DEPARTMENT OF INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL

ENGINEERING
Lecture Notes
─

J.Jeevanantham, Assistant Professor, ICE

Subject : Sensors & Transducers
Subject Code : U20ICO401
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

General concepts and terminology of measurement systems, transducer

classification, general input output configuration, static and dynamic
UNIT I characteristics of a measurement system, Statistical analysis of
measurement data.

Generalized scheme of a measurement system

Purpose and performance of measurement systems

Fig 1.1 Generalized scheme of a measurement system

Process can be defined as a system which generates information.

Example: a car, chemical reactor.

List of information variables which are commonly generated by processes:

A car generates displacement, velocity and acceleration variables, and a chemical reactor
Generates temperature, pressure and composition variables.

The observer can be defined as a person who needs this information from the process.
This could be the car driver or the plant operator.

The purpose of the measurement system is to link the observer to the process.
Here the observer is presented with a number which is the current value of the information variable.
The information variable can be referred to as a measured variable. The input to the
measurement system is the true value of the variable; the system output is the measured value of
the variable.

In an ideal measurement system, the measured value would be equal to the true value.
The accuracy of the system can be defined as the closeness of the measured value to the
true value.

A perfectly accurate system is a theoretical ideal and the accuracy of a real system is
quantified using measurement system error E, where

E = measured value − true value

Thus if the measured value of the flow rate of gas in a pipe is 11.0 m3/h and the true value is
11.2 m3/h, then the error E = −0.2 m3/h.

Structure of measurement systems

The measurement system consists of several elements or blocks.

Fig 1.2 structure of measurement system

Sensing element

This is in contact with the process and gives an output which depends on the variable to be
measured.

Examples are:

• Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature

• Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain

If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in contact with the process is
termed the primary sensing element, the others secondary sensing elements.

Signal conditioning element (conversion & manipulation)

This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more suitable for further
processing, usually a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency signal.

Examples are:

• Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change

• Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts

• Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency voltage.

Data Transmission Element.

When the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated, it becomes necessary to
transmit data from one to another. The element that performs this function i s called a data
transmission element.

1. Electrical Transmission
2. Pneumatic transmission
3. Fiber optic transmission
 4. Optical/radio wireless transmission
5. Digital transmission

Signal processing element

This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form more suitable for
presentation. Examples are:

• Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital form for input to a
computer

• Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from the incoming digital data.

Typical calculations are:

• Computation of total mass of product gas from flow rate and density data

• Correction for sensing element non-linearity.

Data presentation element

This presents the measured value in a form which can be easily recognised by the observer.

Examples are:

• Simple pointer–scale indicator

• Chart recorder

• Alphanumeric display

• Visual display unit (VDU).

Example : Fig shows a temperature system with a thermocouple sensing element; this gives a
millivolt output. Signal conditioning consists of a circuit to compensate for changes in reference
junction temperature, and an amplifier.The voltage signal is converted into digital form using an
analogue-to-digital converter, the computer corrects for sensor non-linearity, and the measured value
is displayed on a VDU.
 Fig 1.3 Temperature system with a thermocouple sensing element
Difference between Sensors and Transducers

SENSOR TRANSDUCER

1. A sensor is a device that detects a 1. A transducer is a device that converts

change in a physical environment. one form of energy into another.
2. A sensor itself is a component. 2. Transducer is made of a sensor and
3. Sensors convert physical quantities a signal conditioning circuit.
or energy into non-electrical signals. 3. A transducer converts physical quantity
4. A sensor’s output is analog in nature or energy into an electrical signal
5. It is used to measure voltage, 4. A transducer can generate analog as
capacitance, inductance, ohmic well as a digital output.
resistance. 5. It converts the measured quantity into
6. Examples : Temperature sensor, a standard electrical signal like -10 to
thermistor, proximity sensor, and +10V DC
pressure switch. 6. Examples: Strain gauge, piezoelectric
transducer, linear transducer, and
microphone.
 Classification of Electrical Transducers

Transducers may be classified according to their structure, method of energy conversion and
application. Thus we can say that transducers are classified

 Transducer and Inverse Transducer

 Analog and Digital Transducer
 Primary and Secondary Transducer
 Active and Passive Transducer
 According To Transduction Principle

Transducer and Inverse Transducer

Transducers convert non-electrical quantity into electrical quantity

Inverse transducer converts electrical quantity into non-electrical quantity.

For example, microphone is a transducer which converts sound signal into an electrical signal
whereas loudspeaker is an inverse transducer which converts electrical signal into sound signal.

Analog and Digital Transducer

The transducers can be classified on the basis of the output which may be a continuous function of
time or the output may be in discrete steps.

Analog Transducers

These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a continuous function of
time. A strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouples or thermistors are called analog transducers as
they produce an output which is a continuous function of time.

Digital Transducers

Digital transducers produce an electrical output in the form of pulses which forms an unique code.
Unique code is generated for each discrete value sensed.

Example : Encoder, digital tachometer, hall effect sensor, limit switches.

Primary and Secondary Transducer

Some transducers consist of mechanical devices along with the electrical device.

Such a transducer's mechanical device acts as a primary transducer and converts physical quantity
into mechanical signal.

The electrical device then converts the mechanical signal produced by the primary transducer into
an electrical signal. Therefore, the electrical device acts as a secondary transducer.

For example, in pressure measurement Bourdon's tube acts as a primary transducer this converts a
pressure into displacement and LVDT acts as a secondary transducer which converts this
displacement into an equivalent electrical signal.

Fig 1.4 Pressure measurement

Active and Passive Transducer

Active Transducers

Active transducers are self-generating type of transducers.

These transducers develop an electrical parameter (i.e. voltage or current) which is proportional to the
quantity under measurement.

These transducers do not require any external source or power for their operation.
Passive transducers

Passive transducers do not generate any electrical signal by themselves.

To obtain an electrical signal from such transducers, an external source of power is essential.

Passive transducers depend upon the change in an electrical parameter (R, L, or C).

They are also known as externally power driven transducers.

According to Transduction Principle

The transducers can be classified according to the principle used in transduction.

Capacitive Transduction

In capacitive transduction, measurand is converted into a change in capacitance. A capacitor

basically consists of two conductors (plates) separated by an insulator (dielectric).A change in the
capacitor occurs either by changing the distance between two plates or by a change in the
dielectric.

Fig 1.5 Capacitive Transduction

Inductive Transduction

In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted into a change in the self inductance of a
single coil.

This is accomplished by displacing the coil's core, which is linked or attached to a mechanical sensing
element

Fig 1.6 Inductive Transduction

Piezoelectric Transduction

Piezoelectric Transduction,measurand is converted into a change in electrostatic charge, q or

voltage, V generated by crystals when mechanically stressed.
 Fig 1.7 Piezoelectric Transduction

Photoconductive Transduction

In photoconductive transduction, the measurand is converted into a change in resistance

(conductance) of a semiconductor material by a change in the amount of illumination incident on the
material.

Fig 1.8 Photoconductive Transduction

Advantages of Electrical Transducers

 Electrical signal obtained from electrical transducer can be easily processed (mainly amplified)
and brought to a level suitable for output device which may be an indicator or recorder.
 The electrical systems can be controlled with a very small level of power
 The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted, and processed for the purpose of
measurement.
 With the advent of IC technology, the electronic systems have become extremely small in
size, requiring small space for their operation.
  No moving mechanical parts are involved in the electrical systems. Therefore there is no
question of mechanical wear and tear and no possibility of mechanical failure.

Disadvantages of Electrical Transducers

 The electrical transducer is sometimes less reliable than mechanical type because of the
aging and drift of the active components.
 With the use of better materials, improved technology and circuitry, the range of accuracy and
stability have been increased for electrical transducers.
 Also, the sensing elements and the associated signal processing circuitry are comparatively
expensive.
 Using negative feedback techniques, the accuracy of measurement and the stability of the
system are improved, but all at the expense of increased circuit complexity, more space, and
obviously, more cost.

Performance Characteristics

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided in two categories :-

i) Static characteristics and ii) Dynamic characteristics

Some applications involve measurands which are either constant or varying very slowly with time. The
set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities which are slowly
varying with time or mostly constant, i.e. do not vary with time, is called static characteristics.

While, when the quantity under measurement changes rapidly with time, it is necessary to study the
dynamic relations existing between input and output. These relations are generally expressed with the
help of differential equations. The set of criteria defined based on such dynamic differential equations
is called dynamic characteristics.

Static characteristics

The various static characteristics are accuracy, precision, resolution, error, sensitivity, threshold,
reproducibility, zero drift, stability and linearity.
Accuracy

It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of the
quantity to be measured.

It denotes the extent to which we approach the actual value of the quantity.

It indicates the ability of an instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity.

Precision

It is the measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements. It denotes the closeness with which
individual measurements are departed or distributed about the average number of measured values.

Static Error

The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the quantity to be
measured is called an error.

E = At - Am - ABSOLUTE ERROR

At True value of the quantity.

Am Measured value of the quantity.

RELATIVE ERROR:
Sensitivity

The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument
responds.

It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the
quantity to be measured.

Resolution

It is the smallest increment of quantity being measured which can be detected with certainty by an
instrument. Thus,the resolution means the smallest measurable input change.

So if a non zero input quantity is slowly increased, output reading will not increase until some
minimum change in the input takes place. This minimum change which causes the change in the
output is called resolution. The resolution of an instrument is also referred as discrimination of the
instrument. The resolution can affect the accuracy of the measurement.

Threshold

If the input quantity is slowly varied from zero onwards the output does not change until some
minimum value of the input is exceeded. This minimum value of the input is called threshold.

Thus, the resolution is the smallest measurable input change while the threshold is the smallest
measurable input.
Linearity

The instrument requires the property of linearity, that is the output varies linearly, according to the
input. Linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically and
linearly. Graphically such a relationship between input and output is represented by a straight line.

Fig 1.9 Lineraity

Zero Drift

The drift is the gradual shift of the instrument indication, over an extended period during which the
value of the input variable does not change.

There are many environmental factors which affect the drift. These factors are stray electric field,
stray magnetic field, temperature changes, contamination of metal, changes in the atomic structure,
mechanical vibrations, wear and tear, corrosion, etc.

The drift is undesirable and cannot be easily compensated for. It must be carefully guarded against
bycontinuous inspection.
Reproducibility

It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be measured. It may be specified in terms
of units for a given period of time.

The perfect reproducibility indicates no drift in the instrument.

The repeatability is defined as variation of scale reading and is random in nature. Both reproducibility
and repeatability are a measure of the closeness with which a given input may be measured again
and again.

Fig 1.10 Reproducibility

Stability

The ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout its specified operating life and the
storage life is defined as its stability.

Tolerance

The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value which is called
tolerance. This is closely related to accuracy.

Range or Span

The minimum and maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure is
called its range or span. Sometimes the accuracy is specified in terms of range or span of an
instrument.
Bias

The constant error which exists over the full range of measurement of an instrument is called bias.
Such a bias can be completely eliminated by calibration.

Hysteresis

If the input to the instrument is increased from a negative value, the output also increases. But if the
curve is now decreased steadily, the output does not follow the same curve but lags by a certain
value. The difference between the two curves is called hysteresis.

