1 s2.0 S2238785423002399 Main

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Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt
Review Article
A comprehensive review on surface

post-treatments for freeform surfaces of
bio-implants
Abdul Wahab Hashmi a, Harlal Singh Mali a, Anoj Meena a,

Kuldeep K. Saxena b,*, Shadab Ahmad c, Manoj Kumar Agrawal d,
Binnur Sagbas e, Ana Pilar Valerga Puerta f,**, Muhammad Ijaz Khan g
a
Advanced Manufacturing and Mechatronics Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Malaviya National
Institute of Technology, Jaipur, 302017, India
b
Division of Research and Development, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Jalandhar, India
c
School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, 255000, China
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, UP, 281406, India
e
Yildiz Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Department, 34349, Besiktas Istanbul, Turkiye
f
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Design, University of Cadiz, Cadiz, Spain
g
Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
article info abstract
Article history: Surface finish is an essential factor in determining product sustainability and functionality.
Received 5 November 2022 Most methods have been developed that can be utilized to manufacture optical, mechanical,
Accepted 2 February 2023 and electrical devices with a micrometer or submicrometric precision, nanoscale surface
Available online 14 February 2023 roughness, and practically no surface flaws. Finishing technologies are classified into two types:
those that use magnetic force and those that do not. These techniques provide flexible finishing
Keywords: tools that may be used efficiently for complicated freeform components. Due to limitations in
Freeform surfaces finishing tool movement over the complex freeform geometry of the components, traditional
Biomedical implants finishing methods perform relatively badly when finishing sophisticated freeform surfaces.
Surface modifications The life and function of the implant are determined by the surface conditions of biomedical
Advanced finishing processes components, such as heart valves, dental crowns, knee, elbow, and hip joints. Implants are
Chemical surface post-treatments often made of polymers, metals, ceramics, skin, bone, other human tissues, and other mate-
Thermal surface post-treatments rials. Non-traditional finishing methods using loose abrasives offer greater finishing accuracy,
and coating based surface post- uniformity, performance, and cost-effectiveness. Using abrasive-based finishing technologies
treatments like abrasive flow machining, magnetic abrasive finishing, magnetorheological fluid-based
finishing, elastic emission machining, heat treatment, surface coating, and laser surface pro-
cessing, etc., this article critically reviews the published research on fine finishing of freeform
surfaces, i.e., biomedical implants, to improve their functionality and surface quality.
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K.K. Saxena), [email protected] (A.P. Valerga Puerta).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.02.007
2238-7854/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 4 8 6 6 e4 9 0 8 4867
roughness, the polishing and coating of the implants, like hip

1. Introduction and knee implants, is done to increase their performance and
life. Generally, the implants are made from metals, ceramics,
Biomedical implants are the artificially manufactured devices plastics, fiber-reinforced, and alumina. Surface finishing in-
made-up for the implantation inside the body to substitute or volves the alteration of the surface to make it smooth. Among
hold up a specific biological structure, along with carrying different methods of finishing, the abrasive-based method is
drugs and surveilling body functions. These implants could the non-conventional way of surface finishing providing
persist in the body temporarily or permanently. Nowadays, increased performance, precision, and strength of the im-
these implants are used as subcutaneous implants, retinal plants [4,5]. The conventional methods of surface finishing
implants, stents, vascular grafts, pacemakers, dental im- have restrictions over surface curvature, shapes, control over
plants, and structural implants, including knee and hip re- forces applied, and provide insufficient polishing of the parts
placements [1]. The materials used to make these implants [6]. So, the “abrasive based method” is the method to provide
must have some specific chemical and physical properties like sufficient polishing, surface finishing, and stable implant
corrosion resistance, controlled degradation of implant, and materials [7]. The abrasive-based methods have provided
evading immunological responses [2]. Additionally, these greater precision regarding quality, reliability, and perfor-
implants must provide appropriate surface topography, which mance of a variety of materials for surface finishing. This
would help to support the adhesion of cells and allow the method has effectively polished different biomedical compo-
bioactive molecules’ release [3]. The sculptured surfaces with nents, including dental crowns [8,9], knee joints [10e14],
different curvatures of the bioimplants are difficult to pro- elbow joints [15,16], hip joints [17,18], heart valves made up of
duce, especially at the level of nanoscale finishing. The sur- either metals or ceramics or plastics, etc. The conventional
face determines the life and performance of the implants, so it methods that do not provide the implants' efficient surface
is necessary to reduce this roughness. To reduce the finishing include mechanical finishing, electrolyte finishing,
Fig. 1 e Classification of bio-implant for human body [23].

4868 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 4 8 6 6 e4 9 0 8
grinding, chemical-based finishing, or ultrasonic finishing. finishing techniques and their hybrid variets, thermal based
Relatively, the abrasive-based method of finishing includes surface modification techniques i.e., heat treatments, laser
magnetic abrasive finishing, fluid-based finishing, abrasive based surface processing, chemical based surface modification
flow machining, and magnetorheological-based finishing [19]. techniques i.e., chemical finishing techniques, chemo-
The free form surfaces of some bioimplants, such as knee mechanical polishing, and coating based technique etc.
joints or hip joints, require ultra-precision for their appro-
priate functional requirements. The free form surfaces are
those surfaces that do not have an axis of rotation and could 2. Material aspects of bio-implants
not be expressed by a “single mathematical equation” [20].
These implants require nano-level surface finishing with There have been significant advancements made in the un-
great precision, which is not possible using conventional derstanding of how important material selection is to the
processes of finishing. So, the advanced methods, usually the long-term effectiveness of implants in biomedical applica-
abrasive-based methods, are required for the appropriate tions. The following criteria must be satisfied by accepted
surface finishing with increased precision of the implants [21]. biomaterials: Biocompatibility I When choosing an implant
Surface roughness disturbs the surface structures, for material, biocompatibility is always the most important factor
example, resistance and friction, and hence is a critical indi- to take into account. To prevent inflammatory or allergic re-
cator to assess the finished surface quality. Through analytical sponses from occurring after implantation, the materials
methods, it is highly challenging to minimise the surface must not be hazardous to humans. (ii) Resistance to corrosion
roughness because of their unpredictability. There is a need and wear. Implant durability is mostly influenced by material
for further techniques to identify the best machining settings corrosion and wear. According to a paper by [27], the corrosion
and predict the roughness of finished surfaces since the sug- and wear of implanted materials may cause sensitive re-
gested theoretical models cannot account for the wide variety actions in the body and perhaps increase the likelihood of
of finishing conditions [22]. The scope of bio-implant for local tumour development [28]. Additionally, after a lengthy
human body [23] are shown in Fig. 1. service, the corroded and worn implants would malfunction
Among the listed bio-implants for human body, the [29]. The selection of bio-materials are depends on the
following bi-implants i.e., knee prosthesis; dental implants; different aspects of material properties and design require-
interbody fusion cage; acetabular cup; and hip prosthesis, ment of implant, as shown in Fig. 2.
cranial prosthesis, surgical guide, scapula prosthesis can be Biomaterials often have significant demands on corrosion
fabricated using additive manufacturing technique [24]. Table and wear resistance because the more complex chemical and
1 represents the applications of different materials to make physical conditions in the human body have the potential to
bio-implants of different types. increase the corrosion and wear of implant materials in
The present paper reviews various established surface practical applications. Mechanical characteristics (iii). Artifi-
modification techniques intended to enhance the surface cial hip and knee joints and other skeletal bone implants are
condition of freeform surfaces i.e., bio-implants. This review intended to support the patient's body weight [31]. Thus, to
paper is divided into four sections: introduction to freeform reduce fatigue failure after millions of cycles of stress, bio-
surfaces i.e., bio-implants, applications of bio-implants, ma- materials must have the appropriate mechanical character-
terials aspect of bio-implants, manufacturing aspects of bio- istics. Economic manufacturing is (iv). From an industrial
implants, surface post-treatments of bio-implants and con- standpoint, the production procedures must be commercially
clusions containing directions towards future scope. Current feasible. Biomaterials like metallic alloys, ceramics, and
technologies are explored in-depth, keeping in view their polymers have been utilised or are being researched to meet
future advances and potential applications. This review of the aforementioned requirements. The materials aspects of
literature presents the important evidence of the several bio-implants including metals and polymer based materials
abrasive-based finishing methods for polishing biomedical are shown in Fig. 3 [32].
implants regarding functionality and surface quality and the The required material properties aspects for surface
methods to improve the surface finishing using abrasive-based modification of biomaterials for particular biomedical appli-
processes i. e, abrasive flow machining, magnetic bases cations are mechanical properties, corrosion behavior and
Table 1 e Applications of different materials to make bioimplants [25,26].

Sr. No. Material Application Properties
1 Titanium and its alloys Knee and hip replacements, bone plates, and Biocompatible, flexible, expensive, corrosion-
bone screws resistant
2 SS316L (stainless steel) Bone plates, bone screws Biocompatible, cheaper, stress shielding
3 CoeCr alloy Fracture fixation devices, knee, and hip Biocompatible, stress shielding
prostheses
4 Magnesium and alloys Mesh cage for long bones, scaffold for Biodegradable, biocompatible, higher
regeneration of bones strength
5 Polymers Acetabular cups, joint replacements Flexible, low cost, low strength
6 Ceramics (alumina, zirconia) joint replacement prostheses, femoral heads, Biocompatibility, bioinert, bioresorbable,
ball heads, hip replacements higher fracture toughness
Fig. 2 e Required material properties for selecting the for bio-implant material [30].
biocompatibility. The sections below provide a comprehen- ultimate tensile strength and fracture toughness [41]. How-
sive assessment of the most common biomaterials. ever, the mechanical working environments within a live or-
ganism are very different from those of the outside world. In
2.1. Stainless steel reality, because stainless steel's fatigue strength is rather low,
implants made of this material frequently sustain fatigue
Stainless steel, which was initially found in the early 1990s damage [42e44]. As a result, short-term implant devices
has a minimum of 10.5% (mass fraction) chromium and currently make up the majority of uses for stainless steel.
various proportions of other elements. It immediately gained
notoriety for its simplicity in production and low price. It has 2.2. Cobalt-based alloy
been extensively employed in several fields over the past
century, including the manufacture of medical tools, food Hip arthroplasty was the first biomedical application of a
processing equipment, and automobile decorations. The cobalt-based alloy, which was described in 1936 [45]. The next
longest track record for usage as a biomaterial belongs to 10 years saw a major expansion of its orthopaedics medical
stainless steel [26,33]. The austenitic 316 L stainless steel is the uses and outstanding results [41]. Biomedical Co-based alloys
only kind among the several grades in the stainless steel are normally divided into two types based on their composi-
family to be utilised for bioimplant applications. This partic- tion. One is the CoeCreMo alloy, which has 5%e7% Mo and
ular type of stainless steel is used since it is less costly and 27%e30% Cr. With lifetime expectations already exceeding 20
does not exhibit ferromagnetism. This grade has high tough- years, this material is increasingly being used as structural
ness, even at cryogenic temperatures, thanks to the austenitic components in long-term bioimplants [41,46]. Another form of
structure. The cytotoxicity assessment requirements state cobalt alloy is CoeNieCreMo, which consists of Ni (33%e37%,
that 316 L stainless steels have a relatively high level of Cr (19%e21%), and Mo (9%e11%). Compared to CoeCreMo, it
biocompatibility [34e38]. In biological orthopaedics, stainless was used in the biomedical area later. It was primarily
steel was initially used in the 1930s by Wiles [39,40], who wrought before being used to create high load-bearing joints,
completed the total hip replacement. including the stems of prosthetics [46,47].
Because stainless steel's mechanical characteristics may In bulk form, cobalt alloys have outstanding biocompati-
be variedly regulated, it is possible to create items with the bility, which is directly connected to their adequate corrosion
ductility and strength for medical applications. Such a quality resistance [41,48]. Cobalt alloys are particularly resistant to
is particularly appealing in the production of bioimplants. In corrosion even in situations with high levels of chloride, ac-
comparison to human bones, stainless steel has generally cording to several studies. These properties are thought to be
significantly stronger elastic modules [38]. The material can caused by passive oxide layers that spontaneously grew on
withstand heavy loads and can go through enough plastic the alloy surface. In corrosive settings, the layers act as bar-
deformation before failing because to its comparatively high riers and prevent corrosion [47,49e51]. X-ray photoelectron
Fig. 3 e Metal v/s polymer based materials for bio-implants [32].
spectroscopy (XPS) research demonstrates that the high Cr when used in excess, they would be medically hazardous and
concentration is mostly responsible for the development of cause damage to the kidney, liver, lungs, and blood cells
oxide layers. Mo and Ni also had a similar, albeit minor, role. [52e54]. Therefore, a major problem for Coealloy biomaterials
The principal alloying components, such as Co, Cr, Mo, and Ni, is the release of particles or ions brought on by material
are all necessary trace elements for the human body, but deterioration and aseptic loosening [55].
2.3. Titanium-based alloy Although polymer biomaterials' mechanical property of low

