Evolution of Database system technology

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 What is Data Mining?

◼ Data mining is the process of identifying

valid, novel, useful and understandable
patterns in data.
◼ Also known as KDD (Knowledge Discovery in
Databases).
◼ “We’re drowning in information, but starving for
knowledge.” (John Naisbett)

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3
 The Data Mining Process

◼ Understanding domain, prior knowledge, and

goals
◼ Data integration and selection
◼ Data cleaning and pre-processing
◼ Modeling and searching for patterns
◼ Interpreting results
◼ Consolidating and deploying discovered
knowledge
◼ Loop
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 Data Warehousing and OLAP

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ Extensions of data cubes

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

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 Introduction to Data Warehousing

◼ Data warehouses are databases that store and

maintain analytical data separately from
transaction-oriented databases for the
purpose of decision support
◼ Traditional databases support online transaction processing -OLTP .
◼ Data Warehouses are for analytical applications- largely OLAP.

◼ Applications that data warehouse supports

are:
◼ OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) is a term used to describe the analysis of
complex data from the data warehouse.
◼ DSS (Decision Support Systems) also known as EIS (Executive Information
Systems) supports organization’s leading decision makers for making complex and
important decisions.
◼ Data Mining is used for knowledge discovery, the process of searching data for
unanticipated new knowledge.
◼ Data warehouse provides architectures and tools for
business executives to systematically organize,
understand, and use their data to make strategic
decisions. In the last several years, many firms have
spent millions of dollars in building enterprise-wide data
warehouses as it is assumed a way to keep customers
by learning more about their needs.
◼ a data warehouse refers to a database that is
maintained separately from an organization’s
operational databases. Data warehouse systems allow
for the integration of a variety of application systems.
They support information processing by providing a
solid platform of consolidated, historical data for
analysis.
 What is a Data Warehouse?

◼ Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously.

◼ A decision support database that is maintained
separately from the organization’s operational
database
◼ Support information processing by providing a solid
platform of consolidated, historical data for analysis.
◼ “A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated,
time-variant, and nonvolatile collection of data in support
of management’s decision-making process.”—W. H.
Inmon
◼ Data warehousing:
◼ The process of constructing and using data
warehouses
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 Data Warehouse—Subject-Oriented

◼ Organized around major subjects, such as customer,

product, sales.
◼ Focusing on the modeling and analysis of data for
decision makers, not on daily operations or transaction
processing.
◼ Provide a simple and concise view around particular
subject issues by excluding data that are not useful in
the decision support process.

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 Data Warehouse—Integrated
◼ Constructed by integrating multiple, heterogeneous
data sources
◼ relational databases, flat files, on-line transaction
records
◼ Data cleaning and data integration techniques are
applied.
◼ Ensure consistency in naming conventions, encoding
structures, attribute measures, etc. among different
data sources
◼ E.g., Hotel price: currency, tax, breakfast covered, etc.
◼ When data is moved to the warehouse, it is
converted.

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 Data Warehouse—Time Variant

◼ The time horizon for the data warehouse is significantly

longer than that of operational systems.
◼ Operational database: current value data.
◼ Data warehouse data: provide information from a
historical perspective (e.g., past 5-10 years)
◼ Every key structure in the data warehouse
◼ Contains an element of time, explicitly or implicitly
◼ But the key of operational data may or may not
contain “time element”.

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 Data Warehouse—Non-Volatile

◼ A physically separate store of data transformed from the

operational environment.
◼ Operational update of data does not occur in the data
warehouse environment.
◼ Does not require transaction processing, recovery,
and concurrency control mechanisms
◼ Requires only two operations in data accessing:
◼ initial loading of data and access of data.

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 Data Warehouse vs. Heterogeneous DBMS

◼ Traditional heterogeneous DB integration:

◼ Build wrappers/mediators on top of heterogeneous databases
◼ Query driven approach
◼ When a query is posed to a client site, a meta-dictionary is
used to translate the query into queries appropriate for
individual heterogeneous sites involved, and the results are
integrated into a global answer set
◼ Complex information filtering, compete for resources
◼ Data warehouse: update-driven, high performance
◼ Information from heterogeneous sources is integrated in advance
and stored in warehouses for direct query and analysis