Fig 1.11 Hysteresis

Dead Space

In some instruments, it is possible that till input increases beyond a certain value, the output does not
change. So for a certain range of input values there is no change in output. This range of input is
called dead space.
 Dynamic Characteristics

When the instrument is subjected to rapidly varying inputs, the relation between input and output
becomes totally different than that in case of static or constant inputs. As the input varies from instant
to instant, output also varies from instant to instant. The behavior of a system under such conditions
is called dynamic response of the system.

The various dynamic characteristics of an instrument are speed of response, fidelity, lag and the
dynamic error.

Speed of Response

It is the rapidity with which the system responds to the changes in the quantity to be measured. It
gives the information about how fast the system reacts to the changes in the input. It indicates the
activeness of the system. The system should respond very quickly to the changes in the input.

Fidelity

It indicates how faithfully the system reproduces the changes in the input. It is the ability of an
instrument to produce a wave shape identical to the wave shape of input with respect to time. It is
defined as the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without
dynamic error.

Lag

Every system takes some time, whatever small it may be, to respond to the changes in the measured
variable. This retardation or delay in the response of a system is called lag. This is also called
measuring lag. The lags are of two types :

1. Retardation Lag : In this case, the response of the system begins immediately after a change in the
variable has occurred.

2. Time Delay : In this case, response begins after some time called dead time, after the application
of input. Such a delay shifts the response along the time axis and hence causes the dynamic error.
Dynamic Error

It is the difference between the true value of the variable to be measured, changing with time and the
value indicated by the measurement system, assuming zero static error.

Fig 1.11 Dynamic characteristics

The most widely useful mathematical model for the study of measurement system dynamic response
is the ordinary linear differential equation with constant coefficients.
 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT DATA

Statistical Analysis

Out of the various possible errors, the random errors ( cause is unknown) cannot be determined in the
ordinary process of measurements. Such random errors are treated mathematically. The
mathematical analysis of the various measurements is called statistical analysis of the data.

Arithmetic Mean and Median

When the number of readings of the same measurement is taken, the most likely value from the set of
measured variable values is the arithmetic mean of the number of readings taken. The arithmetic
mean value can be mathematically obtained as
Average Deviation

The deviation tells us about the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the data set.
This is denoted as d and calculated for each reading as,

The average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of deviations divided by the
number of readings. This is also called mean deviation.
Standard Deviation

The amount by which the n measurement values are spread about the mean is expressed by a
standard deviation. It is also called root mean square deviation.

The standard deviation is defined as the square root of the sum of the individual deviations squared,
divided by the number of readings. It is denoted as σ.

Less the value of standard deviation, more accurate is the measurement.

Variance

The variance means square deviation so it is the square of the standard deviation. It is denoted as V.

GENERAL INPUT OUTPUT CONFIGURATION

Fig 1.12 Generalized input – output configuration

Input quantities are classified into three categories: desired inputs, interfering inputs, and
modifying inputs.

Desired inputs represent the quantities that the instrument is specifically intended to measure.
Interfering inputs represent quantities to which the instrument is unintentionally sensitive.
A desired input produces a component of output according to an input-output relation symbolized by
FD, where FD denotes the mathematical operations necessary to obtain the output from the input.

The symbol FD, may represent different concepts, depending on the particular input-output
characteristic being described.

Thus, FD might be a constant number K that gives the proportionality constant, relating a
constant static input to the corresponding static output for a linear instrument.
For a nonlinear instrument,a simple constant is not adequate to relate static inputs and
outputs; a mathematical function is required .To relate dynamic inputs and outputs, differential
equations are necessary.
If a description of the output "scatter" or dispersion, for repeated equal static inputs is desired,
a statistical distribution function of some kind is needed. The symbol FD encompasses all such
concepts. The symbol FI serves a similar function for interfering input.

Modifying inputs are the quantities that cause change in the input-output relations for the desired and
interfering inputs; that is, they cause a change is FD and/or FI

The circle with a cross in it is a conventional symbol for a summing device. The two plus signs as
shown indicate that the output of the summing device is the instantaneous algebraic sum of its two
inputs. Since an instrument system has several inputs of each of the three types as well as several
outputs, it may be necessary to draw more complex block diagrams with extension.
 RESISTANCE TRANSDUCERS

Resistive transducers: Potentiometers, metal and semiconductor strain

gauges and signal conditioning circuits, strain gauge applications: Load and
UNIT II torque measurement, Digital displacement sensors.

Resistive transducers
Measurements of change in resistance are preferred to those employing other principles. That is
because both alternating and direct current and voltage are suitable for resistance measurement.

The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a simple equation that involves a few physical
quantities.
The relationship is

R=(ρ∗l)/a
R – Resistance; Ω,
L – length of conductor; m,
A- cross sectional area of the conductor; m2
ρ - resistivity of conductor material; Ω-m
Any method of varying one of the quantities involved in the above relationship can be the design
basics of an electrical resistive transducer.

There are a number of ways in which a resistance can be changed by a physical phenomenon.
The translational and rotational potentiometers which work on the basis of the change in the value of
the resistance with change in length of the conductor can be used for measurement of translational or
rotary displacement.
 POTENTIOMETERS

Basically a resistance potentiometer or simply a POT (a resistive potentiometer used to for the
purpose of voltage division is called a POT) consist of a resistive element provided with a sliding
contact. This sliding contact is called a wiper. The motion of the sliding contact maybe translator or
rotational.

Some POTS Use the combination of the two motions that is translational as well as rotational. These
POTS have their resistive element in the form of a Helix and therefore they are called Helipots.

The resistive element of the POT May be excited by either DC or AC voltage. The POT Is a passive
transducer since it requires an external power source for its operation.The resistance elements are
made from cermet, Hot molded carbon, carbon film and thin metal.

Fig 2.1 Resistive potentiometer

Consider a translational potentiometer.
Let,
ei & eo = Input and output voltage respectively; V,
xt = Total length of translational pot; m,
xi = Displacement of wiper from its zero position; m,
Rp = Total resistance of the potential meter;

The under ideal circumstances, the output voltage varies linearly with displacement

Fig 2.2 Characteristics of potentiometer

Sensitivity = output / input

= e0/xi= ei/xt

Under ideal conditions the sensitivity is constant and the output is faithfully Reproduced and has a
linear relationship with input. The same is true of rotational motion.
LOADING EFFECT

In practice the output terminals of the POT are connected to a device whose impedance is finite. Thus
when an electrical instrument which forms a load for the POT and is connected across the output
terminals the indicated Voltage is less than that.

The error which is referred to as a loading error is caused by the input resistance of the output device.

Fig 2.3 Loaded potentiometer

Let us consider the case of a translational potentiometer,

Let the resistance of the meter be Rm,
If the resistance across the output terminal is infinite, we get a linear relationship between the
output and the input voltage.
e0 =(xi/xt) ei = K ei
However, under actual conditions the resistance Rm is not infinite.
This causes a nonlinear relationship between the output and input voltage.
Resistance potentiometers have the following major advantages:

 They are inexpensive.

 They are simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the requirements are
not particularly severe.

 They are very useful for measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.

  Their electrical efficiency is very high and they provide sufficient output to permit control
operations without further amplification.

 It should be understood that while the frequency response of wire wound potentiometers is
limited, the other types of potentiometers are free from this problem.

 In wire wound potentiometers the resolution is limited while in Cermet and metal film
potentiometers, the resolution is infinite

The disadvantages are:

 The chief disadvantage of using a linear potentiometer is that they require a large force to
move their sliding contacts (wipers).

 The other problems with sliding contacts are that they can be contaminated, can wear out,
become misaligned and generate noise. So the life of the transducer is limited.

DIGITAL DISPLACEMENT SENSORS

Need for digital transducers

The transducers often communicate with digital computers and therefore transducers which have a
digital output are preferable as they are convenient to use since they can be directly interfaced with
the digital computer.

However few transducers exist which can provide a direct digital output.In most of the situations in
measurement systems we come across transducers which provide only an analog output. Therefore
with such a transducer we have to use an analog to digital converter to realize the digital data which
could be handled by digital computers.

Digital transducers / encoders

Digital transducers are called encoders. They are available but they are normally in the form of linear
or rotary displacement transducers.
Digital encoding transducers or digitizers enable a linear or Rotary displacement to be directly
converted into digital form without intermediate forms of analog to digital conversion. Such digitizers
may be known as digital encoders or linear digitizers or for Rotary application shaft digitizers or shaft
encoders.

Classification of encoders

The digital displacement transducers can be classified into three major categories
Tachometer transducer
incremental transducers
absolute transducers

Tachometer encoders

A tachometer encoder has only a single output signal which consists of a pulse for each increment of
displacement.
If the motion were always in One Direction the digital counter could accumulate these pulses to
determine the displacement from an unknown starting point.

However any motion in the opposite direction would also produce identical pulses which would
produce errors.

Therefore this digital transducer is usually used for measurement of speed rather than for
displacement and in situations where the rotation never reverses.

Incremental encoders

The problems caused by reverse motion in the case tachometer encoder are solved by using an
incremental encoder.

They use an up-down counter to subtract pulses whenever the motion reverses.

Disadvantage: The failure of system power also causes total information about the position data
which cannot be retrieved even after re application of power.
Absolute encoders

They are generally limited to measurement of a single revolution. They use multiple tracks and
outputs which are read out in parallel to produce a binary representation of the angular shaft input
position. Since there is a one to one correspondence between binary output, position data are
recovered when power is restored after an outage. The transient electric noise causes only transient
measurement errors.

Construction of encoders

Encoders of all three types mentioned above can be constructed as

Contacting type
Non contacting type

Contacting or brush type (resistive encoders)

Shaded areas are made up of conducting material and the unshaded areas are made up of non-
conducting materials.
Brushes are placed on the transducer which acts as sliding Contacts. The circuit of sliding Contacts
which come in contact with conducting areas are completed and the circuits of others which make
contact with insulated areas are not completed.
Thus the encoder gives out a digital readout which is an indication of position and hence the encoder
determines the displacement.
Fig 2.4 Translational Encoder

The voltages on the four lamp lines can be sent toward the digital computer directly. If a visual
readout were desired these four voltages should be applied to a binary to decimal conversion module
and then read out decimally on a display.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages :

 It is relatively inexpensive.

 It can be made to any degree of desired accuracy provided that the sector is made large
enough to accommodate the required number of rows for binary numbers and are quite
adequate for slowly moving system.

Disadvantages:

 The major problem with the use of these encoders is on account of wear of contactors and
maintenance of the Contacts.
  There is often an ambiguity of 1 digit in the least significant binary digit.

 The resolution of digital transducers depends upon the number of digits comprising the binary
number.

Optical encoders/Non-contact type

The sector may be designed with a pattern of opaque and translucent areas.
A photoelectric sensor and a light source is placed on the two sides of the sector.
The displacement is applied to the sector and therefore there will be changes in the amount of light
falling on the photoelectric sensor.
The pattern of illuminated sensor then carries the information as to the location of the sector.

Fig 2.5 Optical / Non-Contact type Encoder

Advantages and disadvantages

They give a true digital readout

No mechanical contact is involved and therefore problems of wear and alignment are not present.