elastic modulus aids in preventing the stress-shielding effect
Due to the combination of a number of exceptional qualities, after implantation, the comparatively low strength restricts
including low density, high strength, great biocompatibility, their potential use in hard tissues. Polymers are favoured for
and mechanical properties, titanium and its alloys are their adaptability since they can be made into a variety of
favourable biomaterials [46,56]. Since the 1970s, Ti-alloys have shapes to satisfy the requirements of diverse applications,
been increasingly popular in medical applications, and the including solids, fibres, films, and textiles. But for the same
trend toward using them as materials for bioimplants is ex- reason, the material's fragility results in an unacceptable wear
pected to continue. Tie6Ale4V, the most widely utilised sub- behavior [61]. To improve functioning prior to usage, surface
stance among all titanium-based products, accounts for modifications of polymer biomaterials are often developed
around 45% of total output [46,57]. It's interesting that [62].
Tie6Ale4V alloy was first developed for aerospace uses, but
that its desirable biocompatibility propelled it into the realm 2.5. Ceramics
of biomaterials [58,59]. The classification of metal based bio-
implant materials based on the density are shown in Fig. 4. Ceramics have been used as biomaterials since the 1970s [63].
Ceramic has special qualities including strong biocompati-
2.4. Polymer bility that make it a good material for replacing joints and
repairing bones [63e65]. Bioceramics are often divided into
Polymers are currently widely used in biomedical applications three varieties, namely bioinert ceramics, bioactive ceramics,
because of their low cost, good mechanical qualities, and and bioresorbable ceramics, based on the extent of reactivity
simplicity of manufacture. Acetabular cups are one common in a live organism [63,66]. In a human organism, bioinert ce-
way that polymer is utilised in bio-implantology. Stress con- ramics are essentially inert. This could be because the contact
centration is simple to happen at the interface between two between ceramic and bone often forms a thin, non-adherent
incongruent surfaces in incongruent joints, such as the knee fibrous layer [65]. Due to its exceptional endurance, this sort
and ankle, which damages the nearby bones. In the human of material is prized for use in joint replacement prostheses.
body, the presence of cartilage layers and synovial fluid is The term “bioactive ceramics” refers to substances with direct
crucial in reducing such heterogeneous loads. However, re- bone-bonding or osteoconductivity. Bioglass is a common
sidual stresses can have a considerable influence on artificial example of a bioactive ceramic [65,67,68]. This type of ceramic
joints constructed of fragile metallic materials and are chal- was frequently used in the covering of metal prosthesis
lenging to eliminate. As a result, scientists started to focus on because, after being implanted, they would naturally induce a
polymer materials. Charnley [60], using a small-diameter biological bonding to the neighbouring live tissues [62]. The
metallic femoral head articulating with a polymeric acetab- regenerated bones would eventually replace the third type of
ular cup, pioneered low-friction arthroplasty in the 1960s. materials, bioresorbable ceramic, which dissolves in the host
Such a concept attracted a lot of interest in the manufacture of body over time [65]. They offer improved control over the
artificial joints right away. This idea is still present in total processes of bone replacement and biomaterial resorption
joint replacement arthroplasty after all these years [58]. [69]. Typical bioresorbable ceramics include calcite and
Fig. 4 e Classification of metal based bio-implant materials based on density [23].

tricalcium phosphate [69,70]. The advantages and disadvan- creates the wrought product's ultimate form. This will result
tages aspects for selection of different materials i.e., metal, in the necessary mechanical characteristics [72]. The wrought
polymer, ceramics and composites for bio-impalnts are CoeNieCreMo alloys first appeared at the start of the twenty-
shown in Fig. 5. first century. They were now often utilised to create the stems
of prosthesis for load-bearing joints, such as the hip and knee,
because they demonstrated greater resilience to fatigue and
3. Manufacturing processes for bioimplants ultimate tensile strength for long-term applications [47].
The production of commercial CoeCreMo biocomponents
Recent decades have seen the development of several uses casting a lot [47,58]. Casting requires a quicker working
manufacturing processes for bioimplants. These methods can time than the wrought method. Previous research has shown
be divided into many stages. Prefabrication of forming and that both wrought and cast Co alloys have significant levels of
post-fabrication of surface finishing are the two main types. corrosion resistance and have comparable abrasive wear
Traditional forming techniques including casting, sintering, resistance [47]. However, the cast Co alloys had finer crystals
and compression moulding have undergone a sustained than the wrought products [74]. According to a report,
improvement to become appropriate for producing bio- wrought Tie 6Ale4V alloys had superior fracture propagation
implants with excellent characteristics and greater efficiency. resistance than casted ones, although they had lower ultimate
Modern bioimplant formation methods employ a variety of tensile strengths [72]. According to a research by Jovanovic
procedures that may be precisely controlled and hence adapt et al. [75], altering the cooling speeds and annealing temper-
to the unique design. Some of the common techniques for atures might enhance the hardness and tensile stress of cast
creating orthopaedic implants will be succinctly presented in titanium alloys. According to Lin et al. [76], the fundamental
the parts that follow. source of the fatigue fractures in Ti alloys was the existence of
casting-induced surface/subsurface pores.
3.1. Wrought and cast Cast and wrought both have clear drawbacks. From an
economic perspective, casting and wrought procedures are
Currently, the majority of commercial metallic orthopaedic linked to severe yield losses. Given their respective operating
joints are made from cast or wrought bar stock [58,71,72]. For efficiencies, both approaches need sophisticated post-
instance, wrought items make up around 70% of the market treatments and a lengthy product cycle. The most significant
for Ti and its alloys [73]. Several melt cycles throughout the difference is that wrought and cast metallic bioimplants have
wrought process can successfully eliminate hydrogen or other a substantially greater elastic modulus than live bones, which
volatiles, attaining high purity [73]. Thermomechanical are susceptible to the stress shielding effect after implantation
treating, or cold/hot working combined with heat treatment, [77]. Researchers tried to tackle the issues by adding a
Fig. 5 e Advantages and disadvantages aspects for selection of bio-materials [69].

significant number of linked pores to biomaterials [78]. It was outperformed 316 L stainless steels in terms of corrosion
discovered that the porous implants were successful in resistance. In contrast to 316 L stainless steel, Ti's corrosion
reducing the elastic modulus, which made it easier for them to resistance is actually improved by its increased porosity. This
fit the surrounding bones. Recent research initiatives are is because the supply of oxygen during passivation is aided by
gradually shifting toward creating fabrication methods that the big and linked pore shape. Ning and Zhou [87] used PM to
can create porous bodies of biomaterials. create biocomposites out of titanium and hydroxyapatite
powders. An alternate material for load-bearing implants is
3.2. Powder metallurgy made possible by the combination of Ti metal's good me-
chanical characteristics with HA's favourable bioactivity. For
One class of quick solidification procedures is powder metal- compared to other near net shape forming procedures,
lurgy (PM), which gives goods their fine microstructure and including precision casing and hot forging, powder metallurgy
isotropic mechanical characteristics [79]. The traditional PM has greater benefits when producing implants made of
method, sometimes referred to as the “pressing and sintering CoeCreMo. CoeCreMo alloys that are PM manufactured have
process,” typically involves three fundamental processes. much lower tested rigidities than those that are cast, which is
Specifically, mixing powders, packing them into a prepared advantageous for bone replacement techniques. It has been
mould, and the final sintering procedure [80]. The process discovered that adding calcium pyrophosphate to CoeCreMo
demonstrates that this method offers a workable strategy for alloy during the PM process is beneficial for increasing both
low-cost manufacturing by dramatically lowering yield losses. the alloy's compression strength and yield point values [88].
One of its most appealing qualities is really its capacity to Improving the quality of powders will help research in PM
generate net shapes almost entirely without creating trash. boost the uniformity of the sintered products. To do this, pre-
Meanwhile, the method allows for precise control over the alloyed powders were created using a variety of processes,
composite materials, which makes it possible to produce su- including mechanical alloying, inert gasatomization, hydrid-
perior mechanical qualities [81]. PM is being used to create ing, and pulverisation [89].
somewhat uniform structures in various disciplines, and it is However, it should be noted that there are still some
frequently seen of as a viable method for making bioimplants. problems with the current state of manufacturing orthopaedic
The ability of PM to generate combination tiny and large holes implants by PM, such as the size of the target components
in the implant body by altering processing variables including being constrained by the press capacity, the costs of com-
particle size, temperature, and pressure has attracted special pacting being relatively high, the need for pre-treatment in
interest in the field of biomedical engineering. From the order to prepare pre-alloyed powders, etc [81]. In order to
standpoint of biomedical implantology, the porous structure properly control the surface finish of biomedical implants that
would not only improve the surface area to enable a greater are produced using powder metallurgy, the following pro-
cell seeding effectiveness, but also reduce the elastic modulus duction techniques are often necessary.
of implant devices to prevent stress shielding effect [77,82]. As
a result, bone ingrowth following implantation is encouraged 3.3. Additive manufacturing
[83]. In comparison to wrought and casted goods, the PM-
produced bioimplants would undoubtedly achieve a superior The biological system of a human body is complex, and the
synergy between the implants and living surroundings. biomechanical characteristics of individual bones can differ
Due to its affordability and simplicity of fabrication, PM- significantly. In contrast to trabecular bone, the cortical
fabricated 316 L stainless steel is in increasing demand [81]. portion of dense bones, for instance, has an elastic modulus
Stainless steel with a porosity range of 40%e50% may be that varies from 16 GPa to 20 GPa. Thus, it is conceivable that
effectively produced by carefully managing the sintering there will be substantial biomechanical incompatibilities be-
variables such as environment, duration, and cooling rate. tween the newly implanted components with homogenous
Since the appropriate porosity for new bone ingrowth is be- characteristics and the nearby bones. Additionally, from a
tween 20% and 59%, the resultant porous structure is excellent therapeutic perspective, patients' biomechanical characteris-
for biological purposes. According to a research by Dewidar tics may differ greatly from one another. As a result, it is
et al. [84], the mechanical characteristics of porous 316 L important to create a manufacturing method as soon as
stainless steel manufactured by PM are compatible with possible that can provide precise structures for the damage or
human bones. However, the drawback of PM stainless steel is defect. AM technologies employ the Fused Deposition
that, as a result of the increased reaction area caused by the Modeling (FDM) process to build simple and complex three-
porosity, the corrosion resistance may be reduced [85,86]. It dimensional objects. By layer-by-layer thermoplastic mate-
has been explored if it is possible to compensate for the loss of rial deformation, it fabricates objects. The surface is unfin-
corrosion resistance by adding additional alloying elements to ished and rough [90,91]. The cross section and profile of the
stainless steel powders [81]. extruding filament are shown in the FDM machine setup di-
In the middle of the 1970s, powder metallurgy was first agram [92] are shown in Figs. 6 and 7 below.
used to titanium and its alloys. It was discovered that the PM Rapid prototyping (RP) technologies and additive
approach created fine-grained structures that improved fa- manufacturing (AM) are both collective names for fabrication
tigue characteristics while also assisting in the reduction of techniques built on the idea of laminate forming. Such tech-
manufacturing costs [81]. Seah et al. [85] investigated the nology has been the focus of fabrication research since it first
corrosion behaviour of titanium pieces made using powder appeared in the 1980s [93]. Prior to an AM process, specifically
metallurgy. Comparisons proved that porous titanium designed 3D structures were laminated to produce 2D slice
data. The creation of the desired things follows by adding arising during the additively manufactured bio-implants are
further layers of material. The AM technique creates 3D things shown in Fig. 11.
by continuously adding materials, in contrast to many con-
ventional manufacturing procedures that remove materials
from a stock. Recently, it has demonstrated tremendous po- 4. Post-processing techniques of bio-
tential for developing commercially tailored bioimplants. The implants
next part will discuss two types of AM procedures that may be
used to create orthopaedic implants. The classification of In the conventional methods, the multipoint or single-point
metal based AM processes which can be adopted for fabrica- cutting tools are used directly on the surface being finished
tion of bio-implants is shown in Fig. 8. or polished. These include: “robot-based finishing,” “rigid tool-
The processing steps for manufacturing of knee implant based finishing,” and “computer numerical control-based
and hip-implant specific components using selective laser finishing.” The conventional methods are more laborious
melting (SLM) and laser engineering net shaping (LENS) pro- and time-consuming as well as introduce residual strains on
cess respectively are shown in Figs. 9 and 10 below- the surface layers [21]. The cutting speed, feed, etc., are the
impacts that disturb the general machining properties and
3.3.1. The need for post-processing for the additively effectiveness of the tough-to-cut alloys or metals, especially
manufactured bio-implants titanium. For enhanced yield and common use in industries,
An AM-processed bio-implants is rarely ready for usage due to the proper selection of cutting and finishing parameters is
various surface defects i. e, surface casing/stair-stepping ef- essential. Because of enhanced usage of the finishing of im-
fect, powder adhesions, bailing effect, semi-welds, surface plants and existing problems by conventional machining,
pores, etc. Post-processing is required to make it such. These advanced processes are required to improve the machining
steps verify the part's shape, fit, and function. Design, pre- characteristics of alloys or metal-based implants [98].
processing software, and processing equipment affect post- Whereas machining of the implants requires complex
processing needs. Material removal, surface texture shapes that traditional approaches cannot properly finish,
improvement, aesthetic improvement, component separa- and also, the biocompatibility of the materials is spoiled.
tion, debinding and sintering, machining, surface finishing, Stainless steel and titanium implants often play a vital part in
nonthermal property enhancement, heat treatment, and bone replacement on the commercial market. But the tita-
quality assurance are all post-processing steps. The literature nium implant that is commercially available is an alloy of ti-
on these methods is outlined in the next part since it is crucial tanium, not pure titanium. The implant material could not
to improve the surface finish using appropriate surface quality tolerate bio-corrosion due to a lack of biocompatibility, which
improvement methods for AM additively made bio-implants eventually prevented the proliferation of human cells. Im-
to compete with well-established conventionally manufac- plants are frequently inserted into people, where they interact
tured bio-implants [17,90,95e97]. The various surface defects with fibroblasts and other living tissue. The proliferation of
the fibroblast cells is impacted by these implants' lack of
biocompatibility, which may potentially make the patient
allergic [99].
The process of finishing involves polishing, but it only in-
volves manual finishing of the outer cylindrical parts, and it is
not able to finish the internal cylinders or complex geomet-
rical shapes of the implants. Similarly, the finishing done by
the grinding method does not permit to go inside the deep
holes of the implants and could produce some marks on the
finished surface. The finishing done by the lapping process is
very slow and is not applicable to complex geometrical
structures of implants. The finishing done by the burnishing
method causes hardening of the finished surface, so not
applicable to the thin-walled surfaces [100]. All these limita-
tions of the conventional methods have made it compulsory
to develop advanced methods of finishing for the bioimplants.
The classification of surface post-treatments can be adopted
for improving the surface properties of conventional or addi-
tively manufactured bio-implants is shown in Fig. 12.
The length and quality of human life are significantly
increased by bioimplants. The Romans and Egyptians utilised
gold for dental work and wooden toe replacements more than
four millennia ago, which is when bio-implants first appeared
[103e107]. Knee arthroplasty, commonly known as knee
replacement, is a technique that allows an implant to replace
all or a portion of a human knee. Around 500,000 knee
Fig. 6 e Schematic of FDM machine setup [92]. replacement surgeries are recorded in the United States each
Fig. 7 e Extruding filament's cross-section and profile [92].
Fig. 8 e Metal based AM processes for fabrication of bio-implants [94].