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 Data Warehouse vs. Operational DBMS
◼ OLTP (on-line transaction processing)
◼ Major task of traditional relational DBMS
◼ Day-to-day operations: purchasing, inventory, banking,
manufacturing, payroll, registration, accounting, etc.
◼ OLAP (on-line analytical processing)
◼ Major task of data warehouse system
◼ Data analysis and decision making
◼ Distinct features (OLTP vs. OLAP):
◼ User and system orientation: customer vs. market
◼ Data contents: current, detailed vs. historical, consolidated
◼ Database design: ER + application vs. star + subject
◼ View: current, local vs. evolutionary, integrated
◼ Access patterns: update vs. read-only but complex queries
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 OLTP vs. OLAP
OLTP OLAP
users clerk, IT professional knowledge worker
function day to day operations decision support
DB design application-oriented subject-oriented
data current, up-to-date historical,
detailed, flat relational summarized, multidimensional
isolated integrated, consolidated
usage repetitive ad-hoc
access read/write lots of scans
index/hash on prim. key
unit of work short, simple transaction complex query
# records accessed tens millions
#users thousands hundreds
DB size 100MB-GB 100GB-TB
metric transaction throughput query throughput, response

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 Why Separate Data Warehouse?
◼ High performance for both systems
◼ DBMS— tuned for OLTP: access methods, indexing,
concurrency control, recovery
◼ Warehouse—tuned for OLAP: complex OLAP queries,
multidimensional view, consolidation.
◼ Different functions and different data:
◼ missing data: Decision support requires historical data
which operational DBs do not typically maintain
◼ data consolidation: DS requires consolidation
(aggregation, summarization) of data from
heterogeneous sources
◼ data quality: different sources typically use inconsistent
data representations, codes and formats which have to
be reconciled
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 Data Warehousing and OLAP

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ Extensions of data cubes

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

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 From Tables and Spreadsheets
to Data Cubes

◼ A data warehouse is based on a multidimensional data model which

views data in the form of a data cube
◼ A data cube, such as sales, allows data to be modeled and viewed
in multiple dimensions
◼ Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand, type), or
time(day, week, month, quarter, year)
◼ Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold) and keys to
each of the related dimension tables
◼ In data warehousing literature, an n-D base cube is called a base
cuboid. The topmost 0-D cuboid, which holds the highest-level of
summarization, is called the apex cuboid. The lattice of cuboids
forms a data cube.
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 Cube: A Lattice of Cuboids

all
0-D(apex) cuboid

time item location supplier

1-D cuboids

time,item time,location item,location location,supplier

2-D cuboids
time,supplier item,supplier

time,location,supplier
time,item,location 3-D cuboids
time,item,supplier item,location,supplier

4-D(base) cuboid
time, item, location, supplier
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 Conceptual Modeling of
Data Warehouses
◼ Modeling data warehouses: dimensions & measures
◼ Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a
set of dimension tables
◼ Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema
where some dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a
set of smaller dimension tables, forming a shape
similar to snowflake
◼ Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share
dimension tables, viewed as a collection of stars,
therefore called galaxy schema or fact constellation
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 Example of Star Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name
month brand
quarter time_key type
year supplier_type
item_key
branch_key
branch location
location_key
branch_key location_key
branch_name units_sold street
branch_type city
dollars_sold province_or_street
country
avg_sales
Measures

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 Example of Snowflake Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key supplier
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name supplier_key
month brand supplier_type
quarter time_key type
year item_key supplier_key

branch_key
branch location
location_key
location_key
branch_key
units_sold street
branch_name
city_key city
branch_type
dollars_sold
city_key
avg_sales city
province_or_street
Measures country

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 Example of Fact Constellation
time
time_key item Shipping Fact Table
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name time_key
month brand
quarter time_key type item_key
year supplier_type shipper_key
item_key
branch_key from_location

branch location_key location to_location

branch_key location_key dollars_cost
branch_name
units_sold
street
branch_type dollars_sold city units_shipped
province_or_street
avg_sales country shipper
Measures shipper_key
shipper_name
location_key
shipper_type 23
 Measures: Three Categories
◼ distributive: if the result derived by applying the function
to n aggregate values is the same as that derived by
applying the function on all the data without partitioning.
◼ E.g., count(), sum(), min(), max().
◼ algebraic: if it can be computed by an algebraic function
with M arguments (where M is a bounded integer), each
of which is obtained by applying a distributive aggregate
function.
◼ E.g., avg(), min_N(), standard_deviation().
◼ holistic: if there is no constant bound on the storage size
needed to describe a subaggregate.
◼ E.g., median(), mode(), rank().
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 A Concept Hierarchy: Dimension (location)

all all

region Europe ... North_America

country Germany ... Spain Canada ... Mexico

city Frankfurt ... Vancouver ... Toronto

office L. Chan ... M. Wind

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 Specification of Hierarchies

◼ Schema hierarchy
day < {month < quarter; week} < year
◼ Set_grouping hierarchy
{1..10} < inexpensive

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 Multidimensional Data
◼ Sales volume as a function of product, month,
and region
Dimensions: Product, Location, Time
Hierarchical summarization paths

Industry Region Year

Category Country Quarter

Product

Product City Month Week

Office Day

Month
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 A Sample Data Cube
Total annual sales
Date of TV in U.S.A.
1Qtr 2Qtr 3Qtr 4Qtr sum
TV
PC U.S.A
VCR