The disadvantage is that the lights burnout. However the life of the lamp is about 50,000 hours.
Shaft encoder
Shaft encoder is a digital device used for measurement of angular position.
The disc is divided into concentric circular tracks and each of these is then divided into segments in a
manner depending upon the code being used.
For pure binary code, the inner track is halved, The next quartered and the next divided into 8 parts
and so on.
Each track has twice as many segments as the adjacent one near the center. The detection method
determines the treatment of the disc.
Electrical methods are used for deduction in case the segments are made conducting and non-
conducting.

Fig 2.6 shaft Encoder

 Types of strain gauges

1. Unbonded metal strain gauges

2. Bonded metal wire strain gauges
3. Bonded metal foil strain gauges
4. Bonded semiconductors strain gauges
5. Diffused metal strain gauges

SEMICONDUCTORS STRAIN GAUGES

Semiconductors strain gauges are used where a very high gauge factor and a small envelope are
required.

The resistance of the semiconductors changes with change in applied strain.

Unlike in the case of metallic gauges where the change in resistance is mainly due to change in
dimensions When strained, the semiconductor strain gauge depends on Their action upon piezo
resistive effect. i.e., The change in the value of the resistance due to change in resistivity.

Semiconducting materials such as Silicon and germanium are used as resistive materials for
semiconductor strain gauges.A typical strain gauge consists of a strain sensitive crystal material and
leads that are sandwiched in a protective matrix.

The production of these gauges employs conventional semiconductor technology using

semiconducting wafers or filaments which have a thickness of 0.05mm and bonding them on suitable
insulating substrates, such as Teflon.

Gold leads or generally employed for making the Contacts.

Some of the typical semiconductor strain gauges can be fabricated along with integrated circuit (IC)
operational amplifiers which can act as pressure sensitive transducers.
Fig 2.7 Semiconductor Strain gauge

Advantages

Semiconductors Strain gauges have the advantage that they have a high gauge factor of about 土

130. This allows measurement of very small strains of the order of 0.01 microstrain.

Hysteresis characteristics of semiconductor strain gauges are excellent some units maintain it to less
than 0.05%

Fatigue life is in excess of 10×106 Operations and the frequency response is up to 1012 Hz.

Semiconductors strain gauges can be very small ranging in length from 0.7-7mm they are very useful
for measurement of local strain.

Disadvantages

The major and serious disadvantage of semiconductors strain gauges is that they are very sensitive
to changes in temperature.

Linearity of the semiconductor strain gauges is poor. The equation for the fractional change in
resistance is
Where A and B are constants
This gauge is rather non-linear at comparatively high strain levels.
Semiconductor strain gauges are more expensive And difficult to attach to the object under study.

METAL STRAIN GAUGE

Unbonded metal strain gauges

These gauges consist of a wire stretched between two points in an insulating medium such as air.

The wires may be made up of various copper nickel, Chrome nickel or nickel iron alloys.

The wires are tensioned to avoid buckling when they experience a compressive force.

They employ preloaded resistance wires connected in a wheatstone bridge.

Potential preload the strains and resistance of the four arm are nominally equal with the result the
output voltage of the bridge
e0 = 0
Application of pressure produces a small displacement which is about 0.004mm (full scale). The
displacement increases tension in two wires and decreases it in the other two thereby increasing the
resistance of two wires which are in tension and decreasing the resistance of the remaining two
wires.This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output voltage which is proportional to the
input displacement and hence to the applied pressure.
Fig 2.8 metal Strain gauge

Bonded wire strain gauges

The bonded metal wire strain gauges are used for both stress analysis and for construction of
transducers.The resistance wire strain gauges consist of a grid of find resistance wire of about
0.025mm In diameter or less.

The grid is cemented to the carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper, a thin sheet of bakelite or a
sheet of Teflon.The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as to prevent it from any
mechanical damage.

The spreading of wire permits a uniform distribution of stress over the grid.The carrier is bonded
within adhesive material do the specimen under study. This permits a good transfer of strain from
carrier took grid of wires
The wires cannot buckle as they are imported in a matrix of cement and hence faithfully follow both
the tensile and comprehensive strain of the specimen.

The size of the strain gauge can be as small as 3mm by 3cm square. Usually they are larger but
seldom more than 25mm long and 12.5mm wide.
Fig 2.9 Linear Strain gauge

Bonded metal foil strain gauges

Foil type gauges have a much greater heat dissipation capacity compared with wire wound strain
gauges on account of their greater surface area for the same volume.

For this reason they can be used for higher operating temperature range and the large surface area
leads to better bonding.

Diffused strain gauges

It is primarily used in transducers.

The diffusion process used in IC manufacture is employed.

In pressure transducers for example the diaphragm would be of silicon rather than metal and the
strain gauge effect would be realized by depositing impurities in the diaphragm. This type of design
may allow lower manufacturing cost, As a large number of diaphragms can be made on a single
Silicon wafer.
 APPLICATION OF STRAIN GAUGE
 LOAD CELL STRAIN GAUGE
 TORQUE MEASUREMENT

LOAD CELL STRAIN GAUGE

LOAD CELL

By definition, load cell is a type of transducer, specifically a FORCE TRANSDUCER. It converts an

input mechanical force such as load, weight, tension, compression or pressure into another physical
variable, in this case, into an electrical output signal that can be measured, converted and
standardized. As the force applied to the force sensor increases, the electrical signal changes
proportionally.

Force Transducers became an essential element in many industries from Automotive, High precision
manufacturing, Aerospace & Defense, Industrial Automation, Medical & Pharmaceuticals and
Robotics where reliable and high precision

The underlying physics and material science behind the load cell working principle, which is the strain
gauge.

Metal foil strain gage is a material whose electrical resistance varies with applied force.

In other words, it converts force, pressure, tension, compression, torque, weight, etc… into a change
in electrical resistance, which can then be measured. So, metal foil strain gauge is the building
block of force sensor working principle.

Strain gauges are electrical conductors tightly attached to a film in a zigzag shape. When this film is
pulled, it – and the conductors – stretches and elongates. When it is pushed, it is contracted and gets
shorter.

This change in shape causes the resistance in the electrical conductors to also change. The strain
applied in the load cell can be determined based on this principle, as strain gauge resistance
increases with applied strain and diminishes with contraction.
Fig 2.10 Load cell strain gauge
Case 1
When there is no load (force) on the steel cylinder, all the four gauges will have the same resistance.
As the terminals N and P are at the same potential, the wheat stone bridge is balanced and hence the
output voltage will be zero.

Case 2
Now the load (force) to be measured (say compression force) is applied on the steel cylinder. Due to
this, the vertical gauges R1 and R4 will undergo compression and hence there will be a decrease in
resistance.
At the same time, the horizontal gauges R2 and R3 will undergo tension and there will be an increase
in resistance. Thus when strained, the resistance of the various gauges change.

Now the terminal N and P will be at different potential and the change in output voltage due to the
applied load (force) becomes a measure of the applied load force when calibrated.

Uses of Strain Gauge Load Cell

Strain gauge load cells are used when the load is not steady.

Strain gauge load cells are used in vehicle weight bridges, and tool force dynamometers.

TORQUE MEASUREMENT

In addition to single element strain gauges, a combination of strain gauges called "Rosettes" are
available in many combinations for specific stress analysis or transducer applications.

The solution to the problem of measurement of principal strains and stresses without actually
knowing their directions lies in using three strain gauges to form a unit called a Rosette.

Fig 2.11 strain gauge torque transducer

Two gauges are in tensile mode and the other two in the compressive mode. All the four gauges are
available in the form of rosette.
Slip rings are used for connecting the supply voltage to the bridge and the unbalanced voltage to the
indicator.
The contact resistance between the brushes and slip ring is a problem. Hence a non-
contacting Rotary transformer is devised for application in such situations.

The shaft material is normally ferromagnetic in nature and hence the shaft is used as the core.
Two Rotary Transformers are provided on the shaft such that the induction of voltages Takes place
between the coaxially wound coils of each pair.

The frequency of excitation voltage may be chosen to be within the range of 400 Hz to 10 kHz.
Completely secure output signal free of noise can be obtained by application of telemetry techniques.
The natural frequency of the system is mostly determined by the stiffness of the torsion bar and the
inertia of the loads connected at either end of the bar.

Torsion bars of different cross sections are shown to enable static and dynamic torque
measurements. Cylindrical shafts connecting the driving and driven machines are used as primary
transducers, and strain gauges mounted on the surface of the shaft, Are used to measure the shear
strain. When a Halo shaft is used, the strain is given by

WHERE
T TORQUE TRANSMITTED
G MODULUS OF RIGIDITY
RO, RI OUTER & INNER RADII OF HOLLOW SHAFT.
 INDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS

Principle of operation, construction details, characteristics and applications

of LVDT. Induction potentiometer - Variable reluctance transducers -
UNIT III Synchros - Microsyn- Principle of operation, construction details,
characteristics of capacitive transducers - Different types & Signal
Conditioning - applications:- Capacitor microphone, Capacitive pressure
sensor, Proximity sensor.

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical signals is the
Linear variable differential transformer(LVDT).

Fig 3.1 LVDT

The basic construction of LVDT is shown. The transformer consists of a single primary winding P
And two secondary windings S1 & S2 Wound on a cylindrical former.
The secondary windings have an equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side of
the primary winding.

The primary winding is connected to an alternating current source.

A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former.

The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the soft iron core.

OPERATION

Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating current source, it produces an alternating
magnetic field which in turn induces alternating current voltage in the two secondary windings.

The output voltage of secondary S1 is Es1 and that of a secondary S2 is Es2. In order to convert the
outputs from S1 and S2 into a single voltage signal, The two secondary’s S1 and S2 are connected in
series opposition.
Thus the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages.Differential output voltage,
E0 = Es1 - Es2

When the core is at its normal(NULL) Position, the flux linking with both the secondary windings is
equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them.

Thus at NULL position Es1-Es2. Since the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages, the output voltage E0 is 0 at null position.

Now if the core is moved to the left of the null position, More flux links with windings S1 and less with
windings S2.

Accordingly, output voltage Es1, of the secondary windings S1, is more than Es2, the output voltage of
secondary winding S2.
The magnitude of output voltage is thus, E0= Es1-Es2 and the output voltage is in phase with, say the
primary voltage.
Similarly, If the core is moved to the right of the null position The flux linking with winding S2 becomes
larger than that linking with windings S1.

This results in Es2 becoming larger than Es1.The output voltage in this case is E0 = Es1-Es2 and is 180°
out of phase with each other.
The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount of movement
of the core.

The difference of the two voltages appears across the output terminal of the transducer and gives a
measure of the physical position of the core and hence the displacement.

CHARACTERISTICS

FIG 3.2 characteristics of LVDT

Advantage of LVDT
1. Low hysteresis
 2. Low power consumption
3. High sensitivity
4. Ruggdness
5. Friction and electrical isolation

Disadvantages of LVDT

 Sensitive to stray magnetic field

 LVDT performance is affected by variation
 Large displacement is required for appreciable differential output.
 Temperature affects the performance of the transducer.

Application of LVDT

1.

FIG 3.3 Pressure measurement using LVDT

Acting as a secondary transducer it can be used to measure weight, force and pressure.

Some transducers consist of mechanical devices along with the electrical device.Such a
transducer's mechanical device acts as a primary transducer and converts physical quantity into
mechanical signal.
The electrical device then converts the mechanical signal produced by the primary transducer into
an electrical signal. Therefore, the electrical device acts as a secondary transducer.