Fig. 9 e Additive manufacturing steps for fabrication of knee implant component [24].
year [108,109], usually given to people between the ages of 50 artificially created components or implants during this surgical
and 80. The extraordinarily high proportion of prosthetic knees procedure to improve the patient's ability to move their knees
that are still functional even 20 years after surgery is one of the properly and to lessen the issues with disability and excruci-
key factors supporting the popularity of this type of surgery. Old ating pain brought on by human body joint illnesses, most
or damaged knee joint components will be replaced with commonly osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis.
Fig. 10 e Additive manufacturing steps for fabrication of hip-implant component [24].

Fig. 11 e Surface defects arising during the additively manufactured bio-implants [95].
Bio-implants are often produced using procedures like in- to optimise the FDM technique's various process parameters.
vestment casting or machining. These processes necessitate For a shorter construction time and greater compressive
the costly and time-consuming process of creating a mould. strength, the authors have tuned the layer thickness, build
However, machining and contemporary manufacturing orientation, infill density, and extrusion temperature [126].
techniques like Additive Manufacturing (AM) can also be Jiang et al. [127] replication of functionally graded materials in
employed to make patient-specific bioimplants when they are relevant structural production. They used laser cladding to
necessary, particularly when just a basic bio-implant is create a NieTieCu/CueAl functionally graded layer on MgeLi
needed. So, by employing AMmethods, these advanced alloy for their investigation. The issue of the impact of evap-
manufacturing processes, such as advanced machining and oration and dilution concerning Mg and Li elements on the
associated downsides, may be avoided (3-D printing) performance of coating was addressed by the construction of
[110e113]. In order to increase the functionality and useable the graded coating. Due to its fine-dispersed hard phases and
life of the machined components, surface machining is their uniform distribution throughout the material, which
thought to be a crucial necessity. However, obtaining the does not change significantly with changing deposition set-
greatest surface finishing has always been the fundamental tings, Rojacz et al. [128] reported extremely favourable per-
difficulty in the industrial sector. The majority of the time, formance of a complex-alloyed FeeCreNbeCeB alloy.
finishing techniques raise the cost of machining by 15%
throughout the course of a product's life [114,115]. 4.1. Conventional finishing methods
AFM has been utilised by Hashmi et al. [116] to enhance the
surface polish of FDM produced items. Coal ash, rice husk ash, Mass finishing refers to a process in which a large number of
waste polymer waste, and waste vegetable oil or EDM oil were parts are processed at the same time in a finishing operation,
used by the authors to define the various types of AFM media such as deburring, polishing, or cleaning. Mass finishing is
utilising environmentally friendly and sustainable materials often used to improve the surface finish or geometry of parts,
[117e121]. Similar to this, Hashmi et al. examined several and can be used on a variety of materials, including metals,
mathematical modelling and simulation methodologies for plastics, and ceramics. There are several types of mass fin-
abrasive-based finishing procedures that may be used for the ishing processes, including tumbling, vibratory finishing, and
post-processing of AM components [122,123]. centrifugal finishing.
For the goal of pre-planning the operation, Man- In tumbling, parts are placed in a rotating drum along with
madhachary et al. have calculated the manufacturing accu- abrasive media and a liquid compound, and are subjected to a
racy of the 3D printed medical model. The dimensional combination of tumbling and abrasive action to remove burrs
correctness of two different types of medical models that were and other surface imperfections. In vibratory finishing, parts
created using SLS and FDM methods was examined by the are placed in a vibrating bowl or tub along with abrasive media
authors. Dimensional errors of 6.03% and 8.33%, respectively, and a liquid compound, and are subjected to a combination of
have been recorded by the authors [124]. The present state of vibratory and abrasive action to remove burrs and other sur-
AM methods for the many applications, including the bio- face imperfections.
medical industry, has been expounded on by Prashar et al. In centrifugal finishing, parts are placed in a rotating drum
[125]. Particle swarm optimization has been used by Dey et al. along with abrasive media and a liquid compound, and are
Fig. 12 e Classification of surface post-treatments for improving the surface properties of conventional or additively
manufactured bio-implants [90,95e97,101,102].
subjected to a combination of centrifugal force and abrasive abrasive medium” is employed. It cycles the extrusion pres-
action to remove burrs and other surface imperfections. Mass sure while using the driving power to scrape the polished
finishing can be an efficient and cost-effective way to process surface. This media has good flow properties, enabling it to
large quantities of parts, and can be used in a variety of in- reach the tiny regions that the conventional finishing
dustries, including automotive, aerospace, and medical device methods could not do. As a result, high quality, high precision,
manufacturing. The conventional finishing techniques may and high-efficiency structures could be obtained. This tech-
employed for surface finishing of bioimplants are shown in nique is thought to be a sustainable solution with great po-
Fig. 13 below. tential and minimal maintenance costs, and it has the
advantage of increasing the final surface quality [130]. In a
4.2. Advanced finishing methods study, the AFF technique was used to polish the surface of
“AlSi10Mg aluminum alloy,” in which the hybrid abrasive
The classification of abrasive-based finishing methods for media was used made up of SiC (silicon carbide) made up of
improving the surface quality of conventional or additively silicon and carbon. Using the “abrasive flow machining”
manufactured bio-implants. The advanced methods for sur- approach, the alloy was polished while taking into consider-
face finishing usually involve the abrasive based methods, ation the impacts of process variables including surface
which are described below based on material removal and no roughness and residual stresses. The results of the study
material based techniques, as shown in Figs. 14 and 15. presented that the surface roughness was improved, and the
residual stresses due to the accumulation of powdered ma-
4.2.1. Abrasive flow finishing (AFF) terials were also removed. It was concluded that this tech-
It is one of the newest advanced finishing processes using nique offers effective finishing in improving the surface
“viscoelastic abrasive laden” to force out the surfaces to be probity of the parts having complex geometrical surfaces
finished. The AFF contains the components, including tooling, [131]. The principle of AFM is shown in Fig. 16.
parts of the machine, fixtures, specific abrasive types, the flow The particle size of the abrasive material utilized in the
machining composition of media, and process situations. abrasive flow machining influences the process of finishing. A
Polishing, deburring, and radiusing challenging-to-finish ma- study [132] presented the correlation between processing limit
terials are done with this technique. According to several and grain size. The relationship between the surface topog-
studies, a high-quality surface finish may be achieved raphy and different particle sizes was found to affect the
employing AFF techniques for a variety of geometrically processing mechanisms. The processing limit is resulted due
unique objects, such as knee joints, bolt head dies, turbine to the abrasive particles because they initiate to abolish the
blades, etc. [129]. The AFF process focuses on developing the surface of the material after eradicating a certain volume of
media used for polishing and the parameters that affect the microscopic roughness on the surface. Using large size abra-
performance. As a finishing tool, “semi-solid viscoelastic sive material takes less time to obtain the process limit, and
respectively. This new technology is expected to be an effec-

