one to many)

In multicast, data is sent to multiple recipients simultaneously, but not to
everyone on the network. It's a one-to-many communication. This is efficient
for applications like streaming video or audio where the same data needs to
be sent to many recipients at the same time. In multicast, data packets are
addressed to a specific group of recipients who have joined a multicast group.
3. Broadcast (one to all)
Methods of Sending Data over a Network: Broadcast
Broadcast is used to send data to all devices on a network. It's a one-to-all communication. When data is broadcast, it
is sent to every device connected to the network. This method is less efficient than unicast or multicast because it can
generate a lot of unnecessary network traffic.

Example:
1. When we turn on Wi-Fi on our device (like a smartphone or laptop), it sends out a broadcast message to all nearby
networks, asking for information. This is like shouting in a room and asking if there are any Wi-Fi networks available.

2. Every Wi-Fi router (or access point) within range that receives this broadcast message will respond with information
about its network, such as the network name (SSID, Service Set Identifier).
SSID: https://byjus.com/gate/ssid-full-form/

3. Finally we select the network whose credentials

Another example of broadcast is the DHCP process, where a device sends a broadcast message to find a DHCP
server when it connects to a network. DHCP ? We will learn more about it. Feel free to investigate.
Homework 1
1. What is a Protocol ?
(Understand Protocol in digital communication as a conceptual framework or set of
guidelines. It is not a piece of software, hardware.)
2. What is RFC ? Who publishes it ?
3. What is RFC 766 and RFC 2616?
https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc959.txt (Request for Comments: 765, FTP)
https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2616.txt (Request for Comments: 2616, HTTP)
4. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) ? What is that ?
5. Understand Scope of IETF's Work.
6. List other Standards Organizations.
7. List some popular HTTP libraries available for various programming languages.
8. List some popular FTP libraries available for various programming languages.
Quick basics to ponder over 02.02.2024
1. IP Address (Private-Public: LAN-Internet)
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA): IANA oversees the global IP address
allocation
2. Host name and Domain Name ( LAN, Internet)
3. Host name examples ( workstation-01, server-01, CR’s Laptop (CR’s personal laptop
connected to the network), Donald Trump’s Laptop etc.)
4. Domain Name examples ( facebook.com, google.com, example.com ): Human readable
names
5. FQDN ( Fully Qualified domain name) : Combination of hostname and domain name : For
instance, if a server named "server01" is part of the "example.com" domain, its FQDN
would be "server01.example.com".
6. Domain Name System ( DNS) : Translates human-readable domain names (like
www.example.com) into IP addresses that computers use to identify each other on the
network: The internet's phonebook. ICANN
Public - Private IPs 02.02.2024
1. IP Address (Private-Public: LAN-Internet)
Private IPs are used within a local network (e.g., home or office) for device communication.
Example: Devices in a home network (192.168.0.x).

Public IPs are unique addresses assigned to devices on the public internet, allowing them
to be directly accessed from anywhere. Example: The public IP of a web server that anyone
can access. ( Let us check what is the public IP of Google.com)
2. Public IPs: Assigned by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to your modem/router for internet
communication.
3. Private IPs: Assigned by a router within a local network (e.g., DHCP) for internal
communication.
4. Public IPs: Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA): IANA oversees the global IP
address allocation
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a network management protocol used to automatically
assign IP addresses to devices on a network.
Port Numbers
● Port Numbers: Help direct network traffic to the appropriate application or service on
a device. They act as endpoints for communication.
● Range: Port numbers range from 0 to 65535*, resulting in a total of 65,536 possible
ports. (A port number is a 16-bit unsigned integer, which means it consists of 16
binary digits or bits)
● Well-Known Ports: Port numbers from 0 to 1023 are reserved for well-known
services and protocols. For example, port 80 is reserved for HTTP (web traffic), port
25 is used for SMTP (email), and port 22 is used for SSH (secure shell).
● Registered Ports: Port numbers from 1024 to 49151 are registered ports, which are
assigned to specific applications or services by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA).
● Dynamic or Private Ports: Port numbers from 49152 to 65535 are considered
dynamic or private ports. They are available for use by applications but are not
officially registered.