For example, in pressure measurement Bourdon's tube acts as a primary transducer which converts
a pressure into displacement and LVDT acts as a secondary transducer which converts this
displacement into an equivalent electrical signal.

2. The LVDT can be used in all applications where displacements ranging from fraction of a mm to a
few cm have to be measured. The LVDT acting as a primary transducer converts the displacement
directly into an electrical output proportional to displacement. This is a fundamental conversion i.e .,
the mechanical variable (displacement in this case) is directly converted into an analogous signal
(voltage in this case) in one stage only. In contrast, the electrical strain gauge requires the assistance
of some form of a sensing element to act as primary transducer to convert the mechanical
displacement into strain which in turn is converted into an electrical signal by the strain gauge acting
as a secondary transducer. Therefore, two stages of signal conversion are involved in strain gauges
while there is only one in case of LVDT when displacement is being measured.

Variable Reluctance Inductive Transducer

The self-inductance L is inversely proportional to the reluctance S.

L= N2/S

A variable reluctance type inductive transducer is as shown in the Fig. It is a self-generating type
transducer.A coil is wound by a C shaped ferromagnetic core with a target plate placed above the
core with a small air gap. The size of this air gap determines the reluctance of the magnetic circuit,
which transducer inturn decides the self-inductance.

The displacement to be measured is applied to the target plate. According to the displacement, the
target plate moves which changes the air gap and hence the self-inductance. Thus for different air
gaps we get different values of inductance hence we get different output voltage.
FIG 3.4 variable reluctance inductive transducer

SYNCHROS
(MICROSYN)- (Same answer)
SYNCHROS

A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer which is commonly used to convert the angular position
of a shaft into an electric signal. Although the name "Synchro is universally used in the instrumentation
field, trade names such as Selsyns, Microsyns, and Autosyns are used for these instruments

There are two types of synchro systems

1) control or error detecting type and
2)torque transmission type

Torque transmission type of systems are used only to drive very light loads, such as pointers.

Ironically, torque transmission systems have very little output torque. When large torques and high
accuracies are needed, control type synchros are used.

Control Type Synchro Systems

These systems are used as error detectors in

positional control systems
The classical synchro system consists of two units:
(a) a synchro transmitter and
(b) a synhro receiver

The basic synchro unit is called a "Synchro Transmitter". Its construction is similar to that of a three
phase alternator. The stator is made up of laminated steel in order to reduce core losses. It is slotted
to accommodate a balanced three phase winding, with the axis of each stator winding displaced by
120° in space. The three stator coils are identical and are Y (star) connected. The rotor has a salient
pole construction, is dumb-bell-shaped, and is wound with a concentric coil. An a.c. Voltage is applied
to the rotor through two slip rings. The constructional features and schematic diagram are shown in
Figs. respectively.

FIG 3.5 synchro transmitter

Let an a.c. voltage be applied to the rotor of a synchro-transmitter as shown in Fig.The voltage
is

where Vr= r.m.s. value of rotor voltage, V,

wc carrier frequency ; rad/s

This voltage produces a magnetizing current and consequently an alternating sinusoidally varying flux
along its axis and distributed nearly sinusoidally in space. Voltages are induced in the three stator
windings. As the air gap flux is sinusoidally distributed in space, the flux linking with any stator
windings is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the rotor and the stator winding axes and
so is the voltage induced in each stator winding.
It should be understood that since the voltages in each stator winding are produced by transformer
action, the three stator voltages may have different values (as they link with different values of flux)
but they are in time phase with each other. Thus, the rotor as the primary winding of a single
phase transformer and the three stator windings act as secondary windings.

FIG 3.6 synchro transmitter

FIG 3.7 Stator terminal variations
The output of the synchro transmitter is applied to the stator windings of a Synchro Control
Transformer. The synchro control transformer is similar in construction to a synchro transmitter except
that the rotor of a control transformer is not of salient pole type but is Cylindrical in construction. The
use of cylindrical construction has an advantage because whatever may be the positron of the rotor,
the length of air gap remains constant, and therefore irrespective of the position of the rotor, the input
impedance of the control transformer remains the same.

The synchro-transmitter-control transformer pair acts as an error detector. The arrangement for
error-detectors is shown in Fig. Circulating currents of the same phase are of different magnitudes
flow through the stator windings transmitter and control transformer.
This results in the establishment of an identical flux pattern in the air gap of the control transformer.
The control transformer flux axis is in the same position as the flux axis in the transmitter. The voltage
induced in the rotor of the control transformer is proportional to the cosine of the angle between axes
of the two rotors.

This voltage is given by:

PROXIMITY SENSORS

Inductive proximity sensor

FIG 3.8 Inductive proximity sensor

 An inductive proximity sensor is a sensor that detects the presence of a metal object by
generating an electromagnetic field and measuring the change in the field when the object
approaches.

The sensor consists of an oscillator coil that generates a high-frequency alternating current.
When a metal object approaches the sensor, the alternating current induces eddy currents in
the object. These eddy currents interact with the magnetic field generated by the oscillator coil,
which causes the oscillator coil to lose energy. This loss of energy is detected by the sensor
and used to generate an output signal.

Capacitive proximity sensors

FIG 3.9 Inductive proximity sensor

Capacitive proximity sensors can detect both metallic and non-metallic targets in powder, granulate,
liquid, and solid form. This, along with their ability to sense through nonferrous materials, makes them
ideal for sight glass monitoring, tank liquid level detection, and hopper powder level recognition.

In capacitive sensors, the two conduction plates (at different potentials) are housed in the sensing
head and positioned to operate like an open capacitor. Air acts as an insulator; at rest there is little
capacitance between the two plates. Like inductive sensors, these plates are linked to an oscillator, a
Schmitt trigger, and an output amplifier. As a target enters the sensing zone the capacitance of the
two plates increases, causing oscillator amplitude change, in turn changing the Schmitt trigger state,
and creating an output signal.

A capacitive sensor will react to an object acting as a dielectric material as well as a conductive
object. This makes metal and non-metal objects suitable targets.

Advantages of Capacitive proximity sensors

Contactless detection
A wide array of materials can detect
Able to detect objects through non-metallic walls with its wide sensitivity band
Well-suited to be used in an industrial environment
Contains potentiometer that allows users to adjust sensor sensitivity, such that only wanted objects
will be sensed
No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life

Disadvantages of Capacitive proximity sensors

Relative low range, though incremental increase from inductive sensors.

Higher price as compared to inductive sensors

APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER

Capacitive Transducers for the measurement of pressure

Capacitive transducers are used for measurement of pressure by converting the pressure into a
displacement. The displacement is sensed by a capacitive transducer using a differential
arrangementas explained.

A thin stainless steel diaphragm is clamped between the discs, acts as the movable plate. With equal
pressures applied (i.e., P1 =P2) the diaphragm is in neutral position and the bridge is balanced. The
output voltage e, is zero under the conditions. If one pressure is made greater than the other, the
diaphragm deflects in proportion to the differential pressure, giving an output voltage, from the bridge
terminals.

This output voltage is proportional to the differential pressure. For an opposite pressure difference,
the output voltage shows a 180° phase shift.

This voltage may be amplified by an emitter follower amplifier which gives a high input output
impedance.
A direction sensitive d.c. output voltage may be obtained by using a phase sensitive demodulator and
a filter circuit. The use of capacitive transducers is not common because of low sensitivity. Also
capacitive transducers require high carrier frequencies (typically 2500 Hz) for dynamic pressure
measurements.

FIG 3.8 Capacitive Transducers for the measurement of pressure

Capacitor microphone

Sound measurement: Capacitive transducers can be used to measure sound by using a diaphragm to
change the distance between the two plates of the sensor. As the diaphragm vibrates with the sound
waves, the capacitance of the sensor changes. This change in capacitance can then be used to
measure the sound level.
Fig 3.9 Capacitive transducer sound measurement diagram

A capacitor microphone is a type of capacitive transducer that is used to convert sound waves into
electrical signals. It consists of a diaphragm that is placed in close proximity to a fixed plate. As the
diaphragm vibrates with the sound waves, the distance between it and the fixed plate changes, which
changes the capacitance of the microphone. This change in capacitance is then converted into an
electrical signal by an amplifier.
Fig 3.10 Capacitive microphone

Capacitive transducers are a versatile type of transducer that can be used to measure a wide variety
of physical quantities. They are relatively inexpensive and easy to use, making them a popular choice
for many applications.

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
 OTHER TRANSDUCER

Piezoelectric transducers and their signal conditioning, Seismic transducer

and its dynamic response, photoelectric transducers, Hall effect sensors,
UNIT IV Magnetostrictive transducers. Eddy current transducers. Hall effect
transducers - Optical sensors, IC sensor for temperature - signal
conditioning circuits, Introduction to Fiber optic sensors - Temperature,
pressure, flow and level measurement using fiber optic sensors.

HALL EFFECT TRANSDUCERS/SENSOR

The principle of working of a Hall Effect Transducer is that if a strip of conducting material carries a
current in the presence of a transverse magnetic field, a difference of potential is produced between
the opposite edges of the conductor.

The magnitude of the voltage depends upon the current, the strength of the magnetic field and the
property of the conductor called Hall Effect.

Fig 4.1 Hall effect element

The Hall effect is present in metals and semiconductors in varying amounts, depending upon the
densities and mobilities of carriers. Current is passed through leads 1 and 2 of the strip.

The output leads connected to edges 3 and 4 are at the same potential. When there is no transverse
magnetic field passing
through the strip.

When a transverse magnetic field passes through the strip, an output voltage appears across the
output leads.

This voltage is proportional to the current and the field strength.

The output voltage is,

t= thickness of strip ; m,
and I and B are respectively the current in ampere
andflux density in Wb/m2.

Thus the voltage produced may be used for measurement of either the current I or the magnetic field
strength B.

Typical values of Hall Effect Coefficient of different materials are given in Table 25.9.
The Hall effect emf is very small in conductors and is difficult to measure. But in some
semiconductors, such as germanium, the emf produced is sufficiently large to be measured by a
sensitive moving coil instrument.

Applications of Hall Effect Transducer

Measurement of Displacement.

The Hall effect element can be used for the measurement of the location or displacement of a
structural element i.e.,it can serve as an indirect acting position displacement or proximity transducer
in cases where a change of geometry of a magnetic structure causes a change of magnetic field
strength.
Fig 4.2 Displacement measurement using Hall effect

Fig shows a ferro-magnetic structure having a permanent magnet. The Hall effect transducer is
located in the gap, adjacent to the permanent magnet.

The field strength produced by the permanent magnet in the gap, where the Hall effect element is
located, is varied by changing the position of a ferro-magnetic plate.

The voltage output of the Hall effect transducer is proportional to the field strength in the gap which is
a function of the position of the ferromagnetic plate from the structure i.e., the displacement.

The method permits measurements of displacement down to 0.025 mm.

Measurement Of Current

The device serves to measure current in a conductor without the need for interrupting the circuit and
without making electrical connection between the conductor circuit and the meter. A current (d.c. or
a.c) passes through the conductor and sets up a magnetic field surrounding the conductor.
Fig 4.3 Current measurement using hall effect

This magnetic field is proportional to the current. A Hall effect transducer is placed in a slotted Ferro-
magnetic tube which acts as a magnetic concentrator. The voltage produced at the output terminals is
proportional to the magnetic field strength and hence is proportional to the current flowing in the
conductor.