tive tool for finishing surfaces [133]. The soft AFF method can
polish the asymmetrical geometrical surfaces but possesses
low processing effectiveness. To overcome this issue, an
improved method was proposed which was based on turbu-
lent kinetic energy. The results show that the irregular flow
channel can improve the turbulence intensity, the particle
distribution is uniform, and the particle concentration near
the bottom wall increases. Finishing experiments verify that
the expected method can achieve better surface flatness and
can further improve efficacy [134].
The quality of surface finishing by abrasive flow machining
method depends on some important parameters, which
include: particle size of abrasive material, viscosity, flow rate f
media, temperature, extrusion pressure, density, and hard-
ness of particles, the concentration of the abrasive materials
and no of cycles. By optimizing all these parameters, the op-
timum results could be found. A study examined the optimi-
zation of these parameters using the Taguchi method, which
resulted that the optimum parameters being: “Number of
cycles ¼ 6, Extrusion pressure was 15 bars, and concentration
of abrasives was 100 gm’’ [135]. The magnetic AFM process
used in the industry got interested due to its superiority as
compared to other machining processes. MAFM is used to
Fig. 13 e Conventional finishing techniques. attain more material removal and high surface finishing,
especially for the complex, cylindrical and intricate shapes.
The process parameters include extrusion pressure, magnetic
using the small-sized particle of abrasive material helps to field, cycle numbers, the material of the work piece, mesh size
obtain a better processing effect. In a study, the viscosity of of abrasives, and abrasives concentration. The studies have
the abrasive material, the rotating speed of the tool, and the shown that the strength of the magnetic field has a main ef-
pressure of the flow field were investigated. The results show fect on the rate of material removal [136].
that the velocity and pressure of the flow field are highest in There are several “abrasive flow machining” hybrids that
the middle where the “separation distance” between the have been developed, such as novel techniques with high
material and the tool is the smallest. The optimised particle material removal rates, improved fixtures, and surface fin-
size of the abrasive used in this method was found to be ishes during finishing. Due of the low productivity of the
related to the minimum separation distance between the standard AFF method, a hybrid approach was created [137].
finishing material and the tool throughout the process. They Additionally, it has been shown that adding ground tyre rub-
reached the optimum rotational speed of the toolholder and ber (GTR) to media enhances AFF performance up to 50 phr,
the number of machining cycles was “19,200 r/min, 500 cycles” after which it decreases because greater GTR fractions have
Fig. 14 e Surface post-treatments for bio-implants based on “no material removal” processes [102].
Fig. 15 e Surface post-treatments for bio-implants based on “material removal” processes [102].
poor self-deforming properties and abrasive holding ability vibration may greatly reduce cavitation damage and increase
[138]. Similar to this, it has also been mentioned that AFM may finishing process efficiency and accuracy [146]. Another study
be a fantastic choice for providing these FDM produced com- proposed the “rotary ultrasonic-assisted abrasive flow finish-
ponents with a flawless surface before using them as tem- ing (RUA-AFF)” method to expand the AFF performance by
plates to create extrusion die inserts [139]. Choopani et al. providing ultrasonic vibrations together with rotary motion.
[140] reported the best surface finish of 48 nm with a percent The finishing process was performed on Al6061 to analyze the
improvement (% DRa) of 92.20% has been achieved after pro- capability of the proposed method. The results obtained pre-
cessing the workpiece with AFF process. Choopani et al. [140] sented that the maximum improvement of the finishing pro-
used AFF process or finishing of the microslots (width 450 mm) cess was attained by the higher ultrasonic vibrations
on surgical stainless steel workpiece that are fabricated by increasing the quality. With increased rotary speed and
electrical discharge micromachining (EDmM). The initial sur- increased ultrasonic frequency, the roughness of the surface
face roughness on the microslots wall is in the range of was decreased. Thus, the proposed method was more effi-
3.50 ± 0.10 mm. After AFF, the surface roughness is reduced to cient, providing high surface finishing quality [147]. Ultrasonic
192 nm with a 94.56% improvement in the surface roughness. assistance and magnetic field assistance with rotating effect
Hashmi et al. have used the AFF process to finish replica of were designed, manufactured, and employed together to
FDM printed pattern for bio-implants application using produce the ultrasonic-assisted magnetic abrasive flow
various natural resources based AFM media [119,120,141]. machining (UAMAFM) technique in a research by Dixit et al.
Singh et al. have investigated the nanofinishing of surgical [148] At the process parameters' optimised configuration, the
stainless steel tubes using AFF process. The authors have also highest MR of 26.62 mg and Ra of 54.42% were attained. The
validated the experimental results using finite element experimental results and the expected values of MR and% Ra
method. The authors have reported best results was that from generated statistical models were in agreement. When
48 nm with a percent improvement (% DRa) of 92.20% [142]. compared to traditional abrasive flow machining, ultrasonic-
Similarly authors have several experimental as well simula- assisted magnetic abrasive flow machining (UAMAFM) tech-
tion study for AFF of surgical stainless steel tubes [143e145]. nique exhibits improved finishing performance [149].
a. Ultrasonic assisted abrasive flow finishing b. Centrifugal force assisted AFF
An ultrasonic-assisted method for abrasive flow finishing In this method, tiny rods of different sizes are rotated at the
was anticipated based on the vibration effect called “ultra- center of the flowing medium, and the medium used for sur-
sonic-assisted soft abrasive flow” (UA-SAF). The study face finishing is low viscosity. The abrasive media is rotated by
discovered that by regulating the fluid's turbulent motion and the centrifugal force produced. As a result, the surface will be
pressure, ultrasonic vibrations aid to increase the kinetic en- exposed to more abrasive particles. Through the interaction of
ergy of the particles to accomplish anisotropic cutting. It in- the abrasive medium with the surface being polished, the
creases the probability that particles will touch the surface. It erosion process will remove material from the surface. The
was shown that using abrasive flow finishing with ultrasonic more active particles there are in the grinding medium, the
Fig. 16 e Principle of abrasive flow finishing [131].
better the material removal [150]. A significant impact force is speed, the abrasive medium's pressure energy is changed into
passed on the surface by the abrasive media particles during its kinetic energy. The polishing surface's protrusions are
the AFF process to improve the finishing of the surface. A struck by the abrasive particles. This procedure is performed
hybrid AFF technique called “thermal additive centrifugal multiple times to get the desired finishing [154]. The MAFM
abrasive flow machining process (TACAFM)” has just been method provides excellent control of the process by finishing
developed. This approach is distinctive in that it reduces both the complicated shaped components. The input variables
the force exerted via the abrasive medium particles and the required for this process include the concentration of abrasive
energy loss. The abrasive particles in this hybrid approach media, sizes of media particles, the force of cutting, extrusion
may easily remove “molten/semi-molten” material from the pressure, the direction of flow of media, viscosity of media,
surface being completed by the thermal spark mechanism. and density of the magnetic flux [155].
The study presented the results that material removal in this Among the unconventional machining methods, magnet-
method was nearly doubled in contrast to conventional AFM ically assisted abrasive flow machining (MAAFM) is capable of
procedure. The method's parameters were adjusted for the solving these issues. A magnetic abrasive polymeric medium
residuals in this process, and the “optimum residual was created in the early 2000s as a method for this process'
stress”dwhich reflects the compressive stress created on the deburring, polishing, and radiusing of difficult-to-reach sur-
surface as a result of the thermal effectdwas discovered to be faces, such as intricate configurations and edges/boundaries.
152.21 MPa [151]. Thermo additive centrifugal abrasive flow A wide range of sectors, including automotive, aircraft, pre-
machining (TACAFM), a novel hybrid AFM method, has been cision dies, pharmaceutical, and electronics, employ MAAFM.
studied and used spark energy to melt the surface material. Current developments in the MAAFM method and the kinds of
Duty cycle has been determined to have the most impact on magnetic abrasive particles (MAPs) employed are reviewed in
Scatter of surface roughness, contributing 17.5%, while cur- this article [156].
rent has the greatest impact on micro hardness, contributing
85.17% [152]. d. Magnetorheological Abrasive Flow Finishing (MRAFF)
c. Magnetically Assisted Abrasive Flow finishing The MRAFF is an innovative method of finishing surfaces
that are based on the hybrid process. Through the back-and-
The “Magnetically assisted Abrasive flow machining forth discharge of a “magnetorheological polishing” (MRP)
(MAFM)” is used for the super finishing of advanced materials fluid, which is a homogenous combination of magnetic abra-
like metals, ceramics, and alloys. In this method, the magnetic sive particles mixed in a base medium, the procedure takes
field is produced by using varied fixed field magnets [153]. The use of the concept of surface abrasion. In order to accomplish
magnetic abrasive media contains the magnetic particles some finishing procedures, the brush with entangled abrasive
together with the abrasive material. The surface to be finished particles runs through the limit channel created by the
is fixed between the cylinders of the finishing machine, and workpiece's surface and the tooling components [157]. In an
the magnetic abrasive media is passed over it. A “piston-cyl- experiment, the MRAFF technique was used to improve the
inder” mechanism delivers the proper pressure for the mag- surface finishing of stainless steel 316 L on a nanoscale. It was
netic abrasive to impact the workpiece surface. To attain high discovered that by using this technique, the work specimen's
polished using this method in which a mixture of “carbonyl

iron particles” and Al2O3 abrasive particles was used as mag-
netic abrasive particles. The result revealed that the main
contributions of the factors to enhance the surface finishing
include magnetized current, ratio between Al2O3 and mag-
netic particles, the rigidity of the workpiece, and rotating
speed of the tool [159]. This process has originated for nano-
finishing of materials with complex geometry and is used for
wide-ranging industrial objectives. The abrasion process oc-
curs only when the magnetic field is enforced on the work-
piece to be finished. The rheological activity of polishing
fluctuates with the change in the activities of the fluid used as
abrasive media. The use of” Bingham plastic fluid” for pol-
ishing shears in the neighboring area of the surface to be
finished improves material removal at a higher rate and
consequently influences the process of finishing [160]. The
mechanism of MRAFF is shown in Fig. 17.
Kumar et al. [162] studied gear profile polishing using
rotational magnetorheological abrasive flow finishing process
Fig. 17 e The mechanism of MRAFF [161]. and reported minimum surface roughness of 34.5 nm is ach-
ieved after finishing the steel gear. Kumar et al. [163]
attempted to improve external topography of freeform sur-
surface roughness was decreased and the material removal faces using Rotational-magnetorheological abrasive flow fin-
rate was raised. The most significant role depicted by the re- ishing (R-MRAFF) process. The schematic and process flow of
sults was due to the role of voltage in the electromagnet [158]. R-MRAFF for finishing of knee implant is shown in Figs. 18 and
In another experimental analysis, steel materials were 19. Similarly, the authors obtained surface roughness ranging
Fig. 18 e The schematic of R-MRAFF [163].