*sufficient to handle a vast majority of services and applications on the internet

Encrypt and Decrypt !

● Encrypt: Shift each letter in the word forward in the

alphabet by a fixed number of positions. Let's use a shift
of 3 positions for this example.
● Decrypt: Shift each letter in the word backward in the
alphabet by the same fixed number of positions (3
positions in this case).
Some Important Services and their associated port
numbers:
● HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
Port Number: 80 (HTTP) and 8080 (Alternative HTTP)
● HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
Port Number: 443
● FTP
Port Number: 21 (FTP Control) and 20 (FTP Data)
● SSH (Secure Shell)
Port Number: 22
The Common Networking Devices
1. NIC Card
2. Repeater
3. Hub
4. Switch
5. Bridge
6. Router
7. Gateway
8. Modem
9. Firewall
10. Ports
1. Network Interface Card
Functionality: A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component
that allows a computer or other device to connect to a network. It serves
as the interface between the computer and the network cable in a wired
network or the wireless signal in a Wi-Fi network

Types of Connections: NICs support wired (Ethernet) and/or wireless

(Wi-Fi) connections, with some offering both.

Data Transmission: NICs convert and transmit data between the

computer and the network, handling physical and data link layer
networking processes.

MAC Address: Each NIC has a unique identifier known as a MAC (Media
Access Control) address. This address is used to identify devices on a
local network and is essential for network communication.

Installation & Compatibility: NICs are either integrated into motherboards

or installed as expansion cards, requiring compatible drivers for smooth
operation with the OS
2. Repeaters
Signal Amplification: A repeater is a network device
that regenerates and amplifies signals to extend the
reach of a network, overcoming distance limitations.*
Simple Functionality: It operates at the physical layer
(Layer 1) of the OSI model, without altering or
interpreting the data content of the signal.
Usage in Networks: Repeaters are used in both wired
and wireless networks to ensure signal strength and
quality over long distances.

* Homework 2: Investigate Attenuation in the context of

Networking (gradual loss in intensity of any kind of
signal as it travels through a medium)
3. Hubs
Central Connecting Device: A hub is a basic networking
device that connects multiple computers or other network
devices in a Local Area Network (LAN), serving as a central
point for data transmission.

Data Broadcasting: Hubs broadcast incoming data packets

to all connected devices, regardless of the destination,
leading to potential network inefficiency and increased
collision risk.

Operates at OSI Model's Physical Layer: It functions at the

physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model, simply repeating
the bits it receives without any data filtering or processing.

Homework 3: Find out what is 100Base THub and 10Base

THub
4. Switches
Intelligent Network Device: A switch is a networking device that connects multiple devices within a Local Area
Network (LAN), intelligently directing data packets to their specific destination devices (It forwards data packets
specifically to the destination device based on MAC addresses), unlike hubs which broadcast to all devices.

Enhanced Network Efficiency and Performance: By creating a separate collision domain for each connected
device, switches reduce network congestion and collisions, significantly improving network performance.

Operates at OSI Model's Data Link Layer: Functioning at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, switches
use MAC addresses to learn device locations and efficiently route data to the correct destination. Some
advanced switches can also operate at the network layer (Layer 3), performing routing functions.
5. Bridges
Network Segmentation Device: A bridge is a network device
used to divide a larger network into smaller, more
manageable segments, or to connect multiple network
segments, improving performance and organization. (
Provides connection between LANs)

Selective Data Forwarding: Unlike hubs, bridges analyze

incoming data packets and determine whether to forward or
filter them, based on MAC addresses. This reduces
unnecessary traffic and collisions on the network.