The system can be used for measurement of currents from less than a mA to thousands of amperes.
At high current levels, the magnetic concentrator can be omitted since the magnetic field is fairly
strong in the vicinity of the Hall effect element and thus can cause appreciable output voltages which
can be easily detected.

MAGNETO-STRICTIVE TRANSDUCER

A change in mechanical stress of a ferromagnetic material causes its permeability to change. This
phenomenon is known as the Villari effect or magneto-striction and is particularly strong in Nickel Iron
alloys.

The permeability changes in response to dimensional changes, such as compression, tension or

torque. This magnetic-elastic effect can cause the induction of voltages and hence can be used in
mechanical-electric transducers.

A transducer utilizing the Villari effect basically consists of a coil wound on a core of magneto-stricive
material to which a force, causing a stress in the core, is applied.

The stress causes a change in permeability of the core and hence the inductance change.
Fig 4.4 characteristics of magnetostrictive transducer

If a magnetostrictive material is subject to pure torsion the permeability increases irrespective of

direction (See Fig. 25.136). Pure tension alters the B- H curve of the material and decreases the
permeability [Fig. 25.136(b)]. By applying sufficient tension to the wire the permeability torsion curve
becomes similar to a B- H loop, Fig. 25.136(c).

Fig 4.5 Magnetoelastic Accelerometer

Acceleration of the mass M causes a force and hence produces a stress in the laminated core
thereby changing its permeability. The change in permeability produces a voltage in coil C
surrounding the core. Since, the force and consequently the stress are proportional to the
acceleration, that is force

and since the voltage is proportional to dF/dt, the output is proportional to third derivative of
displacement of the mass M.

Fiber optic sensor

The fiber optic sensors also called as optical fiber sensors use optical fiber or sensing element. These
sensors are used to sense some quantities like temperature, pressure, vibrations, displacements,
rotations or concentration of chemical species.

There are two basic types of fiber optic sensors which are:

Pure fiber sensors. These sensors for their response depend upon environmentally induced changes
in light as it travels through the fiber.

Remote optic sensors. They use optical fibers to carry light to a separate device that responds to light
stimuli.

In most pure optic sensors, one of the two effects happens to the light in response to some external
effect. These are :

The light can leak from the core into the cladding where it is eventually absorbed.

The light can be forced to travel a different distance than light traveling an alternate optical path. This
causes a phase difference to exist between two light waves. This difference can be detected by
combining the two light waves by superposition and observing the resulting light and dark pattern.
Optical sensors use a single mode fiber which is a low loss fiber with a very small core and
consequently a very small angle of acceptance of light. A basic scheme used for measurements
involving optical fiber sensors is shown Fig. 19.49. The sensing mechanism illustrated in the diagram
causes a change in some characteristic of the optical signal received at the detector. The sensing
mechanism may, in fact, be a characteristic of the fiber itself, or it may be a device external to the
fiber. In case the light signal received by the detector changes as a result of some change in the fiber,
then the sensor is called an Intensity or Intrinsic sensor. On the other hand, if the light signal at the
detector changes as a result of some transducer type of device, then the sensor is called an
Interferometric or Extrinsic sensor.

Fig 4.6 Basic optical fiber sensor

The advantages of fiber optic sensors are as follows.

1. They are compatible with fiber optic communication systems if the data is being transmitted
through-the-aforesaid medium.

2 As they do not conduct any electric current, hence optical fiber sensors are very useful in high
voltage equipment and explosive environments.

3. They are immune to electromagnetic interference as well as radiated signals.

4. They do not pick up radio frequency interference, interference caused by lightning, switching
surges, or electric relays and other sources of potential electrical noise. Hence the optical fiber
sensors are free from noise of any type.

5.They are widely used in measurement of physical quantities such as pressure,temperature, sound
displacement and level.

6. They are also used in measurement of electrical quantities such as electric Current, voltage,
electric and magnetic fields
 Fiber optic sensor - Temperature Measurement.

Optical fibers can be used for measurement of temperature. This is because the temperature induces
changes in the refractive index of the fiber.

The core and claddings of the fibers have different indices of refraction because of the difference in
their composition.

The refractive index is a function of both composition and temperature, and it changes at different
rates in response to a temperature change.

A higher temperature change causes the critical angle of the fiber to change slightly, which in turn
changes the amount of light lost through leakage in the cladding as shown in Fig. 25.176.

Total internal reflection occurs at angles of incidence greater than the critical angle. At angles of
incidence less than the critical angle, some light is lost due to refraction.

Fig 4.7 Fibre optic temperature sensor

Fiber optic sensor - Measurement of Level

Measurement of level is another application of fiber optic sensors. The principle of sensing liquid level
using fiber optic technology is straightforward.
If one end of the cable or rod is cut and polished properly to form a prism and the prism is in air, light
transmitted from the other end is reflected back with negligible loss.Under these conditions, the end
near the light source will appear bright as shown in Fig. 25.180().

If the polished end of the rod is now submerged a liquid with a higher refractive index than that of the
fiber rod, most of the light transmitted through the rod will be absorbed by the liquid rather than being
reflected as shown in Fig. 25.180(6) and the light the source will appear as dark.The darkness is
dependent upon the liquid level. Multilevel sensing can be achieved by bunding a number of fiber
optic rods of different lengths as shown in Fig. 25.181.

Fig 4.8 Fibre optic level sensor

Fiber Optic Type Pressure Measurement System

There are two optical fiber bundles called guides – input and output – arranged as shown in the
end view, giving the proper perspective. Chopped light from source is focused on to the input guide,
which on emergence is reflected from a flexible membrane.

The membrane may be made of aluminized plastic formed as a film. With pressures, P1 and P2
equal, the position of the membrane with respect to the input guide is so kept that 50% of the
reflected light falls on the surrounding annular output guide.

With P2 greater than P1, the membrane becomes convex towards the guides and more light falls on
the output guide, while with P1 less than P2, the reverse occurs.
A detector set at the other end of the output guide correspondingly receives a varied amount of light
with changing pressure. The detector can be calibrated for pressure.

Fig 4.9 Fibre optic pressure sensor

Fiber Optic Type Flow Measurement System

Fig 4.10 Fibre optic flow sensor

A fiber optic flow measurement system is a type of flow meter that uses fiber optic sensors to
measure the flow rate of a fluid. The fiber optic sensors are typically placed in the flow stream, and
the change in the optical properties of the fiber is used to determine the flow rate. There are a number
of different types of fiber optic flow measurement systems, but they all work on the same basic
principle.

The most common type of fiber optic flow measurement system is the fiber optic laser Doppler
velocimetry (LDV) system. In an LDV system, a laser beam is split into two beams, which are then
directed into the flow stream. The two beams are then reflected back to the sensor, and the difference
in the time it takes for the beams to travel to the target and back is used to determine the flow
velocity.

Seismic transducer

The seismic transducer is used for measuring the vibration of the ground. The spring mass damper
element and the displacement transducer are the two main components of the seismic transducer.

The mass that is connected to the damper element and spring without any other support is known as
spring mass damper element. And the displacement transducer converts the displacement into the
electrical quantity. The seismic transducer is used for measuring the earth vibration, volcanic eruption
and other vibrations etc.

Construction of Seismic Transducer

The schematic diagram of the seismic transducer is shown in the figure below. The mass is
connected by the help of the damper and spring to the housing. The housing frame is connected to
the source whose vibrations need to be measured.

Fig
4.11
The arrangement is kept in such a way so that the position of the mass remains the same in space.
Such type of arrangement is kept for causing the relative motion between the housing frame and the
mass. The term relative motion means one of the objects remains stationary, and the other is in
motion concerning the first one. The displacement that occurs between the two is sensed and
represented by the transducer.

Mode of Transducer
The seismic transducer works in two different modes.

Displacement Mode
Acceleration mode
The selection of the mode depends on the combinations of the mass, spring and damper
combinations. The large mass and soft spring are used for the displacement mode measurement
while the combination of the small mass and stiff spring is used for the acceleration mode.

Types of Seismic Transducer

Vibrometer and accelerometer are the two types of the seismic transducer.
1. Vibrometer – The vibrometer or low-frequency meter is used for measuring the displacement of
the body. It also measures the high frequency of the vibrating body. Their frequency range
depends onthe natural frequency and the damping system.
2. Accelerometer – The accelerometer measures the acceleration of the measuring body. The
acceleration shows the total force acting on the object.

Photoelectric Transducer

The photoelectric transducer converts the light energy into electrical energy. It is made of
semiconductor material. The photoelectric transducer uses a photosensitive element, which ejects the
electrons when the beam of light absorbs through it.
The discharges of electrons vary the property of the photosensitive element. Hence the current
induces in the devices. The magnitude of the current is equal to the total light absorbed by the
photosensitive element.
The figure below shows the scheme of semiconductor material.
Fig
4.12
The photoelectric transducer absorbs the radiation of light which falls on their semiconductor material.
The absorption of light energizes the electrons of the material, and hence the electrons start moving.
The mobility of electrons produces one of the three effects.

1. The resistance of the material changes.

2. The output current of the semiconductor changes.
3. The output voltage of the semiconductor
changes.4.
Classification of Photoelectric Transducers

The photoelectric transducers are classified into following ways.

Photoemissive Cell
The Photoemissive cell converts the photons into electric energy. It consists of the anode rod and the
cathode plate. The anode and cathode are coated with a Photoemissive material called caesium
antimony.

Fig 4.13 Photoemissive cell

When the radiation of light falls on cathode plates the electrons start flowing from anode to cathode.
Both the anode and the cathode are sealed in a closed, opaque evacuated tube. When the radiation
of light falls on the sealed tube, the electrons start emitting from the cathode and move towards the
anode.
The anode is kept to the positive potential. Thus, the photoelectric current starts flowing through the
anode. The magnitude of the current is directly proportional to the intensity of light passing through it.

Photoconductive Cell
The photoconductive cell converts the light energy into an electric current. It uses semiconductor
material like cadmium selenide, Ge, Se, as a photo sensing element.

Fig
4.14

When the beam of light falls on the semiconductor material, their conductivity increases and the
material works like a closed switch. The current starts flowing into the material and deflects the
pointer of the meter.

Photodiode

The photodiode is a semiconductor material which converts the light into the current. The electrons of
the semiconductor material start moving when the photodiode absorbs the light energy. The response
time of the photodiode is very less. It is designed for working in reverse bias.
 Fig
4.15

Phototransistor
The phototransistor is a device that converts light energy into electric energy. It produces both the
current and voltage.

Fig
4.16

The photovoltaic cell is a bipolar device which is made of semiconductor material. The semiconductor
material is enclosed in an opaque container in which the light easily reaches the photosensitive
element. The element absorbs light, and the current starts flowing from base to emitter of the device.
This current is converted into voltages.

Piezo-Electric Transducer

The Piezoelectric transducer is an electroacoustic transducer used for conversion of pressure or

mechanical stress into an alternating electrical force. It is used for measuring the physical quantity like
force, pressure, stress, etc., which is directly not possible to measure.

Piezoelectric Effect
The piezoelectric transducer uses the piezoelectric material which has a special property, i.e. the
material induces voltage when the pressure or stress applied to it. The effect is changeable, i.e. if the
varying potential applies to a piezoelectric transducer, it will change the dimension of the material or
deform it. This effect is known as the piezoelectric effect.