Fig. 19 e The process flow of R-MRAFF- Magnetic field distribution at (a) plane 1, (b) plane 2, (c) plane 3 on the knee joint
implant, (d) location of different planes (1e3) on knee joint implant ( e measurement points of surface roughness), F1 e face
1, F2 e face 2, F3 e face 3 and F4 e face 4 [163].
from 35 to 78 nm at various locations as compared to larger stage, then contributes to high precision finishing [166]. A
variation in Ra value. In another study, R-MRAFF process has novel abrasion-based finishing technique called the ECMAF
been used for surface finish of a knee joint [164]. process is utilised to create very hard surfaces with better
In contrast, magnetorheological fluid aided finishing surface finishing. With this technique, a soft layer created by
(MFAF) is a super-surface finishing method that produces a “electro-chemical dissolution” on the work specimen is
polished surface that resembles a mirror, which is necessary removed by the gentle finishing force of abrasive particles that
in a variety of industries, including biomedical implants, are smaller than one micron, and the material is disposed in
microchannels, optics, etc. To investigate the forces acting on the form of microchips without harming the surface [167].
the MFAF tool's magnetorheological fluid chain as it scans This distinct composite machining tool can simultaneously
along a trochoidal route, an analytical model has been created attain magnetic abrasive finishing and electrolytic procedures
[165]. to make the process more suitable. The results of an experi-
mental study of the EMAF method have shown that the sur-
4.2.2. Electrochemical magnetic abrasive finishing face roughness could be decreased to below “30 nm at the 4-
The “electrochemical magnetic abrasive finishing process” min in EMAF step”, and it can be further decreased to
EMAF comprises two different stages of finishing. EMAF is the “20 nm at the 10-min in MAF step” [168]. A hybrid process of
first stage, while MAF (Magnetic Abrasive Finishing) is the finishing called “Ultrasonic Assisted Electrochemical Mag-
second. The EMAF stage is when the surface of the work netic Abrasive Finishing” or UAEMAF could chiefly be used for
specimen is finished efficiently. The MAF step, the second hard machining surfaces. In this process, the current is
supplied between electrode and work specimen, due to which surface to be dependable with the direction of movement
an oxidation film is formed on the surface because of the [175].
chemical reaction. Then the magnetic abrasives are used to The elastic abrasives have the excessive ability of material
remove the oxide film and direction of magnetic abrasive deletion in the initial stages of the process, but when pro-
particles is altered with the assistance of ultrasonic vibra- cessing time increases, the rate of removal of material de-
tions. All of these processes occur at the same time in UEMAF creases. Similarly, the abrasive particles with larger sizes have
method [169]. The inert coatings produced in electrochemical a lower ability of removed. The combinations of factors, such
processes may easily polish the surfaces of metals. Addi- as particle size, cutting depth, and grinding speed, were the
tionally, friction between the surface of the workpiece and the focus of an experiment. According to the findings, the influ-
magnetic brush might remove these passive layers. As a ence of feed speed and particle size on roughness was quite
result, the ECMAF method's distinctive feature is the addition comparable to that of grinding tool speed. Cutting depth had
and removal of inert films from the work specimen surface the least amount of an effect [176].
[170]. Similarly, Kumar et al. have discussed the novel hybrid The development and performance assessment of the Ul-
magnetic finishing for namely “Chemomechanical magneto- trasonically assisted Electrochemical Magnetic Abrasive
rheological finishing” for finishing of freeform surfaces [171]. Machining (UAEMAM) technique for the machining of SS 316 L
were described by Kumar et al. [162]. A superior surface finish
4.2.3. Elastic abrasive finishing may be achieved by machining and polishing components
The word “Elastic Abrasives” applies to round-shaped abra- using the UAEMAM process, according to experimental data.
sive balls shaped particles that are described to be elastic and
flexible, and appropriate to use. These elastic abrasive spheres 4.2.4. Elastic emission machining
are enfolded inside the workpiece and recompensed back and One of the ultra-precision ways of polishing or finishing that
forth to get the required micro-cutting activity. Due to the makes use of soft abrasives is elastic emission machining
radial distortion of elastic beads, the abrasive particles are (EEM). The mechanical action of the abrasive materials and
invaded the work specimen. This method is recognized to be the friction effect produced by the polishing plate result in the
capable of giving fine finishing to rigid surfaces material development of a metamorphic layer on the surface during
without changing their geometric form [172]. the polishing process. Therefore, to get over this restriction,
Considering the benefits of elastic abrasion, a versatile type the EEM approach uses a moderate mechanical action to
tool for “internal bore finishing” with egocentric magnetic polish or finish surfaces [177]. Mechanical techniques are used
pads was used to grip elastic abrasive balls was introduced in in this procedure to remove material from the work speci-
research. The interaction of these magnetically gripped elastic men's surface at the atomic level while creating physically
abrasives on surfaces to be finished was simulated. The lower continuous surfaces that are completely mirrored. The pro-
penetration depth of fixed grains because of substantial cess of material removal in EEM exclusively depends on the
reduction in “elastic modulus” at the interaction edge by the interaction between the work piece surface and powdered
action of the elastomeric medium was illustrated. The results particles. The refined powdered particles are delivered to the
showed that with a meaningfully lower depth of cut due to the surface of the work specimen by running pure water. The
activity of controlled velocity of cutting, the elastic abrasive chemical reaction between the work specimen surface and
balls could effectively produce fine finishing without changing the particles causes the elimination of materials from the
the geometric form of the surface [173]. The elastic abrasive of surface of the work piece. Consequently, the atomic-order
an innovative type possessing the advantage of efficiently smoothness could be attained without geometrical damage
managing uniform distortion and contact pressure was [178]. The EEM method fascinates attention because of its
established. This process yields entire lamination of the sur- atomic material elimination and surface quality of very high
face, successful action on the curved surfaces, along with level. In this method, abrasive particles of very small size are
improvement of the processing effectiveness. It allows fine utilized under flow, and a roller and a blower generate the
finishing of the curved cavity of a rounded surface. These pressure. In the process, each of the abrasive particle elimi-
elastic abrasive compounds have consisted of silicone as the nates a peak in atomic size and helps to finish the surface
media material and modified microparticles of SiC as the [179]. EMM is crucial to the super-fine finishing of the freeform
strengthening element [174]. To retain the positional offset of surfaces because it is less susceptible to system vibration and
abrasive low during grinding and finishing and to decrease temperature changes. A “hydroplaning phenomena” is
surface damage, a soft elastic abrasive method was developed brought on by increased spindle speed or viscosity and is
on a microporous silica base. It was discovered that the directly proportional to how quickly the material is removed
modified, strengthened particles of silicone gel or SiC mix- off the surface. Fig. 20 illustrates the EEM concept [180].
tures contact the matrix through the edge phase. It was shown The EEM is a surface-finishing procedure used on ceramic
that the compression performance of abrasives had a conse- objects. When the piezoelectric transducer comes into touch
quence on the quality of the surface by the friction. Finishing with the liquid interface, it significantly affects the signal that
of the surface could be obtained if the grains of elastic abrasive is produced [181].
material are optimized and could significantly improve the
finishing of an uneven rough surface in the working process. 4.2.5. Magnetic abrasive finishing
When these abrasives work under compressive strain, the The “Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (MAF)” have fascinated
movement between matrix and abrasive grains will pres- much consideration as an unconventional nano-finishing
surize the changes of the micro convex shape on the work technology in attaining high-quality finished surfaces of
Fig. 20 e The principle of EEM [180].
superalloys, ceramics, and composites. The MAF method is Because of the “edge effect” of the magnetic field and the
defined as a material removal technique where the workpiece rotatory motion of the magnetic brush, the consistency and
is moved in relation to magnetic abrasive grains in the pres- smoothness of the fabricated surface are imperfect. Con-
ence of a magnetic field in the finishing region, performing the cerning their additional improvement and accuracy of surface
machining accuracy of the workpiece [182]. To achieve the finishing, the uniformity and smoothness of the surface are
sophisticated micro surface finishing, the MAF method was enhanced by altering the form of the magnetic poles and the
proposed using an alternating magnetic field in a study. To path of the magnetic brush. Through simulation experiments
produce the alternating magnetic field, the coil was provided of the magnetic field, it has been verified that the groove at the
with an alternating current. The magnetic cluster fluctuated base of the magnetic pole assists in making the uniform
up and down with the fluctuation of current providing the dissemination of magnetic particles in the processing region,
alternating magnetic field. The results of this experiment have which can successfully improve the quality of the surface.
shown that the finishing with ultra-precision could be Furthermore, altering the path of the magnetic brush through
attained for alloys or metals with improved surface roughness experiments could also efficiently enhance the surface
[183]. In another study, the finishing of alumina ceramics smoothness of the finished surface [187].
surface was carried out by MAF using an alternating magnetic According to one study, the Ra was reduced by 89.3%
field; since the excessive hardness of alumina ceramic, a when the processing clearance was 1 mm, the magnetic pole
larger finishing force was required. The findings of the study speed was 800 r/min, the finishing time was 40 min, and the
included: with the increase in magnetic particles diameter, steel grit (SG) diameter was 1 mm. The Ra might then be
the finishing force is increased, and hence, the finishing effi- lowered to 0.95 m by switching to 0.6 mm SGs to complete the
ciency and material removal were increased, and the surface secondary polishing while keeping all other process param-
roughness was improved from “244.6 nm Ra to 106.3 nm Ra” eters constant. The outcome may offer a useful research
[184]. In the MAF process, a novel magnetic finishing media in concept for cleaning the inside cavity of objects with unusual
a semi-solid state was introduced and developed in an shapes [188]. In contrast to hand-buffed surfaces, the MAF
experiment, and a finishing setup was developed for outer and method removes major asperities while producing micro
inner rotary surfaces. The mathematical model for the ratio of asperities by micro-cutting abrasive squeezed by magnetic
material removal was built, and the coefficient of the antici- particles that almost adhere to the surface. The method of-
pated model was calculated. The results indicated that with fers surface smoothing on the nanoscale scale with impor-
the increase in mesh number of abrasive grains and rotational tant surface lay control (such as crosshatch angle), changing
speed of the magnetic field poles, the proportion of material the contact angle of water by a combination of magnetic
removal increased and the surface roughness was decreased particle kinematic behaviour across the freeform condyle
[185]. Fig. 21 represents the mechanism of MAF. surface [189].
Fig. 21 e Process of Magnetic abrasive finishing [186].
The alternate method for machining implant joints is a hemispherical shape at the tip of the revolving tool due to
magnetic-abrasive machining (MAM). MAM has a favourable the magnetic field produced by the electromagnet. The mag-
effect on the cobalt-chromium alloy workpiece's spherical netic flux density is closer at the tool tip and farther away
surface integrity. Roughness is reduced by more than 50% from the workpiece surface despite the fact that the tool tip is
compared to the initial turned surface, while compressive closer to the electromagnet than the workpiece surface,
residual stresses are enhanced by more than 10% [189]. creating a density gradient. The abrasive is pushed towards
the workpiece surface by the magnetic particles as they
4.2.6. Magnetorheological finishing migrate towards the tool tip [191]. Due to its inherent softness
Magnetorheological finishing (MF) is a distinctive, adaptable and reactivity, copper makes it challenging to polish its sur-
finishing technology due to the benefits of very low normal face at the nanoscale using even the most cutting-edge fin-
force and minor cuts produced by abrasive particles during ishing techniques. The study effort examined the challenges
machining, which can accomplish very high-quality undam- of employing copper ball ends for MR finishing and produced a
aged surface [190]. A novel finishing technique called “Ball End fluid morphology that was appropriate for copper finishing.
Magnetorheological Finishing” employs a magnetron polish- The magnetic flux density distribution between the workpiece
ing fluid ball at the edge of a spinning machine to polish and the tool tip surface is improved in this novel technique by
workpieces of various forms and materials. In this method, using two magnetic poles that are in opposition to one
abrasive particles, carbonyl iron particles, and a grease- or oil- another. Utilizing statistical models, the impacts of fluid
based carrier medium make up the polishing solution. When composition characteristics were examined. Results after
pressurised fluid is produced from a hole in the tool at the tool 30 min of nanopolished surface indicate extremely few
tip, the electromagnet is triggered. The polishing liquid forms scratches [192]. Studies have revealed the more useful MRF
the magnetic field, the magnetic particles are attracted

downward, and a floating force is applied to all non-magnetic
substances to force them upward. The floating magnetic force
drifts the work specimen, abrasive grains, and acrylic recip-
ient. In this way, the damage-free surfaces could be processed
[180]. A study based on the MFP method gave rise to the pol-
ished ceramic balls without damaging the surface and highly
refined surface roughness with less than 4 nm. Though, the
costly magnetic fluid, together with the intricate apparatus
setup, restricts its prospective industrial applications [198].
4.2.8. Fiber flow finishing (FFF)