Operates at OSI Model's Data Link Layer: Bridges function

at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, enabling
them to understand and use the physical address (MAC
address) contained in packets for making forwarding
decisions.
6. Routers
Network Layer Device: A router is a networking device
that forwards data packets between different networks,
such as between a local area network (LAN) and the
internet, operating at the network layer (Layer 3) of the
OSI model.
Intelligent Path Selection: Routers determine the best
path for data packets to travel across networks. They
use routing tables and protocols to make decisions
about the most efficient routes for data transmission.
Network Address Translation (NAT): Routers often
provide Network Address Translation, allowing multiple
devices on a local network to share a single public IP
address for internet connectivity, enhancing security
and efficient use of IP addresses.
Key Functions of a Routers
● Routing: Determines the best path for data
packets to travel across a network.
● Traffic Management: Manages data packets
between different networks, reducing
congestion and ensuring efficient data
transfer.
● Internetworking: Connects different networks,
potentially with different protocols (like
connecting a home network to an ISP).
Homework 4
1. NAT ?
2. IP Addresses
3. Private IP Addresses
4. Public IP Addresses

Note: Public IP Address: This is a unique address used across the entire
internet. It's assigned by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and ensures that
a device can be uniquely identified and accessed from anywhere on the
internet.
Private IP Address: This is used within a local network (like a home or office
network) and isn't unique across the entire internet. Devices within the same
local network use private IP addresses to communicate with each other.
These addresses are not directly accessible from the internet.
7. Gateways
Network Connecting Device: A gateway is a
networking hardware that acts as a "gate" between
two networks, often different types of networks like
a local network and the internet.
Data Translation and Routing: It translates data
formats and protocols, allowing communication
between different systems, and routes network
traffic from one network to another.
Internet Access Enabler: In most home and office
settings, a gateway (often integrated into a router)
connects the local network to the internet,
managing data traffic and providing network
security.
Key Functions of a Gateway
Protocol Translation: Translates different network
protocols, enabling communication between
systems that use different protocols.

Connecting Dissimilar Networks: Acts as an entry

and exit point of a network, allowing different
networks (like an office network and the internet)
to communicate.

Security: Often includes security functions like

firewalls to protect the networks it connects.
Router &
Gateways
8. Modems
A modem (short for modulator-demodulator) is a device used in computer networking with the following
key functions:

Converts Digital to Analog Signals: It converts digital data from a computer into analog signals that can be
transmitted over telephone lines or other communication mediums.

Enables Internet Connectivity: Modems are essential for connecting to the internet, particularly in settings
where broadband or fiber connections are not available.

Bidirectional Communication: It works in both directions, not only converting digital data from your
computer into analog for transmission (modulation) but also converting incoming analog signals back into
digital form (demodulation) for your computer to understand.
9. Firewalls
● A firewall is a network device or software that
controls network security and access rules.
● It is placed between secure internal networks
and potentially insecure external networks,
such as the Internet.
● Firewalls are usually set up to deny access
from unrecognized sources while permitting
activities from known ones.
Image Source: How Stuffs work
● The importance of firewalls in network security
is escalating due to the continual rise in cyber
attacks.
10. Physical Ports
● Nature: A physical port is a tangible interface on
networking devices like routers, switches, and
servers. It's a hardware-based point of connection
where network cables are plugged in.

● Function: Physical ports facilitate the actual,

physical connection of different network devices.
They are used to connect to the network using
various cable types like Ethernet, fiber optic, or
USB.