The material which shows such property is known as the electro-resistive element.. Quartz is the
example of the natural piezoelectric crystals, whereas the Rochelle salts, ammonium dehydration,
phosphate, lithium sulphate, dipotassium tartrate are the examples of the man made crystals. The
ceramic material is also used for piezoelectric transducers.

The ceramic material does not have the piezoelectric property. The property is developed on it by
special polarizing treatment. The ceramic material has several advantages. It is available in different
shapes and sizes. The material has the capability of working at low voltages, and also it can operate
at the temperature more than 3000ºC

Theory of Piezo-Electric Transducer

Fig 4.17 Piezoelectric transducer

The polarity of the charge depends on the direction of the applied forces.

Where, d – charge sensitivity of the crystals

F – applied force in Newton

The force changes the thickness of the crystals.

Where A – area of crystals in meter
squaret – the thickness of crystals in
meter
E – Young’s modulus N/m2
where ω – width of crystals in
meterl – the length of crystals in
meter
On substituting the value of force in the equation of charge, we get

The output voltage is obtained because of the electrode charges.

The g is the voltage sensitivity of the crystals.

Where E0 – electric field strength, V/m

The voltage sensitivity of the crystals is expressed by the ratio of the electric field intensity and
pressure.
When the mechanical deformation occurs in the crystals, it generates charges. And this charge
develops the voltages across the electrodes.
The Piezoelectric crystal is direction sensitive. The polarity of the voltage depends on the direction of
the force which is either tensile or compressive. The magnitude and the polarity of the charges
depend on the magnitude and the direction of the applied force.
Modes of Operation of Piezo-Electric Crystal

Piezoelectric crystals are used in many modes like thickness shear, face shear, thickness expansion,
Transverse
expansion, etc. The figure of the fear shear is shown in the figure below.

Fig 4.18 piezoelectric modes

Properties of Piezoelectric-Crystal
The following are the properties of the Piezoelectric Crystals.

1. The piezoelectric material has high stability.

2. It is available in various shapes and sizes.
3. The piezoelectric material has output insensitive to temperature and humidity.

Uses of Piezoelectric Crystal

The following are the uses of the Piezoelectric transducers.
1. The piezoelectric material has high stability and hence it is used for stabilizing the
electronic oscillator.
2. The ultrasonic generators use the piezoelectric material. This generator is used in
SONAR for underwater detection and in industrial apparatus for cleaning.
3. It is used in microphones and speakers for converting the electric signal into sound.
4. The piezoelectric material is used in electric lighter.

EDDY CURRENT TRANSDUCER

These inductive transducers work on the principle that if a conducting plate is placed near a coil
carrying alternating current, eddy currents are, produced in the conducting plate. The conducting plate
acts as a short-circuited secondary winding of a transformer.

The eddy currents flowing in the plate produce a magnetic field of their own which acts against the
magnetic field produced by the coil. This results in reduction of flux and thus the inductance of the coil
is reduced. The nearer is the plate to the coil, the higher are the eddy currents and thus higher is the
reduction in the inductance of the coil. Thus the inductance of the coil alters with variation of distance
between the plate and the coil.

A number of arrangements are possible and two arrangements are shown in Fig. 25.86. The plate
may be at right angle to the axis of the coil. The displacement of the plate causes a change in the
inductance of the coil. In the other arrangement a conducting sleeve runs in parallel and coaxially
over a coil.

If the short-circuited sleeve is away from the coil, the inductance of the coil is high while if the sleeve
is covering the coil, its inductance is low. The change in inductance is a measure of displacement.

Fig 4.20 Eddy current transducer

 SMART TRANSDUCER

Introduction to semiconductor sensor, materials, scaling issues and

basics of micro fabrication.Smart sensors, Intelligent sensor,
UNIT V MemsSensor, Nano-sensors, SQUID Sensors,-Environmental Monitoring
sensors

Introduction to Smart Sensors/ Intelligent sensor

The term smart sensor was coined in the mid-1980s, and since then several devices have been
called smart sensors. The intelligence required by such devices is available from
microcontroller unit (MCU), digital signal processor (DSP), and application-specific
integrated circuit (ASIC) technologies developed by several semiconductor manufacturers.

Fig 5.1 General sensing system

Smart sensor is the integration of the transducer into applications in a networked

environment.

The expanding range of parameters that can be sensed using semiconductor technology is
part of the increasing interest in smart sensing. With micromachining, or chemical etching
techniques, mechanical structures have been produced in silicon that have greatly expanded
the number and types of measurements that can be made.
Fig 5.2 General control system

Smart sensing includes a portion of the controller's functions in the sensor portion of the
system. That means software will play an increasingly important role in smart sensors.

The power supply requirements for the electronics and the sensor represent an additional
consideration that is becoming more important as MCU voltages are decreased and more
sensors are used in battery power or portable applications.

Fig 5.3 smart sensor model

89
The smart sensor models developed by several sources have as many as six distinct elements
for analog sensors. As shown in Figure 1.5, in addition to the sensing element and its
associated amplification and signal conditioning, an A/D converter, memory of some type, and
logic(control) capability are included in the smart sensor.

Once the signal is in digital format, it can be communicated by several communication

protocols.Reducing the number of discrete elements in a smart sensor (or any system) is
desirable to reduce the number of components, form factor, interconnections, assembly
cost, and component cost as well.

The choices for how that integration occurs are often a function of the original expertise
of the integrator. For example, as shown in Figure 1.6, a sensor manufacturer that already
uses semiconductor, that is, bipolar or metal oxide semiconductor (MOS), technology for the
sensing element may expand the capability and increase the value (and intelligence) of the
sensing unit it produces by combining the signal conditioning in the same package or in a
sensor module.

Through integration, the signal conditioning can also be combined at the same time the
sensor is fabricated or manufactured.Conversely, an MCU manufacturer using a
complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process typically integrates memory, A/D,
and additional signal conditioning to reduce the number of components in the system.

The integration path can have a significant effect on the ultimate level of component
reduction.

90
Fig 5.4 Partitioning and integration

The input (demonstrated by a pressure sensor), computing (high-density CMOS [HCMOS]

microcontroller), and output side (power MOS) are all increasing the level of monolithic
integration. The choice of sensor technology, such as bipolar, can have a limiting effect on how
far the integration can progress.

For example, a bipolar sensor can increase integration level by adding signal conditioning and
progress to a monolithic level III sensor. Through package-level integration, a two-chip sensor
controller can be achieved by combining the sensor with an HCMOS microcontroller.

However, the highest level of monolithic integration, level V, will be realized only by pursuing
MOS-compatible sensing and power-control technologies.

91
 Semiconductor sensors
SEMICONDUCTOR SENSOR & MICRO FABRICATION

Micromachining is causing the reinvestigation of every aspect of physics, chemistry,

biology, and engineering.

Thermodynamics, mechanics, optics, fluidics, acoustics, magnetics, electromagnetics, wave,

kinetics, and nuclear forces, as well as medicine, robotics, displays, and instrumentation, are
being investigated in academic, national, and industrial research and development (R&D)
labs.

Micromachining technology is enabling the extension of semiconductor-based sensing

beyond temperature, magnetic, and optical effects to produce mechanical structures in silicon
and sense-mechanical phenomena.

Micromachining is, in the most common usage, a chemical etching

process for manufacturing three-dimensional microstructures that is consistent with
semiconductor processing techniques.

IC manufacturing processes used to make the microstructures include photolithography, thin-

film deposition, and chemical and plasma etching.

Bulk micromachining has been used to manufacture semiconductor pressure sensors since
the late 1970s.

Recently, newer techniques such as surface micromachining have been developed that
achieve even smaller structures. In addition, the processing techniques for surface
micromachining are more compatible with the CMOS processes used to manufacture integrated
circuits.

Silicon has many properties that make it ideal for mechanical structures.

As indicated in Table 2.1, it has a modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus) comparable to

steel and higher yield strength than steel or aluminum [1, 2].
92
93
 Silicon has essentially perfect elasticity, resulting in minimal mechanical hysteresis. (It is,
however, a brittle material and will crack when stressed beyond its elastic limits.)Also, silicons
electrical properties have made it the material of choice in most integrated circuits, providing
established manufacturing techniques for many aspects of micromachined sensors.

Micromachined semiconductor sensors take advantage of both the mechanical and

electrical properties of silicon, but products that fully exploit the combination of the
mechanical and electrical properties are still in their infancy.

The relative ease of accomplishing both bulk and surface micromachining has led to many
researchers investigating a variety of applications. Some of the areas being investigated will
lead to smarter sensors through higher levels of integration.

A key process associated with micromachining is the bonding of silicon to a silicon or

substrate material.

94
 MEMS
Microelectromechanical- sensors

EVOLUTION OF MEMS

The next ambitious goal is to fabricate monolithic or integrated chips that can not only sense
(with microsensors) but also actuate (with microactuators), that is, to create a
microsystem that encompasses the information-processing triptych.

The technology employed to make such a microsystem is commonly referred to as MST.

Working definition of the term MEMS

'MEMS are a device made from extremely small parts (i.e. micro parts).'
The reason for the relatively slow emergence of complete MEMS has been the complexity of
the manufacturing process.

Fig 5.5 Mems chip

95
Fig 5.6 MEMS technique

Microelectromechanical system (MEMS) materials may be classified into five main types:
metals, semiconductors, ceramics, polymers, and composites.

A large number of different microelectronic technologies exist today, and they are used for
making conventional microelectronic components, such as operational amplifiers, logic
gates, and microprocessors.

The part or full integration of standard microelectronics into a micro sensor or micro actuator
is also often required to enhance its functionality and, in doing so, make a so-called smart
micro transducer.

The degree of integration is a critical design issue; hence, designers should first
Consider the hybrid solutions that, once again, draw upon standard microelectronic process
and packaging technologies. Because of the complexity of the end product, the integration of
microelectronics into a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) device is an even more

96
difficult problem.

MEMS Fabrication Methods

MEMS fall into three general classifications; bulk micromachining, surface micromachining
and high-aspect-ratio micromachining (HARM), which includes technology such as LIGA (a
German acronym from Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung translated as lithography,
electroforming and molding).

MEMS fabrication, by comparison, uses high volume IC style batch processing that involves
the addition or subtraction of two dimensional layers on a substrate (usually silicon) based
on photolithography and chemical etching.

Photolithography
Photolithography is the photographic technique to transfer copies of a master pattern,
usually a circuit layout in IC applications, onto the surface of a substrate of some material
(usually a silicon wafer).

The substrate is covered with a thin film of some material, usually silicon dioxide (SiO2), in
the case of silicon wafers, on which a pattern of holes will be formed (Figure 17).

A thin layer of an organic polymer, which is sensitive to ultraviolet radiation, is then

deposited on the oxide layer; this is called a photoresist. A photomask, consisting of a glass
plate (transparent) coated with a chromium pattern (opaque), is then placed in contact with
the photoresist coated surface.

The wafer is exposed to the ultraviolet radiation transferring the pattern on the mask to the
photoresist which is then developed in a way very similar to the process used for developing
photographic films.

The radiation causes a chemical reaction in the exposed areas of the photoresist of
which there are two types; positive and negative. Positive photoresist is strengthened by
UV radiation whereas negative photoresists are weakened.