The fiber flow finishing (FFF) process is first developed for
polishing hip prostheses. Using the FFF method, the femoral
head's surface polish was increased by 72.54%. The femoral
head surface underwent some sort of surface alteration during
the FFF procedure. Future improvements to the surface
integrity of industrial items using the FFF method look prom-
ise [140]. The Design of fixture, mechanisma and process flow
Fig. 22 e Mechanism of MRF process [195]. of FFF process to finish femoral head of hip implant as shown
in Figs. 23 and 24. In the AFF process, finishing was done in
three steps using SiC abrasive with mesh counts 240 (for
process for surface finishing with improved efficacy and roughing), 600 (for finishing), and 1000 (for nano-finishing).
enhanced the surface quality of the ultimate products with a This shows that FFF outperformed AFF. Fig. 25(aef) compares
decreased cost. Also, the “rotating core-based MRF method the CNC turning, AFF process, and FFF process results in sur-
originated for finishing the cylinder-shaped work specimen's face morphology and ocular observations.
exterior surface, which is more effective than the turning type
MRF method [193]. By using an MR polishing fluid, the MRF
process has the potential to create ultra-fine surfaces on 5. Surface modification using thermal
planar and three-dimensional objects. It is a cutting-edge fluid energy
that, when exposed to a magnetic field, may transform from a
liquid state to a semi-solid one. The roughness of the surface The thermal based surface post-treatments of bio-implants
being polished and completed is improved by choosing a are discussed below-
suitable MRF fluid composition [194]. Fig. 22 depicts the
schematic mechanism of the MRF process. 5.1. Heat treatment
4.2.7. Magnetic Float Polishing Heat treatment of parts is a method of removing the surface
“Float Polishing (FP)” is a non-interactive polishing technique defects and is a cost-effective process. It converts the amor-
in which a thin layer of fluid is managed between the working phous surface layers to the smooth crystalline forms, which
sample and the precision stage by the action of hydrodynamic could improve the biocompatibility of the biomedical im-
pressure, and it is believed to reliably produce atomically plants [103]. A study examined the modification of Tie6Ale4V
smooth surfaces or no subsurface damage [196]. A novel alloy surfaces prepared by SLM and subjected to different
technique for polishing and finishing is the MFP. The surface finishing treatments like chemical, thermal, thermo-
“magneto-hydrodynamic behaviour” of magnetic fluid serves chemical, and acid treatments. A sub-micron porosity was
as the foundation for this process's basic operation. The op- generated in the sample, which was the result of high-
tical lenses are the most crucial parts polished using this temperature treatment, and the residual stresses were also
technique since they need a high level of polishing and the reduced, consequently enhancing the bioactivity [199]. A
least amount of roughness. This technique makes it feasible novel method of heat treatment was proposed in a study for
to polish such materials up to nanometre scales, which could the globalization of Tie6Ale4V parts manufactured by the
not be satisfied by traditional methods. Quantity of abrasives SLM technique. The repeated heating and cooling of the
mixture in the magnetic fluid, size of abrasives particles, structures resulted in bimodal microstructure with improved
processing time, and spindle speed were studied in the mechanical properties, including increased toughness,
research. After examining and optimizing the parameters, the ductility, and compressive strength [200]. In a study, the ef-
results obtained showed that roughness of 14 nm was ob- fects of parameters of DMLS and different temperature heat
tained by increasing the number of abrasives in the mixture treatments on Tie6Ale4V parts and their mechanical prop-
and spindle speed [197]. In the MFP method, a set of perma- erties were determined. It was found that the heat treatment
nent magnets are organized under an acrylic recipient, which caused the decrease in parameters of tensile strength and
is occupied with abrasive particles and magnetic fluid. This yield strength and a concurrent increase of young's modulus
magnetic fluid is a colloidal distribution of enormously fine and elongation. Moreover, 850 C temperature for heat treat-
ferromagnetic constituents of 10e15 nm size. While enforcing ment caused the homogenization of the microstructure, and
Fig. 23 e Design of fixture for FFF process to finish femoral head of hip-implant [140].
the anisotropy was eradicated [201]. Alkali-heat treatment is structures after tantalum coatings [202]. A study focusing on
one of the effective technologies used for surface treatments the importance of heat treatments of Ti10V2Fe3A alloy was
to improve the bioactivity of biomedical structures. A study by carried out, and various temperatures and times of heat
Lin et al. performed tantalum coating on Tie6Ale4V struc- treatment were assessed. It was found that varying the tem-
tures, and alkali heat treatment was performed. The results perature and time of the heat treatment procedure for the
demonstrated that alkali-heat treatment carried out with the workpiece structures having different morphologies, and
correct NaOH concentrations could generate a considerable volume fractions were achieved [203]. Kang et al. carried out
enhancement of the biocompatibility and bioactivity of heat treatment of Mge6Zn-1.2Y-0.8 Nd alloy to optimize its
Fig. 24 e Process flow of FFF technique to finish femoral head of hip-implant [140].
biocompatibility and mechanical properties for biomedical high ductility. Increased annealing temperatures attain
applications. It was found that the extrusion procedure before different heat treatments for relieving residual stresses. It
heat treatment produced inadequate recrystallization of the decreases the ultimate tensile strength and significantly in-
structure, and a mixed grain structure was obtained, including creases the ductile behavior [205]. Many researchers have
the elongated grains and small grains. After extrusion, the identified that heat treatment mainly done at 600e750 C of
heat treatment encouraged the recrystallization and normal- temperature during annealing for 2 h gives favorable results.
ized the grain structures with equal and similar structures. However, it was founded on different studies performed on
The results have shown that ductility and strength of the alloy wrought Tie6Ale4V alloy that annealing close to b-transit
were enhanced after extrusion, but subsequent heat treat- generates microstructure conversions with the most
ment caused a decrease in the strength and improved improved mechanical properties [206,207]. The impacts of
ductility. In conclusion, combining the hot extrusion with different surface finishing techniques were evaluated in a
heat treatment might help to improve the mechanical prop- study including heat treatments and hot isolating pressing of
erties and biocompatibilities of the MgeZneY-Nd alloy, Tie6Ale4V. it was found that different surface finishing
making it valuable for the potential applications of this com- methods such as sandblasting, grinding, turning, and polish-
pound in the biomedical field [204]. The technique of heat ing reduce the surface roughness and ultimately improving
treatment is used for the removal of residual stress and has the fatigue performance but ductility is improved by heat
been suggested by various researchers, and the preferable treatments or hot isolating pressing ultimately increasing the
heat treatment is annealing. The annealing helps to attain fatigue limits [208].
Fig. 25 e Actual images and SEM images of the femoral head (a and b) after the CNC turning (c and d) after the AFF process,
and (e and f) after the FFF process [140].
5.2. Laser treatments parameters were optimized to attain the most significant results.
It was found that 80% of the reduction in the roughness of the
Many laser-based surface post-treatments have been developed, surface was obtained [213]. A study examined the effects of ul-
which improve the mechanical properties of surfaces by trasonic vibration-assisted laser treatment on surfaces of
decreasing the roughness and making them smooth to be used Tie6Ale4V alloy. It was found that the laser melted surface
for biomedical applications. Many studies have been carried out showed better wettability mainly because of the improvement in
using laser treatments and in turn, enhancing the surface surface roughness and modifications of microstructures. It also
properties [209,210]. The metal surface is exposed to a laser beam resulted in reduced friction coefficient and wear rate [214]. The
during the laser polishing (LP) process. Through this process, development of LP has offered a fast manufacturing and cost-
molten metal is created, rearranges, and finally solidifies, effective solution for structures manufactured by FDM for
smoothing out the surface. In other words, changes in the patient-specific standards and implants. It was found in an
microstructure lead to changes in the mechanical properties of investigation that the ability to use laser scanning without
the structure [211]. The surface modifications by laser are a contact could improve the quality of the surface. The 68%
renowned process for enhancing the surface characteristics and reduction of surface roughness was obtained when 3 W of laser
improving the material surfaces by decreasing the roughness of power, the scanning speed of 150 mm/s, and the line gap of 0.025
the surface, improving wettability, and increasing the hardness. were used [215]. Shallow surface melting (SSM), which is the
This method has the ability to change multiple characteristics of remelting of deep layers using a laser with a level of surface
a surface together using multiple parameters [212]. In a study, roughness less than or equal to that of the surface, is the
the surface modifications of the Tie6Ale4V samples were per- essential working principle of LP. By adjusting the energy density
formed using CO2 laser polishing. Different processing of the laser beam directed at the surface remelting layer, SSM
reduces the roughness of metal surfaces [216]. LP is an extremely characteristics. The mechanical characteristics of the phase
valuable, fully automated, and contactless method of post- were discovered to have improved and the grains to have been
processing that provides favorable results by reducing the sur- greatly purified [223]. TiC/IN625 nanocomposites were examined
face irregularities of 3D imprinted metallic parts. In LP, when the using LSP to change their surface characteristics. The findings
structures are exposed to laser radiation, crests of the surface are demonstrate that LSP enhances surface hardness of the struc-
melted and converted into a very thin layer. LP has displayed its tures while inducing strong oxidation resistance at very high
capability to polish a range of objects from aluminum to high- temperatures [224]. A study performed the laser surface melting
strength structures made of Inconel or Titanium alloys [217]. was carried out on implants made of Mg-2.2Zn alloy. The results
The LP of Tie6Ale4V was performed in a study to enhance the showed that very fine cellular microstructural features were
surface finishing of the components. The results of this study obtained after this treatment by increasing the corrosion pro-
have shown that the laser beam could remove the masses of tection and microstructural homogeneity thus improving the
metallic blobs neatly and help restore the bumps and holes overall corrosion performance of the structure [225]. A pulsed
present on the surface, resulting in a smooth surface having laser remelting method was used on Tie6Ale4V surfaces by
nanocomposites. These findings indicated that applying LP im- applying a long-pulsed laser to produce micro-elements with
proves the morphology of surface to promote the fatigue per- different feature sizes. The resulting surfaces displayed
formance. These results offer a base of information for enhanced corrosion resistance demonstrating the use of this
improvement of surface roughness of the implants and provides method to manufacture orthopaedic implants made of
a way for improved biocompatibility ad mechanical behaviour Tie6Ale4V with enhanced bio functionalities [226]. Picosecond
[218]. “Laser shock peening (LSP),” a sophisticated technology laser texturing was performed on an implant surface made of
used to polish additively generated objects, is another surface titanium alloy which improved the surface characteristics and
finishing technique involving laser processing. The unusual ac- biocompatibility of the implants primarily by modifying the
tion of LSPs in extending the fatigue life of structures is well morphology ad microstructure of materials. The animal studies
known. As additive printing technologies are yet unable to pro- and the cell culture experiments revealed that the titanium alloy
duce totally pore-free structures, this approach also has the implants with improved grooves displays the enhanced cell
benefit of sealing up surface pores [219]. Wavelength, laser in- adhesion and cell proliferation [227]. A study analysed the effects
tensity, pulse width, transparent coverage overlap, and sacrifi- of surface treatment by using high-power laser irradiation on
cial coating are significant LSP characteristics [220]. In a study, dental implants made up of titanium and its alloys. It was shown
the LSP was used on an implant made of AZ31B magnesium alloy that laser treatment promoted changes on the surface and me-
to improve its mechanical properties. It was found that the yield chanical properties depending on the parameters and the con-
strength and hardness of the implant were increased, and the ditions used. The laser treatment enhanced the wetting capacity
fatigue performance and wear resistance of Mg alloy were and improved the adherence of coatings. However, the opti-
improved significantly. Additionally, the LSP-treated samples mized results require the optimization of the specific parameters
showed better cellular compatibility as compared to untreated with specific protocols [228]. The mechanism of laser treatment
samples [221]. A study showed the use of LSP together with the is shown in Fig. 26.
SLM technique for the preparation and post-treatment of 316 L
steel. Applying the LSP after SLM of parts presented promising
results by increasing the fatigue life and improving residual 6. Surface modification using chemical
stresses hence providing the benefits of using both the methods process
combined for improvement of the structures used in biomedical
applications [222]. LSP also examined the (Tie6Ale4V) titanium The benefit of chemical finishing techniques is that they may
alloy to assess the impact on its microstructure and mechanical be used to operate on any surface, even interior components
Fig. 26 e Mechanism of laser treatment [229].