● Examples: Ethernet ports on a router, USB ports

on a computer, and fiber optic ports on a network
switch.
How Logical Ports differs from Physical ports?
● Nature: A logical port, on the other hand, is a virtual, software-defined point
of data transfer in computer networking. It's an identifier within the system,
not a physical component.
● Function: Logical ports are used in the process of directing data to specific
services or applications running on a networked device. They are a part of
the addressing system that helps the operating system of a computer
manage network data.
● Examples: TCP or UDP ports in the TCP/IP model. For instance, port 80 is
commonly used for HTTP traffic, and port 443 for HTTPS.
● In summary, a physical port is about the physical connection in the network
infrastructure, whereas a logical port is about the software-based pathways
for data transport within and between networked devices.
Transmission Medium
● Guided Media / Wired Transmission Media
> Uses a physical cable or wire to confine and direct the signal.
● Unguided Media/ Wireless Transmission Media
> Transmits signals wirelessly through air, water, or even space.
Guided Media / Wired Transmission Media
● Twisted-pair cable
● Coaxial Cable
● Fiber optic cable
Guided Media / Wired Transmission Media
● Twisted Pair Cable: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires that are
twisted together.
● Twisted pair cables can be shielded (use case: heavy industrial applications,
high radiation conditions, speed: 10 to 100 mbps, expensive) or unshielded
(use case: LAN, Telephone Wiring. Speed: 10 to 1000 Mbps, inexpensive). A
common use case is in telephone networks and traditional Ethernet networks
(e.g., Cat5, Cat6 cables).
● EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-45 connector for UTP
cable. The letters RJ stand for registered jack,
and the number 45 refers to a specific physical
connector that has eight conductors.
Words to ponder over: Electromagnetic interference: Market Noise
Copper, Silver, Gold: Conductivity, Flexibility, Cost -effective
Guided Media / Wired Transmission Media
● Coaxial Cable:Comprises of a single copper core surrounded by insulation, a
braided/metalic shield, and an outer jacket/insulating layer.
● Widely used for cable television connections, connecting radio transmitters
and receivers to their antennas.
● Speed: 10- 100 Mbps
● Cost: Inexpensive

Image Source: https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/coaxial-cable-illustrated

Guided Media / Wired Transmission Media
● Fiber Optic Cable: This cable transmits data as light pulses through thin glass
fibers.
● It offers highest bandwidth. 10- 100 Gbps
● Capable of long-distance, high-speed data transmission
● Use cases: Backbone networks connecting cities and countries data center
links, and telecommunications.
Unguided Media / Wireless Transmission Media
● Radio Waves
● Microwaves
● Infrared (IR)
● Light (Visible (Li-Fi) and Laser)
Unguided Media / Wireless Transmission Media
● Radio Waves: Radio waves carry data over various frequencies.
● Commonly used for radio broadcasts, mobile phone communication, and
Wi-Fi networks.
● A common use case is in cellular networks, where radio waves connect
mobile phones to cell towers (BTS), and Using our devices to connect to
internet via Wi-Fi in home and office networks.
Unguided Media / Wireless Transmission Media
● Microwaves: These high-frequency waves are used for satellite
communication and point-to-point connections over short distances.
● Example: Satellite internet access in remote areas.
● Connecting LANs between buildings that are not far from each other.
Unguided Media / Wireless Transmission Media
● Infrared (IR): These low-frequency waves are used for short-range,
line-of-sight communication in devices like TV remotes, wireless keyboards,
and printers.
● Example: Changing channels on your TV with a remote, Turning on/off your
classroom Projector or Air conditioner using your Xiaomi Phone having IR
blaster enabled in it
Unguided Media / Wireless Transmission Media
● Light (Visible Light Communication (VLC) and Light Laser Communication):
Experimental point-to-point communication in open air. Visible light
communication (VLC) includes technologies like Li-Fi, which uses light to
transmit data wirelessly over short distances.
● Investigate: How Sonam Wangchuk’s SECMOL, Ladakh tested World's First
Mountain Top Lifi Laser 5G internet
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rw-QZuGVP3o
Network Topology
● Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices and
connections in a computer network.
● It defines how devices, such as computers, servers, routers, and switches,
are interconnected and how data flows within the network.
Categories of Topology
● Wired ( Star, Ring, Bus, Mesh, Hybrid)
● Wireless ( Infrastructure, Ad Hoc, Wireless Mess)
Categories of Wired Topology :
1. Star
● In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central device (central wiring
point), such as a switch or hub.
● All data data passes through the central device or central wiring point, before
it reaches its destination. which allows for easy troubleshooting and
scalability.
● One benefit of this topology is that if one computer failed or if there was a
break in the cable the other computers would not be affected as each
computer has its own cable connection.
● However the disadvantage of this topology is , if the central device fails, the
entire network may be affected. This is called a single point of failure.
Categories of Wired Topology : Star