On developing, the rinsing solution removes either the exposed areas or the unexposed
97
 areasof photoresist leaving a pattern of bare and photoresist-coated oxides on the wafer
surface. The resulting photoresist pattern is either the positive or negative image of the
original pattern of the photomask.

Fig 5.7 Photolithography

Bulk Micromachining

Bulk micromachining is a process for making three-dimensional microstructures in which a

masked silicon wafer is etched in an orientation-dependent etching solution

Using micromachining technology, several wafers can be fabricated simultaneously andlot-

to-lot consistency is maintained by controlling a minimal number of parameters.

Key parameters in bulk micromachining include crystallographic orientation, etchant,

etchant concentration, semiconductor starting material, temperature, and time.
Photolithography techniques common in IC technology precisely define patterns for etching
both sides of silicon wafers.

98
Fig 5.8 Bulk micromachining

The crystallographic orientation, etchant, and semiconductor starting material are chosen by
design, leaving etchant concentration, temperature, and time as lot-to-lot control items.

Silicon ICs are typically fabricated (manufactured) using <100> or <111>silicon. In bulk
micromachining, an anisotropic (unidirectional) etchant, such as ethylene-diamine-
pyrocatechol (EDP), hydrazine (N2H4), tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH), or potassium
hydroxide (KOH), attacks the <100> plane of silicon.

The <100> plane is etched at a much faster rate than the <111> plane, typically 35 times

faster. N-type silicon is etched at a much faster rate (>50 times faster) than p+-type, so n-
type material is often used as the starting material.

The characteristic shape (preferential etching) of anisotropic etching of <100> silicon is shown
in the cross-section of Figure 2.1(a), which produces a 54.7-degree angle for the <100> silicon
[4, 5]. The top view of etching into the surface of the silicon appears as a pyramid-shaped pit.

Etch rates of 1.01.5 mm/minute occur in the <100> plane of silicon with etch temperatures of
115°C for common etchants such as EDP and KOH [6]. Isotropic etching, shown in Figure
2.1(b), has etch rates independent of the crystallographic orientation. Isotropic etching
allowsundercut and cantilever structures to be produced.

99
Surface Micromachining

The selective etching of multiple layers of deposited thin films, or surface micromachining,
allows movable microstructures to be fabricated on silicon wafers

With surface micromachining (shown in Figure 2.6), layers of structural material, typically
polysilicon, and a sacrificial material, such as silicon dioxide, are deposited and patterned.
The sacrificial material acts as an intermediate spacer layer and is etched away to
produce a freestanding structure.

Surface micromachining technology allows smaller and more complex structures with
multiple layers to be fabricated on a substrate. However, annealing or special deposition
process control is required to reduce stresses in the layers that can cause warping. In
contrast, bulk micromachining typically is stress free.

Fig 5.9 Surface micromachining

10
0
Packaging

Packaging of microsensors presents special problems as part of the sensor requires

environmental access while the rest may require protection from environmental conditions and
handling.

Although there is no generic package for a MEMS device, the package should:

• provide protection and be robust enough to withstand its operating environment •

allow for environmental access and connections to the physical domain (optical fibers, fluid feed
lines etc.)
• minimize electrical interference effects from inside and outside the device
• dissipate generated heat and withstand high operating temperatures (where necessary)
• minimize stress from external loading
• handle power from electrical connection leads without signal disruption.

Fig 5.10 MEMS packaging

10
Passivation and Encapsulation

In order to protect MEMS devices from external contamination as well as enable them to
dissipate generated heat, thin-film coatings can be deposited on the components.

In a process called passivation using plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD),
thin-film coatings of usually silicon dioxide or silicon nitride increase wear resistance and
electrical insulation.

Encapsulation is used to protect the sensor die against adverse influences from the
environment like contaminants, mechanical vibration and shock. Common encapsulants
are epoxies, silicones and polyurethanes. These materials need to adhere well to the
substrate, be crack free and minimize induced mechanical stress as well as stresses due to
mismatching of thermal expansion coefficients.

10
 NANOSENSORS

Nanosensors are similar to macro level sensors but have at least one dimension in nanoscale
and can be used to measure signals available at that scale.

Nanotechnology, with its rapid developments in recent years, has shown great potential in
almostall industries.

Various electronics industries have fueled these developments to satisfy their need for
miniaturization, and the nanosensor field has taken advantage of these advances for its own
development.

Since nanosensors can deal with signals produced at the nanoscale, the sample quantities
needed are quite small and detection is very rapid.

All of these qualities have helped the applications of various types of nanosensors in different
fields, especially in the medical and homeland security fields.

Since a variety of nanosensors are available today, classification can be somewhat difficult.
However, nanosensors can be classified based on two general factors: (1) structure and (2)
application.

Based on structure, nanosensors can be further classified into two groups:

Optical nanosensors: Optical nanosensors use the sensitivity of fluorescence for

qualitative and quantitative measurement.

Electrochemical nanosensors: This class of nanosensor mainly detects electronic or

chemical properties of a respective substance and transduces a signal.

Applications of nanosensors

Nanosensors are gradually assuming roles in almost every aspect of human life. A number of
sensors can detect the presence of hazardous materials or microorganisms in food, water,
and air.
10
10
These sensors are saving lives in different corners of the world. In the medical field
nanosensors are having a huge impact: for example, a variety of nanosensors are being used in
cancer detection, DNA and protein detection, and targeted drug delivery.

Deployable sensors have found applications in homeland security. Various chemical sensors
arenow added to unmanned aerial vehicles to detect the presence of poisonous gas on the
battlefield, to save the lives of soldiers. Various tagging systems employ RFID chips, which are
also an application of nanosensors.

Nanomaterials for nanosensors

For centuries the beauty of the 400 CE Lycurgus Cup and the strength and beauty of a
Damascus steel blade have amazed people, but it has been only decades since we
discovered thesecret behind these extraordinary ancient artifacts: nanomaterials.

Fig 5.11 Devices made from Nano materials

Nanomaterials are defined as those nanoparticles (NPs) that have at least one dimension in
nanometer scale and that exhibit some special property that is not available in the bulk
formof the same material.

Nanomaterials show extraordinary properties different from their bulk size because of their
nanoscale dimension. The surface-to-volume ratio of nanomaterials is very high, which
results in variations in chemical, mechanical, optical, and magnetic nature

10
To explore the properties and applications of nanomaterials properly, it is judicious to classify
them. However, several factors can be considered in classifying nanomaterials, such as
physical and chemical properties, manufacturing process, dimensionality, uniformity,
composition, and so forth

We classify nanomaterials into four classes based on their chemical composition: (1) carbon-
based, (2) organic-based, (3) inorganic-based, and (4) composite-based nanomaterials.

Nanosensors perform the same function, but on a much smaller scale (1-100 nm), capable of
sensing pathogens, viruses, molecules, or even a single chemical element.

The main advantages of nanosensors are the minute sample quantities required, speed,
portability, and low cost in mass production, among others.

Nanomanufacturing

Nanomanufacturing is the process of manufacturing nanomaterials or various structures in

nanoscale for different applications. This can be considered an updated version of
micromanufacturing/microfabrication in which the dimension at which the manufacturing is
done is several orders smaller.

Nanomanufacturing processes

The main drive behind the nanomanufacturing process is the ever-increasing hunger of the
electronics industry to obtain smaller sizes. Currently, a microchip that we can hold on our
fingertips can store gigabytes of data. To satiate this hunger, different types of
nanomanufacturing processes have been developed that can be classified into three

Top-down approach

In nanomanufacturing, a large block of material is taken and, by machining, the material is

removed little by little till the final shape is obtained. The top-down approach consists of two
steps: (1) nanolithography and (2) transfer of pattern.

10
In nanolithography, the desired pattern is created on a special type of sacrificial layer called a
resist. There are a number of nanolithography techniques, such as photolithography,
electronbeam lithography, X-ray lithography, soft lithography, and so forth. The basic idea
in every case is similar. First, a layer of resist is applied to the substrate. Then with the help of a
pattern the photoresist is exposed to an energy source: for example, photolithography
uses ultraviolet rays while electron beam lithography uses an electron beam.

Due to this exposure, the resist undergoes a chemical process and the chemical and
mechanical properties vary throughout the whole coating. Later, some part of the resist
(exposed or unexposed part) is removed, depending on the positive or negative resist, and a
pattern is created. Now the metal layer (SiO2 in Fig. 1.8) is ready for the etching process.
Afteretching the pattern created by the resist is removed mechanically or chemically. The
simplified process is graphically represented in Fig. 1.8.

Fig 5.12 Nano photolithography

10
 Bottom-up approach
In this approach, the final structure is developed by assembling or joining small
components, even molecules. Typically there are several bottom-up approaches, including
physical or chemical vapor deposition, contact printing, imprinting, assembly and
joining, and coating. The bottom up approach has high potential in healthcare and medical
applications. Carbon nanomaterials and carbon nanotubes can be used for a bottom-up
approach and a device that can work on an individual cell can be nanofabricated using this
approach

Molecular self-assembly

Molecular self-assembly is the newest approach, in which the components, especially

molecules, assemble themselves in the desired fashion to produce a nano object without
the direction of an outside force. This process involves different properties such as shape,
surfaceproperties, charge, polarizability, and magnetic dipole of the molecule to drive
them to assemble together to form a particular structure. This is still a growing field and
various developments are required before this approach is used in industry.

SQUID Sensors
Superconducting QUantum Interference Device (SQUIDs)

SQUIDs is one of the most sensitive detectors of magnetic flux and field known, with an
equivalent energy sensitivity that approaches the quantum limit.

Due to their unique properties, SQUID devices are widely used in several applications like
biomagnetism, magnetic microscopy, non-destructive evaluation, geophysics, quantum
information, nanoscience and in recent interesting basic physic experiments like the
detection of axion dark-matter, Hawking radiation, dynamical Casimir effect, Majorana
fermions,

10
Gravitational wave, Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect.

A SQUID sensor is basically a magnetic flux-voltage converter having an extremely low

magnetic flux noise.

The physical quantities (magnetic field, current, voltage, displacements, etc.) to be detected are
converted in a magnetic flux by using suitable flux transformer circuits.

The operation principle of a SQUID is based on the Josephson effect and the flux
quantization in a superconducting ring.

The device consists of a superconducting loop interrupted by two Josephson junctions. A

schematic diagram of SQUID is shown, the SQUID is kept in a magnetic field.

Fig 5.13 SQUID sensor

10
A DC super current I enter the device through port C, gets divided into two ports I 1 and I2. The
current I1 and I2 undergo a phase shift while crossing the Josephson junctions P and Q and
become I1' and I2' respectively. The super currents I1' and I2' interface at port D.
● In superconductors the current is caused by the Cooper pairs. So the interfering waves
arethe de Broglie waves of the Cooper pairs. The phase shifts of the waves occur due to
the applied magnetic field. In the absence of the magnetic field the phase shift and the
phase difference are zero.
● The resultant current at port D oscillates between maxima and minima. The maxima
occurs when the magnetic flux increases by one quantum given by

● In practice instead of the current the voltage V across the SQUID is measured.
Thevoltage also oscillates with the changing magnetic field.
● Thus the SQUID is a flux-to-voltage transducer which converts a small change in
magnetic flux into voltage.
● Because of their extreme sensitivity to magnetic fields SQUIDS have application in many
fields like geology, medicine, engineering, etc.