of complicated surfaces, without the need of any tools [90]. 6.1. Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP)
One research looked into nitinol-based bone fixation plates
that had been polished chemically. Unmelted powder parti- The Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) method was
cles are removed from the porous surface of the PBF method- created as an alternate method for processing non-smooth
made plates using HF/HNO3. In order to remove unmelted surfaces of bioimplants, for example, for the cylindrical-
powder from complicated constructions with complex- threaded surfaces of dental implants to modify the surface
shaped 3D components while keeping mechanical stability, properties. The advantage of CMP is to lower the organic and
chemical polishing for post-processing has been proven to be inorganic contamination on the bioimplants surfaces, which
advantageous [230]. The process of chemical post-treatment has to come in contact with the environment of the human
was performed in a study on Tie6Ale4V lattice structures, body [239]. A study focusing on the combination of ultra-
which are used as a substitute for bone implants. This method nanocrystalline diamond coating and CMP was carried out.
successfully removed the partially melted powder on the The combination of the coating with the CMP for the treat-
surface and inside the interconnected networks of lattice, ment of metal surfaces offered an innovative method to create
together with decreasing the stair-stepping effect. It was better metallic bioimplants. CMP process stimulated a
found that the morphological properties were even all over consistent and dense titanium oxide layer, and the coating
the surface, indicating the sufficient penetration of the facilitated a higher resistance to corrosion. The ultimate
chemical [231]. A study looked at how chemical polishing product was examined to have enhanced corrosion potential
affected titanium scaffolds made using the SLM process. The and improved hydrophobicity, suggesting improved biocom-
unmelted powder was removed from the surface using an HF/ patibility and offering the foundation for better dental Im-
HNO3 solution. Differentiation was shown not to be nega- plants [240]. The impacts of the pre-treatment of the surface of
tively impacted by chemical treatment. Cell proliferation and titanium were assessed in a study by chemical, mechanical,
migration of the osteoblast cells were increased two-fold after and electropolishing methods. It was found that treatment of
chemical post treatment, thus producing better structures the stressed surface caused a decline in residual stress, and
with consistent struts and superior resolution [232]. A study surface hardness was improved. A small passivation layer
characterized the properties of chemically treated Ti-xZr al- comprised of TiO, TiO2, and Ti2O3 oxides provided the sur-
loys for use as dental implants. It was found that chemical faces with high resistance to corrosion after CMP and elec-
treatment improved the corrosion and resistance ability of the trochemical etching [241]. Chemical Vapor Smoothing is an
oxide layer. It was revealed that TieZr alloys exhibited normal innovative post-processing method that has been used to
cell attachment and slightly altered cell morphology after improve the properties of the surface and provides dimen-
treatment. Hence, the addition of Zr and treatment of the sional accuracy to surfaces of the biomedical implants. It was
surface changed the biological, electrochemical, and me- found that the chemical vapor smoothing method coupled
chanical properties of the surface of Ti material [233]. Chem- with the Fused Filament Fabrication process could provide the
ical etching is the method that involves the use of chemical improved structures of biomedical implants when performed
reagents on the surface to remove materials from it and pro- under statistically controlled optimized conditions [242].
vides expected texturing to it [234]. In a research, several
factors were examined while chemical etching was employed 6.2. Electropolishing
to lessen surface roughness. The findings indicate that the
surface roughness and wettability have improved, with the The electropolishing of the additively manufactured bio-
material characteristics and surface roughness being the most implants has been reported in many studies [243,244]. It is also
important variables [235]. In a study, the chemical and plasma known as electrochemical polishing. It is a finishing method
etching of the NiTi wires was carried out together with that eliminates the material from any alloy or metal-based
Tantalum coatings. After plasma and chemical etching, the upon the process of anodic dissolution. Materials are
results showed that the samples exhibited significantly good removed from the workpiece's surface using an ion-by-ion
texturing and yielded more elongated grains [236]. A study removal method [245]. Electropolishing could considerably
was performed to design and fabricate the biodegradable lower the stress of the surfaces, and this method is not
Magnesium-Based Helical Stents by using the photochemical restricted by the shape of the structures being finished [246].
etching process. It was found that the corrosion rate Lopez-Ruiz et al. [247] evaluated the electropolishing process
decreased significantly after the surface treatment of the he- for the post-treatments of the 316 L stainless steel surfaces,
lical stent via proper chemical etching in inorganic solutions. which were short peened previously, and the voltage in elec-
It was revealed that all surface modifications effectively pre- tropolishing was varied to obtain the smooth and clean sur-
vented metal corrosion when analyzed in vitro [237]. A faces without disturbing the mechanical properties. It was
method of chemical surface treatment was designed to found that when the voltage of 5 V and 7 V was applied, the
generate an oxide layer on the titanium and its alloys to give electropolishing method was most efficient. Similarly, Kityk
them a distinctive sponge-like nanotextured and a high con- et al. studied the surface improvements by electrochemical
centration of hydroxyl group in a study on the orthopaedic polishing of biomedical implant made of Ti-based alloy using
dental implants. It was shown that after treatment, the Ethaline solvent. It was confirmed that the elimination of
nanotextured surfaces effectively supported the proliferation, surface defects and surface smoothness with the decrease in
extracellular matrix, and adhesion of the osteoblast's pro- surface roughness were obtained after treatment, suggesting
genitors, and thus providing them a good biocompatibility electropolishing in eutectic solvent for the processing and
[238]. finishing of different biomedical products [248]. Arifvianto
et al. treated a medical category plate made of 316 L stainless 10s, and 1 cm of electrode gap [253]. According to a study,
steel with electropolishing and mechanical attrition treat- when post-processing of 316 L stainless steel was performed
ment (MAT) to obtain a smooth and hard surface. The findings using different finishing techniques such as sandblasting, and
of this study demonstrated that the MAT improved the sur- abrasive polishing, different surface deficiencies and debris
face hardness but could not generate a smooth surface which were introduced on the surface which were eliminated by
is necessary for such an osteosynthesis plate. To obtain a using electropolishing after all those procedures, and a sig-
smooth surface, electropolishing was done after the MAT nificant reduction of the residual particles on the surface was
process. As a result, the hydrophobicity of the surface was obtained [254]. The effects of electropolishing on the corrosion
also improved. This result suggested the use of electro- resistance of 55Nie45Ti alloy were examined in a study using
polishing after MAT to make a smooth as well as hard surface sulfuric acid and ethylene glycol solution. It was found that
of stainless steel [249]. Nitinol is often used to make vascular the corrosion resistance was enhanced after electropolishing
stents for use in surgery implants. The electropolishing treatment as compared to the unpolished samples [255], as
treatment was performed on it in sulfuric acid which provided shown in Fig. 27 (see Fig. 28).
the beneficial results [243]. Urlea et al. studied the optimiza-
tion of current density for electropolishing of Tie6Ale4V. it
was found that despite of the huge range of roughness of 7. Surface modification using coating
surfaces, after treatment all the differently-orientated sur-
faces showed the uniform roughness from 1 to 3 mm and were Biomaterials are currently often surface modified before being
polished uniformly [250]. The effect of electrolyte elements on put to use in actual applications. Increasing wear and corro-
the electropolishing of parts made from additively fabricated sion resistance, obtaining excellent osseointegration, and
Tie6Ale4V has been examined, focusing on the effect of facilitating the optimum degradation rate are typical goals of
chloride ions present in the alkoxide system. The electro- surface coating on bioimplants.
polished surface was obtained, the surface roughness was A bioimplant's surface topography plays a significant sig-
reduced from 8.33 mm to 1.09 mm, and the corrosion resistance nalling role in regulating cell activity and determining how the
of the treated samples was improved [251]. Bagehorn et al. body will respond to the device [257]. It has been discovered
used additively manufactured Tie6Ale4V plates and fatigue that several cell behaviours, including morphology, adhesion,
samples which were manufactured by the powder bed laser orientation, migration, and differentiation, are influenced by
method. The finishing of surfaces was performed by using an the textures or patterns on the surface [258]. The alteration of
enhanced electrolytic polishing procedure which gave rise to a the surface topography with the goal of defining cells' reactivity
considerable decrease in the roughness of about 84% in 60 min has long been a study focus in the field of implantology since
of treatment. Additionally, the fatigue performance improved the biocompatibility of an implant is intimately connected to
significantly up to 174% in 40 min of treatment compared to the response of cells in contact with the surface [257]. The
the reference samples [252]. In a study the electropolishing of surface roughness (Ra) for hard tissue implants, according to
NieTi wires was carried out using sulfuric acid electrolyte in theoretical study, is in the range of 1e10 lm [259]. Numerous
methanol. The impacts of several parameters of electro- in vivo and in vitro investigations have demonstrated that the
polishing on surface properties were analysed such as time of best interlocking implant surface and mineralized bones are
electropolishing, electrode gap, and current density. The found in this roughness range [260,261]. Particularly, the
findings showed that current density of electropolishing microscale roughened surfaces significantly induced osseoin-
showed maximum effect on the surface polishing of NieTi tegration. As a result, effective surface modification techniques
alloy. The surface roughness was achieved when current are being used at the microscale to improve protein adsorption,
density of 0.5 A/cm2, was used together with polishing time of cellular activity, and tissue responsiveness.
Fig. 27 e Electropolishing [256].