Country
sum
Canada

Mexico

sum

All, All, All

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 Cuboids Corresponding to the Cube

all
0-D(apex) cuboid
product date country
1-D cuboids

product,date product,country date, country

2-D cuboids

3-D(base) cuboid
product, date, country

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Browsing a Data Cube

◼ Visualization
◼ OLAP capabilities
◼ Interactive manipulation
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 Typical OLAP Operations

◼ Roll up (drill-up): summarize data

◼ by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension reduction
◼ Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up
◼ from higher level summary to lower level summary or detailed
data, or introducing new dimensions
◼ Slice and dice:
◼ project and select
◼ Pivot (rotate):
◼ reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series of 2D planes.
◼ Other operations
◼ drill across: involving (across) more than one fact table
◼ drill through: through the bottom level of the cube to its back-
end relational tables (using SQL)
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 A Starnet Query Model
Customer Orders
Shipping Method
Customer
CONTRACTS
AIR-EXPRESS

ORDER
TRUCK
PRODUCT LINE
Time Product
ANNUALY QTRLY DAILY PRODUCT ITEM PRODUCT GROUP
CITY
SALES PERSON
COUNTRY
DISTRICT
REGION
DIVISION
Location Each circle is
called a footprint Promotion Organization
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 Data Warehousing and OLAP

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ Extensions of data cubes

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

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 Data Warehouse Design Process

◼ Choose the grain (atomic level of data) of the business

process
◼ Choose a business process to model, e.g., orders,
invoices, etc.
◼ Choose the dimensions that will apply to each fact table
record
◼ Choose the measure that will populate each fact table
record

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 Multi-Tiered Architecture

Monitor
& OLAP Server
other Metadata
sources Integrator

Analysis
Operational Extract Query
Transform Data Serve Reports
DBs
Load
Refresh
Warehouse Data mining

Data Marts

Data Sources Data Storage OLAP Engine Front-End Tools

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 Three Data Warehouse Models
◼ Enterprise warehouse
◼ collects all of the information about subjects spanning

the entire organization

◼ Data Mart
◼ a subset of corporate-wide data that is of value to a

specific groups of users. Its scope is confined to

specific, selected groups, such as marketing data mart
◼ Independent vs. dependent (directly from warehouse) data mart
◼ Virtual warehouse
◼ A set of views over operational databases

◼ Only some of the possible summary views may be

materialized
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Data Warehouse Development:
A Recommended Approach
Multi-Tier Data
Warehouse
Distributed
Data Marts

Enterprise
Data Data
Mart Mart Data
Warehouse

Model refinement Model refinement

Define a high-level corporate data model

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 OLAP Server Architectures
◼ Relational OLAP (ROLAP)
◼ Use relational or extended-relational DBMS to store and manage

warehouse data and OLAP middle ware to support missing pieces

◼ Include optimization of DBMS backend, implementation of

aggregation navigation logic, and additional tools and services

◼ greater scalability

◼ Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP)

◼ Array-based multidimensional storage engine (sparse matrix

techniques)
◼ fast indexing to pre-computed summarized data

◼ Hybrid OLAP (HOLAP)

◼ User flexibility, e.g., low level: relational, high-level: array

◼ Specialized SQL servers

◼ specialized support for SQL queries over star/snowflake schemas

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 Data Warehousing and OLAP

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ Extensions of data cubes

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

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 Efficient Data Cube Computation
◼ Data cube can be viewed as a lattice of cuboids
◼ The bottom-most cuboid is the base cuboid
◼ The top-most cuboid (apex) contains only one cell
◼ How many cuboids in an n-dimensional cube with L
levels? n
T =  ( Li +1)
i =1

◼ Materialization of data cube

◼ Materialize every (cuboid) (full materialization), none
(no materialization), or some (partial materialization)
◼ Selection of which cuboids to materialize
◼ Based on size, sharing, access frequency, etc.
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 Cube Operation

◼ Transform it into SQL-like language (with new operator

cube by, introduced by Gray et al.’96)
SELECT item, city, year, SUM (amount)
FROM SALES
()
CUBE BY item, city, year
◼ Need compute the following Group-Bys
(city) (item) (year)
(item, city, year),
(item, city), (item, year), (city, year),
(item), (city), (year) (city, item) (city, year) (item, year)

()
(city, item, year)
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 Efficient Processing of OLAP Queries

◼ Determine which operations should be performed on the

available cuboids:
◼ transform drill, roll, etc. into corresponding SQL and/or
OLAP operations, e.g, dice = selection + projection
◼ Determine to which materialized cuboid(s) the relevant
operations should be applied.
◼ Exploring indexing structures and compressed vs. dense
array structures in MOLAP