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Categories of Wired Topology :
2. Ring
● In a ring topology, devices are connected in a circular manner, with each
device being connected to two other devices.
● Data travels in one direction around the ring, passing through each device
until it reaches its destination.
● Advantage of this topology is that it is easy to install and troubleshoot
● However the disadvantage would be, the failure of a single device can disrupt
the entire network.
● This kind of topology is very old and rarely used today.
Categories of Wired Topology : Ring

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Categories of Wired Topology :
3. Bus
● In this topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable called a
bus or backbone.
● This backbone is usually a coaxial cable. The computers connect to this
cable using special connectors called BNC connectors or T-connectors.
● Data is transmitted along the bus, and each device receives the data intended
for it.
● One of the advantage of Bus topology is that it fairly cheap and easy to
implement.
● However, if the bus fails, the entire network may become inaccessible.
● It is a very old technology, like the ring topology it is barely used today.
Categories of Wired Topology

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Categories of Wired Topology :
3. Bus
● It requires the cable to be terminated at both ends using terminators.
● In order to keep this setup operational there must not be any open
connections including the ends that attach to the computers
● If a computer is removed or the terminators are loose or missing then the
cable would be open and data would bounce back. It is called signal
reflection.
● Signal reflection leads to data flow disruption.
Categories of Wired Topology :
4. Mesh
● In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device in the
network.
● Advantage of this topology is that it provides high redundancy level and
multiple paths for data to travel, increasing reliability and fault tolerance.
( if one of the connections fails computers still able to communicate with each
other)
● However, it requires a large number of connections, making it more complex
and costly to implement.
● Rarely used used in LAN
● Mainly used on Wide Area Network like the Internet. Numerous Routers are
connected to each other to route data to their intended destination. In case of
failure of a router data gets rerouted to its destination.
Categories of Wired Topology : Mesh

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Categories of Wired Topology : Mesh

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Categories of Wired Topology :
5. Hybrid
● Hybrid Topology: A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more different
topologies.
● For example, a network may use a star topology for local connections and a
mesh topology for backbone connections between different locations.
Categories of Wireless Topology
1. Infrastructure
● Infrastructure wireless topology uses a combination of wired and wireless
devices.
● It is similar to a star topology where you have wired devices physically
connected to a switch and also have a central wireless access point that is
also connected by a cable to the same switch.
● The access point acts as the central hub, facilitating communication between
devices and providing internet connectivity.
● This topology is commonly used in Wi-Fi networks, such as those found in
homes, offices, and public spaces.
● It allows for easy management and control of network access, but it requires
the presence of a centralized access point.
Categories of Wireless Topology : Infrastructure

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Categories of Wireless Topology
2. Ad Hoc
● In an Ad Hoc wireless network topology, devices communicate directly with
each other without the need for a central access point.
● Each device in the network can act as a node and transmit data to other
devices within its range.
● Ad hoc networks are useful for setting up a quick wireless network, where
devices can share data without the need of an existing wireless network.
● However, ad hoc networks may have limited range and scalability.
Categories of Wireless Topology : Adhoc

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Categories of Wireless Topology :
3. Wireless Mess
● In a wireless mesh network topology, devices are interconnected in a
decentralized manner, forming a mesh-like structure.
● Each device in the network acts as a node and can relay data to other
devices within its range.
● This provides multiple paths for data to travel, increasing network coverage
and resilience. Wireless mesh networks are commonly used in large-scale
deployments, such as city-wide Wi-Fi networks or industrial settings, where
reliable and wide-ranging connectivity is required.
Categories of Wireless Topology : Wireless Mess