Fig 5.14 Characteristics between current and magnetic flux

10
Fig 5.15 Squid voltage Vs magnetic flux

Environmental Monitoring sensors (Water Quality & Air Pollution)

Air Quality Monitoring System

There are many options for the types of air quality information that can be collected, and the
costof air quality monitoring systems can vary by orders of magnitude.

Only with a thorough understanding of the decisions that must be made based on the
information received from the air quality monitoring system can an appropriate selection be
made. Regardless of the type of instruments used to measure air quality, the data are only as
good as they are representative of the sampling site selected.

See Table 8.5a for a list of air quality and meteorological parameters and their measurement
ranges, accuracy, and method of analysis.

10
The simplest air quality monitors are static sensors, which are exposed for a given length of
time and are later analyzed in the laboratory.

In some cases, these devices provided all the information required. More commonly, a system
of automatic instruments measuring several different air quality parameters will be used.

With more than a few instruments, the signals from these instruments can be retained on
magnetic tape rather than on recorder charts. The most common errors in the design of air
quality monitoring systems are poor site location and the acquisition of more data than
necessary to accomplish the purpose of the installation.

Impact of Single Sources

Some air quality monitoring systems are operated to determine the impact of a single source or
a concentrated group of sources of emission on the surrounding area. In this case, it is
important to determine the background level, the maximum ground-level concentration in the

11
area, and the geographical extent of the air pollutant impact of the source.

When the source is isolated, such as a single industrial plant in a rural area, the design is
straightforward. Utilizing meteorological records, which are normally available from nearby
airports or from government meteorological reporting stations, a wind rose can be prepared to
estimate the direction of principal drift of the air pollutant from the source.

Dispersion calculations can be performed to estimate the location of the expected point of
maximum ground-level concentration. As a rule of thumb, with stacks between about 50 and
350ft tall, this point of maximum concentration will be approximately 10 stack heights downwind.
The air quality monitoring system should include at least one sensor at the point of expected
maximum ground-level concentration.

Additional sensors should be placed not less than 100 stack heights upwind (prevailing) to
provide a background reading, and at least two or three sensors should be placed between
100and 200 stack heights downwind to determine the extent of the travel of the pollutants from
the source in question.

Dust-Fall Jars

The simplest of all air quality monitoring devices is the dust-fall jar (Figure 8.5d). This device
measures the fallout rate of coarse particulate matter, generally above about 10 microns in
size.Dust-fall and odor are two of the major reasons for citizen complaints concerning air
pollution. Dust-fall is offensive because it builds up on porches, automobiles, and such, and it is
highly visible and gritty to walk upon.

Dust-fall seldom carries for distances in excess of mi because these large particles are subject
to strong gravitational effects. For this reason, dust-fall stations must be more closely spaced
than other air pollution sensors, if detailed study of an area is desired. The large size of the
particulate matter found in dust-fall jars makes it amenable to chemical analysis or to physical
analysis by such techniques as microscopy. These analyses can be useful to identify specific
sources.

11
11
Fig 5.16 Dust Fall jar

Automatic Analyzers

Microprocessor-controlled spectrometers are also available to measure the concentrations of a

variety of gases and vapors in ambient air. These units can be portable or permanently installed
and can serve compliance with environmental and occupational safety regulations.

The microprocessor selects the appropriate wavelengths for the components of interest, and the
filter wheel in the analyzer allows the selected wavelengths to pass through the ambient air
sample in the cell.

The microprocessor automatically adjusts the path length through the cell to give the required
sensitivity. Because of the folded path length design, the path length can be increased to 20
m(60 ft), and the resulting measurement sensitivity can be better than 1 ppm in many cases.

The memory capacity of the microprocessor is sufficient to accommodate another 10 user-

selected and user-calibrated gasses. Analysis time is minimized because the microprocessor
automatically sets the measurement wavelengths and parameters for any of the compounds in
its memory.

A general scan for contaminant in the atmosphere takes about 5 min, while the analysis of a
specific compound can be completed in just a few minutes. The portable units are battery
operated for 4hr of continuous operation and are approved for use in hazardous areas.

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Water Quality Monitoring

Water quality monitoring systems provide a means of measuring the condition of the water.
These systems range from single-parameter measurements to complex systems integrating
multiple sensors with data manipulation and recording capabilities and, in many cases, with
means for remote communications and data transfer.

The rapid growth of the human population and of industry has focused attention on the quality
and condition of our rivers, lakes, and drinking water supplies. Stringent laws have been passed
to limit the concentration of elements that are hazardous to health as well as to provide a
mechanism to monitor the general quality of the environment.

Categories of Monitors

Water quality monitors can be categorized by purpose as described below.

Monitoring for General Use These systems are usually permanent installations used primarily
for data collection for public information, notification, and similar purposes.

Regulatory Compliance Monitoring The purpose of these systems is to confirm compliance

with a particular regulation or water quality standard that was imposed by a regulating
agency,either on the local, state, or federal level. These packages are characterized by the
stringent requirements that are implemented in standardizing equipment and techniques as well
as implementing formal procedures for operation, calibration, and quality assurance monitoring.

Industrial Monitoring These systems serve a wide range of uses, including regulatory
compliance monitoring, incoming water quality monitoring, aqueous process reaction
monitoring, process leak detection monitoring, and biological/aeration pond monitoring. These
systems are often typified by the use of on-line instrumentation that, in some cases, is suitable
for operation in hazardous plant locations in addition to offering continuous operation with
minimal attention.

MONITORING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Regulatory agencies have conducted numerous studies to evaluate and determine the

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efficiencyof a variety of types of systems and technologies. These evaluations have resulted in
increasing the required quality and the number of suppliers and monitoring techniques that are
available. The reliability of such systems has also improved over the years, as has their
flexibility, which was required to meet unique demands of individual installations. A water quality
monitoring system usually consists of a sampling system, a group of sensors, and a data
transmission/logging section. For the package to function properly, these components must be
fully integrated and coordinated in their automatic operation.

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SENSORS AND ANALYZERS

A water quality analyzer may be as simple as a probe inserted into the water and connected to
a conveniently located recorder or as complex as a data collection system with multiple sensors
distributed in several locations and connected to a centralized data recording and compiling
system.

Conductivity Specific conductance or conductivity pro- vides an estimate of the total dissolved
ionized solids in water (Section 8.17). It is a nonspecific method of measurement, as it is
sensitive to all ions in the sample. Changes in the conductivity of the water are usually indicative
of a discharge or runoff of strong acids, bases, or other highly ionizable material. Instruments
aretypically capable of measuring from 0 to 1000 mS/cm. Conductance of water can vary widely
between various bodies and is highly temperature dependent.

pH Measurement pH is a measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a sample (Section 8.48).

It is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of the active hydrogen ions,
expressed in gram moles per liter. Typical pH values range from zero (high acidity) to 14 (high
alkalinity). A pH of 7 indicates a neutral solution. Rapid changes in pH can signal a discharge or
spill, because the pH of open bodies of water would normally change only gradually

Oxidation-Reduction Potential Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) is a measurement of the

oxidizing or reducing materials in the water (Section 8.41). It is an electrochemical
measurement of the potential developed by these materials when present in the water. Under
normal circumstances, a body of water will have both oxidizing and reducing components
in nearlyequal concentrations. A sudden discharge can therefore be detected by detecting the
changes in ORP. As are most others, ORP measurement is temperature dependent.

Oxygen Demand Detectors

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and total oxygen
demand (TOD) analyzers (Section 8.7) consist of a sampling and conditioning section that is
followed by the analyzer itself. Analysis typically involves quantifying the amount of oxygen
uptake by the sample.

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The dissolved oxygen concentration of the water is a function of the solubility of oxygen at a

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 particular temperature (Table 8.65g) and barometric pressure (Table 8.65h).

Dissolved oxygen (DO) content usually describes the condition of the receiving waters (Section
8.43), whereas BOD, COD, and TOD usually describe the pollutant concentration in the
discharged wastewaters.

Biochemical oxygen demand measurements provide information on the amount of oxygen

required for the biochemical degradation of the organic matter in the water. Biochemical oxygen
demand measurement is rather slow, because it requires a minimum five-day incubation period
for analysis.

Chemical oxygen demand measures the quantity of oxygen that organics and certain
oxidizable inorganic compounds that are present in the water will consume. In COD
measurements, the oxygen is obtained from the reduction of a dichromate solution. The amount
of oxygen required to oxidize the organics in the sample provides information on the COD
concentrations in the water.

Semiconductor Sensor – scaling issues

The batch-processing techniques used by semiconductor manufacturers are ideally suited for
making high-volume, low-cost sensors.

One limitation of batch-processed parts, however, is that certain parameters are not precisely
specified but only listed as typical on the manufacturers data sheet.

In many cases, meeting fixed limits on all parameters can drive costs up and offset the benefits
ofhigh-volume batch processing .

Use of typical specifications is not necessarily a drawback, however. Uniformity in each wafer
lot is a specific strength of semiconductor processing.Nevertheless, that factor must be
considered to avoid problems in volume production.

The term typical specification generally has several implications in the semiconductor industry.

represents the mean value for the manufacturing process. 11

Usually, it indicates a parameter that has been characterized during the design phase and

represents the mean value for the manufacturing process. 11

Certain manufacturers also add that a ±3 sigma value is the total spread that users can expect
on typical specified parameters. That spread cannot be assumed, however, because typical
means that limits are not normally attached to the manufacturers quality assurance program.
In many cases, typical is used to indicate that the measurement process contributes more to
theinaccuracy of the reading than to the actual variation from unit to unit.

That practice shows why users must evaluate the parameter specified as typical. Pressure
hysteresis in silicon diaphragms, for example, is essentially nonexistent and should not
causegreat concern if specified as typical.

On the other hand, the variation over temperature of span and offset compensation could
besignificant and requires further investigation if listed as a typical specification.
Many parameters on sensor data sheets are specified as the plus-or-minus percentage of full-
scale(output or span).

The effect of temperature on offset and span (and sensitivity) is one of the most critical
andfrequently most troublesome aspects of using semiconductor pressure sensors.

Products that have no temperature compensation can be used with little effort for a narrow
temperature range, such as 25°C ± 15°C or less, and accuracy requirements of a few
percentagepoints.

Certain sensors, such as Motorola’s MPX family, can be temperature compensated to 13%
accuracy over a 085°C temperature range without exercising the sensor over temperature. Ease
of compensating for temperature is an important factor in evaluating a pressure sensor.
To accurately compare various products, similar units must be used. Full-scale value
(F.S.), temperature range, and actual limits (specified as +or-minus percentage points
F.S.,
plus-or-minus millivolts, or plus-or-minus percentage points F.S. per degree Celsius) can
varyfrom one manufacturer to another.

The conversion of those units to millivolts per degree Celsius can provide a good

with 40-mV output and ±1% F.S. variation over 085°C, has a maximum window of 9.4
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comparison.For example, a calibrated pressure sensor, such as Motorola’s MPX2000 family

with 40-mV output and ±1% F.S. variation over 085°C, has a maximum window of 9.4
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mV/°C.

That type of specification can indicate improved performance over reduced temperature spans.
However, a user must know actual curve shapes within the temperature compensation window
tohave confidence in that value.

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