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 Metadata Repository
◼ Meta data is the data defining warehouse objects. It has the following
kinds
◼ Description of the structure of the warehouse

◼ schema, view, dimensions, hierarchies, derived data defn, data mart

locations and contents
◼ Operational meta-data
◼ data lineage (history of migrated data and transformation path),
currency of data (active, archived, or purged), monitoring information
(warehouse usage statistics, error reports, audit trails)
◼ The algorithms used for summarization
◼ The mapping from operational environment to the data warehouse
◼ Data related to system performance
◼ Business data
◼ business terms and definitions, ownership of data, charging policies

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 Data Warehouse Back-End Tools and
Utilities
◼ Data extraction:
◼ get data from multiple, heterogeneous, and external
sources
◼ Data cleaning:
◼ detect errors in the data and rectify them when
possible
◼ Data transformation:
◼ convert data from legacy or host format to warehouse
format
◼ Load:
◼ sort, summarize, consolidate, compute views, check
integrity, and build indicies and partitions
◼ Refresh
◼ propagate the updates from the data sources to the
warehouse
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 Data Warehousing and OLAP

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ Extensions of data cubes

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

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 Discovery-Driven Exploration of Data
Cubes

◼ Hypothesis-driven: exploration by user, huge search space

◼ Discovery-driven (Sarawagi et al.’98)
◼ pre-compute measures indicating exceptions, guide user in the
data analysis, at all levels of aggregation
◼ Exception: significantly different from the value anticipated,
based on a statistical model
◼ Visual cues such as background color are used to reflect the
degree of exception of each cell
◼ Computation of exception indicator (modeling fitting and
computing SelfExp, InExp, and PathExp values) can be
overlapped with cube construction
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Examples: Discovery-Driven Data Cubes

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 Complex Aggregation at Multiple
Granularities: Multi-Feature Cubes

◼ Multi-feature cubes (Ross, et al. 1998): Compute complex queries

involving multiple dependent aggregates at multiple granularities
◼ Ex. Grouping by all subsets of {item, region, month}, find the
maximum price in 1997 for each group, and the total sales among all
maximum price tuples
select item, region, month, max(price), sum(R.sales)
from purchases
where year = 1997
cube by item, region, month: R
such that R.price = max(price)
◼ Continuing the last example, among the max price tuples, find the
min and max shelf life, and find the fraction of the total sales due to
tuple that have min shelf life within the set of all max price tuples
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 Data Warehousing and OLAP

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ Extensions of data cubes

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

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 Data Warehouse Usage
◼ Three kinds of data warehouse applications
◼ Information processing
◼ supports querying, basic statistical analysis, and reporting
using crosstabs, tables, charts and graphs
◼ Analytical processing
◼ multidimensional analysis of data warehouse data
◼ supports basic OLAP operations, slice-dice, drilling, pivoting
◼ Data mining
◼ knowledge discovery from hidden patterns
◼ supports associations, constructing analytical models,
performing classification and prediction, and presenting the
mining results using visualization tools.
◼ Differences among the three tasks
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 From Online Analytical Processing
to Online Analytical Mining (OLAM)

◼ Why online analytical mining?

◼ High quality of data in data warehouses
◼ DW contains integrated, consistent, cleaned data

◼ Available information processing structure surrounding data

warehouses
◼ ODBC, OLEDB, Web accessing, service facilities, reporting

and OLAP tools

◼ OLAP-based exploratory data analysis
◼ mining with drilling, dicing, pivoting, etc.

◼ On-line selection of data mining functions

◼ integration and swapping of multiple mining functions,

algorithms, and tasks.

◼ Architecture of OLAM
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 An OLAM Architecture
Mining query Mining result Layer4
User Interface
User GUI API
Layer3
OLAM OLAP
Engine Engine OLAP/OLAM

Data Cube API

Layer2
MDDB
MDDB
Meta Data

Filtering&Integration Database API Filtering

Layer1
Data cleaning Data
Databases Data
Data integration Warehouse Repository
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 Summary
◼ Data warehouse
◼ A subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, and nonvolatile collection of
data in support of management’s decision-making process
◼ A multi-dimensional model of a data warehouse
◼ Star schema, snowflake schema, fact constellations
◼ A data cube consists of dimensions & measures
◼ OLAP operations: drilling, rolling, slicing, dicing and pivoting
◼ OLAP servers: ROLAP, MOLAP, HOLAP
◼ Efficient computation of data cubes
◼ Partial vs. full vs. no materialization
◼ Multiway array aggregation
◼ Bitmap index and join index implementations
◼ Extensions of data cubes
◼ Discovery-drive and multi-feature cubes
◼ From OLAP to OLAM (on-line analytical mining)

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