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Categories of Networks
● PAN (Personal Area Network)
● LAN (Local Area Network)
● CAN (Campus Area Network)
● MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
● WAN (Wide Area Network)
Personal Area Network
● Scope: Very small network meant for personal use. The most basic type of
computer network
● Range: Less than 10 meters*.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/personal-area-network
● Purpose: Connects personal devices centered around individual’s workspace.
● Example: Bluetooth connectivity between a smartphone, wireless
headphones, and a smartwatch.
Local Area Network
● Scope: Covers a small geographic area like a home, office, or building. Most
frequently used network.
● Range: Usually within a single building or a small cluster of buildings. (1 to 10
kms)
● Purpose:Allows devices within close proximity to share resources and data.
Data transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance and low cost.
● Example: A wired or Wi-Fi network within a home or office, connecting
computers, printers, and phones.
Campus Area Network
● Scope: Larger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN, designed for a limited
area such as a university campus, industrial complex, or military base.
● Range: Covers a specific area like a campus or complex. (1 to 5 km)
● Purpose: Connects multiple buildings within a specific area to share
resources efficiently.
● Example: A university's network connecting dormitories, academic buildings,
and administrative offices.
Campus Area Network
Metropolitan Area Network
● Scope: Covers a larger geographic area than a LAN, typically a city or
metropolitan area.
● Range: Can span up 5 to 50 kilometers.
● Purpose: Connects multiple LANs within a metropolitan area, often used by
governments and large organizations.
● Example: A city's government network connecting various local government
offices and public libraries.
Metropolitan Area Network
● Scope: Covers a larger geographic area than a LAN, typically a city or
metropolitan area.
● Range: Can span up 5 to 50 kilometers.
● Purpose: Connects multiple LANs within a metropolitan area, often used by
governments and large organizations.
● Example: A city's government network connecting various local government
offices and public libraries.
Wide Area Network
● Scope: Covers a broad area, potentially global, connecting LANs and MANs
across cities, countries, or continents.
● Range: > 50 kilometers. Unrestricted, can span across the globe.
● Purpose: Enables businesses and organizations to operate over large
distances, sharing data and resources.
● Example: The Internet
(The internet itself is the largest example of a WAN, connecting networks
worldwide. Another example is a multinational corporation's network
connecting its offices around the world.)
Other types of Networks to investigate … (Homework-5)
● Nano
● BAN
● RAN
● SAN
● VPN etc.

Illustration of computer network types In increasing order of scale: • Nanoscale • Body (BAN) • Personal (PAN)
• Local (LAN) • Campus (CAN) • Metropolitan (MAN) • Radio access (RAN) • Wide (WAN) Click on the image
Network Protocols and standards
●
Network Models
●
Addressing
● A Quick Note: The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission
mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.

Figure Source: Data Communications and Networking, Fourth

Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
Relationship of Layers and addresses in TCP/IP
●

Figure Source: Data Communications and Networking, Fourth

Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
Addressing
● Physical Addresses: Hardware addresses that are unique to each network
interface card. It is a 48-bit hexadecimal number. Example: A MAC address
like 00-1A-2B-3C-4D-5E
● IEEE Registration Authority is responsible for assigning MAC addresses
● Manufacturers of network interface controllers are assigned blocks of MAC
addresses by the IEEE RA, ensuring that each address is globally unique.

(*IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

Addressing
● Logical Addresses: These are addresses assigned to different nodes at the
network layer that allow communication across different networks. Example:
An IP address like 192.168.0.1
● Port Addresses: Are used by transport layer protocols like TCP and UDP to
identify specific processes or services on a host. Example: Port 80 for HTTP.
● Specific Address: Addresses used for a specific purpose within the network
layers, such as multicast addresses, which are used to deliver packets to a
group of destinations. Example: An IPv6 multicast address like FF02::1
Logical Addressing aka IP addressing
● An IP address is numerical label assigned to a device connected to a
Network.
● There are two versions of IP addresses widely are :
Internet Protocol Version Four : IPv4 (32-bit address scheme)
Internet Protocol Version Six : IPv6 (128-bit address scheme)
IPv4 Addressing scheme
● In IPv4 the 32-bit address is divided into four octets, of eight bits each.
(We call a group of eight bits an Octet)
● Each of these four octets is represented in a decimal form, and separated by
a . (dot). For example, 192.172.168.10 is an IP address.
(This format of representing an IP address is called the
dotted-decimal-Format)
● An octet is an IP address can take a decimal value from 0 to 255.( Total 256
different values)
0(00000000 in binary) to 255 (11111111 in binary)
Components/Parts of an IP Address

● What do you do to locate a building in a

locality ?
● Now, think of your SSU Roll Number ?
How can I locate you in SSU ?
Check your ID Cards now.
Components/Parts of an IP Address v4
● In the same way, To locate a computer on a network two types of information
is required:
1. Information about the network
2. Information about the specific node/device/computer
● Hence the 32 bits in an IP address is used to identify both the network and
the computer on the network.
● An IP address is divided into two parts or components.
Host Address: This is the address of the device within the network.
Network Address: This is the address of the device of network itself, used by
the other networks to identify this network.
Components/Parts of an IP Address v4
Components/Parts of an IP Address v4
● In the IP address shown in the figure
198.172.168 is the network address and 10 is
the host address.
● There may be several computers in this network but the IP address of all
these computers would begin with _____________ ?
Components/Parts of an IP Address v4
● But the value of fourth octet will vary from each other ( would be unique to
each computer)
Components/Parts of an IP Address v4
● Then what is the limitation of this IP address ?

● This IP address has a limitation of not being able to address more than 256
computers (one octet only takes value between 0 to 255)
Components/Parts of an IP Address v4
● How can you address computers in a network
that has more than 256 computers?
What is the solution?

● What if '198.172' represents the network address and '168.10' represents the host
address? How many hosts per network can be addressed? How many networks can
be identified?

● What if only '198' represents the network address and '172.168.10' represents the
host address? What would be the possible number of hosts per network?

● Although 65,536 may appear as a large number in the context of a LAN, but there
literally hundreds of thousands of networks that interconnect together to form
internet. Therefore a compromise has to be reached between the number of octets
used for network and host addresses.
Classes of IP address
Classes of IP Address
● Class A
● Class B
● Class C
● Class D
● Class E
A quick note on subnet mask ( just for now …)
● A subnet mask helps you in determining which portion of an IP Address is
Network portion or ID and which portion is Host Portion or ID.

● For an IP address of 192.168.1.1 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0:

The "255.255.255" part of the subnet mask indicates the network portion, and
the "0" indicates the host portion.

This means all devices with IP addresses from 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.254

are on the same network.
Classes of IP Address : Class A
● The first octet is used for the network address and the remaining three octets
are used for host address.
Network ID: 8 bits long
Host ID: 24 bit long.
● Hence Class A can have up to -
256 ( 2^8) Network identifiers/ addresses possible
16,777,216 ( 256 * 256 * 256) devices

Is not it ?
Answer is “No”. Let’s see Why…
Classes of IP Address : Class A
● The very first bit (the higher-order bit) of the first octet in Class A is always set
to 0. This is used to distinguish Class A addresses from other classes.
● Hence we remain with only 7 bits in the first octet to identify the network ID,
allowing for 2^7 (128) possible network identifiers (from 0000000 to 1111111 in
binary).
Classes of IP Address : Class A
● But in practice, the ranges from 0000000 (0 in decimal) to 1111110 (126 in decimal)
are used, as 00000000 (0.0.0.0) is reserved and 01111111 (127.0.0.0) is reserved
for loopback addresses.

(A loopback address is an IP address that is used to test network communication

within the local machine, typically 127.0.0.1 for IPv4 or ::1 for IPv6.)

● The remaining 24 bits are used for host addresses within each network, allowing for
2^24 (16,777,216) possible addresses.

● However, two addresses within each network are not usable for hosts: the network
address (where all host bits are 0) and the broadcast address (where all host bits
are 1). Therefore, the number of usable addresses is 2^24 - 2 = 16,777,214.
A quick important note…

● When counting the total number of usable IP addresses in a

network, we subtract 2 from the total.

This is because the first IP address (host portion is all 0) is

used to identify the network itself, and

the last IP address (host portion is all 1) is reserved for sending

messages to all devices on the network.
Classes of IP Address : Class A
● Range: IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from
1.0.0.0 – 126.255.255.255.
● Default Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0
● Notation: /8
The notation "/8" indicates that Class B addresses use a subnet mask where 8 bits are
dedicated to the network part of the address.

● Assignable IP Address Range for hosts: 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254

(This range excludes the network address (the first address in each range, where the
host portion is all zeros) and the broadcast address (the last address in each range,
where the host portion is all ones).)

● Usage: Used by large organizations and large ISPs with a large number of hosts.
● Leading Bits: 0
● Example: 10.0.0.1
Classes of IP Address: Class B
● The first two octets are used for the network address and last two octets are
used for the host address.
The Network ID is 16 bit long.
The Host ID is 16 bit long.
● The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always
set to 10. The remaining 14 bits are used to determine the network ID
Classes of IP Address: Class B

● 2^14 = 16384 network addresses

● 2^16 – 2 = 65534 host addresses
Classes of IP Address: Class B
● Range: IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from
128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255
● Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0
● Notation: /16: "/16" indicates that Class B addresses use a subnet mask
where 16 bits are dedicated to the network part of the address.)
● Assignable IP Address Range for hosts: 128.0.0.1 to 191.255.255.254
● Usage: IP addresses belonging to this class are typically assigned to
networks from medium to large-sized networks.
● Leading Bits: 10
● Example: 172.16.0.1.
Classes of IP Address: Class C
● The first, second and third octets are used to denote network address and the
fourth octet denotes the host address.
Hence
The network ID is 24 bits long
The host ID is 8 bits long.

● The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C is always set
to 110, the remaining 21 bits are used to determine the network ID.
So, total number of Network addresses possible would be: 2^21 = 20,97,152 ,
and Host addresses: 2^8 – 2 = 254
Classes of IP Address: Class C
● Range: IP addresses belonging to class C range from
192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255.
● Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
● Notation: /24 (Indicates that the network portion of the address occupies the
first three octets.)
● Assignable IP Address Range for hosts: 192.0.0.1 to 223.255.254.254
● Usage: Small networks, like small businesses
● Leading Bits: 110
● Example: 192.168.0.1
Identify Network ID and Host ID: Q1
● Class A Example: 10.23.45.67

Network ID: 10
Host ID: 23.45.67

● Suitable for very large organizations or networks requiring a vast number of

unique IP addresses
Identify Network ID and Host ID: : Q2
● Class B Example: 172.16.5.1

Network ID: 172.16

Host ID: 5.1

● Suitable for very large organizations or networks requiring a vast number of

unique IP addresses
Identify Network ID and Host ID: Q3
● Class C Example: 192.168.1.2
Network ID: 192.168.1
Host ID: 2
● Commonly used for small networks, like home networks or small businesses.
Classes of IP Address: Class D
● Range: 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255

● Purpose: Reserved for multicast groups. These addresses are used for
one-to-many communication, with a single sender and multiple receivers.

● Usage: Commonly used in streaming video, online gaming, and other

applications where data is sent to multiple recipients simultaneously.

● Subnet Mask: Not applicable, as these addresses are not used in traditional
host-to-host communications.
● Leading Bits: 1110
Classes of IP Address: Class E
● Range: 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254

● Purpose: Reserved for future use, research, and experimentation. Not

intended for public internet use.

● Usage: These addresses are reserved for experimental purposes and should
not be used in production networks.

● Subnet Mask: Not applicable, as these addresses do not follow the standard
IP addressing scheme.
● Leading Bits: 1111
Classes of IP Address: A quick overview

Figure: NIIT PHI - Basics of Networking

Private Address Ranges
● The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has assigned several address ranges to
be used by private networks.

● Address ranges to be use by private networks are:

○ Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
○ Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
○ Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

● An IP address within these ranges is therefore considered non-routable, as it is not unique.

Any private network that needs to use IP addresses internally can use any address within
these ranges without any coordination with IANA or an Internet registry. Addresses within
this private address space are only unique within a given private network.

● All addresses outside these ranges are considered public

(https://www.ibm.com/docs/he/networkmanager/4.2.0?topic=translation-private-address-ran
ges)
References
● Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A.
Forouzan
● https://www.ietf.org/ The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
● PHI - Basics of Networking
● The following site lists all RFCs, including those related to IP and TCP.
www.ietf.org/rfc.html
● www.acm.org/sigcomm/sos.html : This site gives the status of various
networking standards.