On the other hand, after extensive usage, the majority of joint SiO2eNa2OeCaOeP2O5 bioactive glass were performed on
implants experience tribology problems. For instance, during Tie6Ale4V alloy having biomedical applications in a study. The
cyclic loads during walking activities, the prosthetic knee and examination of the cross-sectional study of coating revealed the
hip joints would face a lot of rolling and sliding interactions. In presence of excellent metallurgical bonding between the sam-
the biomedical system, friction between joint prostheses often ple and the glass coating, and in-vitro studies revealed the
results in increasing energy losses and eventually deterioration improvement of bioactivity of the titanium implant after coating
[51]. Debris generated by wear would therefore cause negative [267]. NiTi alloy has impressive properties and has a good po-
immunological reactions as well as physical discomfort. Surface tential to be used as bio-implants. But the toxic Ni ions released
treatment is seen to be a potential technique to correct the from its surface have limited its effective use in the human body.
problem instead of replacing the entire joint since it lowers the A study was carried out to modify the surface conditions by
friction coefficient of the material and increases the device depositing the calcium phosphate coatings on it. The results
lifetime [262,263]. In this context, surface texturing is preferred showed that the polarization resistance of the NiTi has
because it allows biomaterials to maintain their ideal bulk increased 10 times, an 89% reduction in the release of the Ni ion
properties while also enhancing the tribological characteristics was observed, and the desirable bioactivity was achieved [268].
needed for various clinical applications. The Tantalum coatings were added to the bioimplants made of
Tie13Nbe13Zr alloy to improve the bioimplant's corrosion
7.1. Surface coating technologies resistance and wear resistance. The results showed that these
coatings significantly reduced the friction coefficient and
In order to increase the longevity and performance of different slightly reduced wear rates. The bioimplant demonstrated a
bioimplants, surface coatings are now of significant interest. strong capacitive response after coating, which was suggested
This alteration keeps the beneficial bulk properties of the to improve the protection from corrosion [269]. A study evalu-
biomaterial while enabling acceptable biocompatibility and ated the biocompatibility and corrosion resistance after coatings
biofunctionality. A wide variety of coating systems have been on an orthopedic bioimplant made of 316 L SS by the mixture of
created recently, and they typically fall into one of three cate- titanium and niobium oxides. The in-vitro bioactivity test was
gories: physical, chemical, or combination physical and chem- performed, which revealed the formation of layers on the sur-
ical approaches [264]. The surface coating acts as a feasible face and providing a barrier for the release of ions and offering a
process for managing the surface characteristics or incorpo- great resistance from corrosion of the implant [270]. In a study,
rating new surface performances to metallic bioimplants man- the coating of nanocomposites of Silver-calcia stabilized zirco-
ufactured by AM, for example, roughness reduction, cracks nia was performed on the stainless steel for biomedical use. The
masking, and surface strength improvement. It is also used to fill microstructures, the biological and mechanical performance,
up the cracks and provide resistance to corrosion [234]. The and the resistance to corrosion were assessed after the coatings.
coatings of thin-film metallic glasses could improve the It was found that the structures exhibited hemocompatible
biocompatibility, corrosion resistance, strength, and life dura- behavior and the adhesion of osteoblast cells was enhanced
tion of potential biomaterials made of either metals or polymers with improved biomineralization and improved corrosion
[265]. The coatings of Zein and 45S5 bioactive glass on Ortho- resistance [271]. The coating of Solegel provides the formation
pedic Implants made up of magnesium and its alloys were of thin and compact, flexible coatings which protect against
performed using electrophoretic deposition. The results corrosion. A study performed the coating of stainless steel-
demonstrated that bioactive glass and Zein were deposited based prosthetic intracorporeal devices by Solegel which pro-
effectively on the surface of the Mg structure. The in-vitro study vided the corrosion protection and stimulation of bone forma-
of the structures was carried out, which showed the improved tion to the devices in the physiological environment. This study
bone binding capability of the coatings [266]. The coatings of investigated the characteristics of corrosion protection given by
the sol gel coatings and is suggested to use the sol gel coatings in
orthopaedic devices for enhanced biofunctionalization and
protection against corrosion [272]. In a study different phases of
zirconia coatings was performed over bioimplants made of 316 L
SS which resulted in the smooth surface together with reduction
of bacterial adhesion and increased surface hardness [273].
The load-holding implants made of metallic materials have
gained the first preference in the orthopedic field due to the
excellent mechanical properties they have. However, the
metallic implants also contain restrictions on releasing ions and
weak wear resistance, subsequently causing failure of the
implant. To overcome these limitations, hydroxyapatite-based
coatings on the metal substrate can be used. Applying hy-
droxyapatite coating on various metallic biomaterials improves
the fatigue strength of composite coatings [274]. Although the
materials like 316 L SS, titanium alloy, CoeCr alloy, or magne-
sium exhibit greater wear and corrosion resistance and better
Fig. 28 e An example of the interactions between ions and mechanical strength, and sufficient biocompatibility, but have
solids in an ion-beam aided deposition process [297]. limitations in applying them directly because they release toxic
substances and have lower biological responses. Therefore, the strong bonds and appropriate mechanical characteristics could
bioimplant surfaces made by these materials are secured using be obtained by applying high spraying power. This is as a result
coating with bioactive and biocompatible materials. Hydroxy- of a denser microstructure as a result of more coating melting.
apatite is a biomaterial that acquires the structure like bones and However, there is a cost associated with this greater energy
has exceptional biocompatibility [275]. In a research, a “plasma usage. In order to have variable residual stress levels at the HA/
sprayed hydroxyapatite (HA) coating” was used to enhance the metal interfaces, Yang and Chang [288] created plasma sprayed
surface of metal implants made using an AM method in order to HA on Tie6Ale4V under various cooling conditions and sub-
increase their quality correlation. After receiving HA coating strate temperatures. The evaluation's findings showed that the
treatment, Tie6Ale4V implants shown improved resorption bonding strength was significantly influenced by the interfacial
activity [276]. Similarly, “plasma sprayed lanthanum zirconate residual stress, with coatings with lower residual stress being
coating” was carried out on nickel-based compounds supported shown to have greater adhesion. The increasing coating thick-
by carbon nanotubes that were created using the SLM process. ness is thought to be another factor contributing to the rise in
The findings were positive in terms of nanotube hardness and residual stress in addition to temperature effects [283]. Early
elastic modulus, both of which increase [277]. The hydroxyapa- studies have also shown that a considerably roughened sub-
tite coatings on stainless steel helped to improve the corrosion strate surface is advantageous for establishing a higher binding
resistance making it suitable for its orthopedic applications [278]. strength compared to a smooth substrate [289].
One of the cutting-edge coating techniques used to produce Plasma modification is widely used to modify the surface of
porous oxide layers on light metals, primarily to increase wear biomaterials due to its inexpensive cost and quick deposition
and corrosion resistance, is plasma electrolytic oxidation. By rate. The technique offers a versatile and eco-friendly approach
mixing different particles and ions, coatings can also give a range that enables producers to modify the surface characteristics of
of mechanical, biological, and antibacterial qualities. They have the biomaterial to meet certain requirements. However, prob-
also been demonstrated to provide bioactivity, biocompatibility, lems with plasma-sprayed coatings have been reported,
and osseointegration for use in biomedical applications [279]. including varying binding strengths between coatings and
The Plasma electrolytic oxidation coating was performed on substrates, poor interface adhesion, and changes in HA struc-
dental implants made of Tie6Ale4V in a study. The coatings ture brought on by the coating procedure. Additionally, to the
showed great adherence and improvement in corrosion behav- best of our knowledge, there is no proof that implants with a
iour was observed by steady growth in corrosion resistance till 90 plasma-sprayed coating will last longer or be more reliable than
days of immersion in artificial saliva. The cytocompatibility ex- implants without a coating. Numerous alternatives to the
aminations were performed which revealed that these coatings deposition procedure were created when plasma spraying's
were suitable for enhancing the bone osseointegration with negative effects on coating were recognised.
proper porosity index [280].
7.1.2. Sputter coating
7.1.1. Plasma spraying The physical vapour deposition (PVD) approach known as
Thermal spraying is a subset of plasma spraying, which uses sputter coating has considerable potential for removing the
the heat of plasma to spray molten metal or ceramic powder drawbacks of the plasma spraying procedure [290]. During the
onto the target biomaterials to create a protective layer. The procedure, materials are ejected from a negatively charged
plasma jet technology is very adaptable and has been exten- target using a gas plasma. The substance would then be applied
sively used in the electronic, petrochemical, medical, and to the substrate material as a coating. The technique is viewed
aerospace sectors because it can melt practically any type of as a complicated process from an industrial standpoint since it
material. Plasma spraying has a lot of benefits, such as quick includes several factors to regulate sputter deposition. On the
deposition, dense coatings, and low cost. More enticingly, other hand, a high degree of control over the development and
treating the items at low temperatures while allowing the microstructure of the coating is possible due to the availability
plasma flame's gas to stay chemically inert lowers the possi- of precisely variable parameters. Early studies suggested that
bility of thermal deterioration [281]. The coating qualities of multicomponent ceramic targets including superconducting
the plasma sprayed layers are substantially superior when oxides, HA, and other calcium phosphate materials would
compared to those of conventional coating methods [282]. result in coatings that had a different chemistry when depos-
Plasma spraying is the first technique to create a calcium ited than the main target [290,291].
phosphate coating on biomaterials because of how simple it is to Radio frequency magnetron sputtering has been used to
use [283]. The most popular spraying substance is hydroxyapa- successfully try to install calcium phosphate layers on
tite (HA), which can aid in osseointegration after implantation metallic biomaterials [292,293]. The surfaces of the sputtered
and aid in the direct bonding of biodevices with surrounding layers seemed to be quite smooth, and they were found to be
tissues. The new bone adhered satisfactorily to the plasma- more homogenous than the plasma-sprayed ones [283].
sprayed HA coatings on titanium-based biomaterials, accord- Meanwhile, it has been discovered that most plasma sprayed
ing to evaluations [284e286], and the total bone regeneration HA coatings cannot match the adhesion strength and
was found to be reasonably swift [287]. Due to the HA coatings' dependability of sputtered HA coatings. According to a com-
poor mechanical qualities, which are likely to result in brittle parison research done by Ozeki et al. [294], after 2 weeks, 4
degradation and delamination, the structure is likely to change. weeks, and 12 weeks, respectively, the adhesion strength of
Numerous parametric studies on the spaying procedure were the sputtered coating was greater than that of the plasma
conducted in an effort to remedy the problem, and they were sprayed coating by more than 70%, 40%, and 30%. Sputtered
followed by characterizations [283]. It was established that HA coatings showed enhanced binding strength and the first
osseointegration rate in terms of biological reactions. Ac- phosphates, and amorphous Ti phosphate compounds. It was
cording to studies, plasma-sprayed implants and as-sputtered believed that the intense ion bombardment mechanism was
calcium phosphate implants had similar percentages of bone responsible for the creation of such a chemical bond [297].
contact length (70.4 ± 1.6% and 78.6 ± 4.9%), respectively [290]. Additionally, it was claimed that the ion-beam therapy might
Poor crystallinity is a clear disadvantage of sputter-coated harden the surfaces of titanium bioimplants that had been
HA layers on metallic substrates [290,292,295], since it would coated with HA, increasing their resistance to wear [297].
speed up the coating's disintegration in a human body [283]. Phosphorus, a component of the human body's vital elements,
The film was crystallised using a post-annealing procedure may be implanted on biomaterials made of titanium via ion-
with regulated temperature and processing time. The surface beam deposition. On the titanium surface, a compact TiP
morphology would alter as a result of the heating process, phase might be created in this manner. The corrosion resis-
which was discovered to also lead to changes in crystal tance was strengthened thanks to the new phase. Krupa et al.
structure [296]. However, it should be noted that standard [300] verified the good biocompatibility of titanium that has
thermal treatment in the electric furnace increases the like- been implanted with phosphorus ions. In addition to the
lihood of fracture development and may subsequently cause aforementioned benefits, it was also found that using ion im-
the HA films to deteriorate [283]. Additionally, as the process plantation helped bioimplants avoid stress shielding, improve
uses a lot of energy and is expensive, increasing economic fatigue resistance, and increase fracture toughness. Ionbeam
efficiency is necessary for industrial applications. implantation enhances biological processes by increasing
Although most bioimplant suppliers do not presently crystallinity and decreasing the rate at which apatite dissolves
employ sputter coating as a commercial deposition procedure, [301]. In a modified simulated body fluid, Chen et al. [302]
it is a feasible alternative to plasma spraying for the application looked into the impact of calcium ion deposition on the ca-
of HA coatings on bioimplants due to its ability to provide ho- pacity of porous titanium to induce apatite. The findings
mogeneous and thick coating with greater adhesion strength. supported the efficacy of pretreating porous Ti with calcium
ions to impart the desired bioactivity for use in bone tissue
7.1.3. Ion-beam assisted deposition engineering. According to several other research, the ion im-
Despite the fact that the idea of ion implantation was initially plantation of Ca, N, and F helped to enhance the anti-bacterial
put out in 1906, it wasn't until the 1990s that the process was action of certain titanium surfaces [303].
used as a coating technology for biomedical implants [297]. Ion implantation is a method that may be used to enhance
Ions are accelerated through a high graded potential differ- the mechanical, chemical, and biological characteristics of
ence and directed towards a substrate material in a conven- biomaterials. The method is incredibly precise and tunable,
tional ion implantation method. After losing all of its energy, allowing for the precise implantation of various ions to create
the energetic ion would be integrated into the substrate as a ultra-high purity coatings with exceptional adherence. Despite
result of the interactions between ions and solids [297]. Fig. 22 this, the high vacuum environment and expensive stages like
depicts the interactions between ions and solids during an beam extraction, beam focusing, and beam scanning have
ion-beam aided deposition process [297]. The working theory prevented the technique from being used widely. Ion-beam
indicates that the degree of energy correlates with the ion's based treatment is currently limited in the ordinary
penetration. Therefore, alterations can be limited to the near- manufacturing line and largely used in high value-added goods.
surface area, and therefore greatly impact the surface fea- In addition to being expensive, it has the drawback of being
tures, by carefully limiting the ion beam intensity to prevent unsuited for components with complicated geometry [264].
deep penetration within the substrate. The ion species, flu-
ence (or the total number of ions that bombard a surface), and 7.1.4. Conversion coating
beam current density or flux, in addition to the ion beam en- Conversion coating, also known as in situ grown coating, is
ergy, are all significant variables in ion implantation that can created by certain interactions between the environment and
be changed to affect the final effects on the substrate and the components. When an inorganic oxide layer is created by
achieve a wide atomic intermixing zone [298]. a chemical or electrochemical technique, this technology is
The ability to independently and precisely regulate the often applied in reactive metallic materials. The adherence of
deposition settings is one appealing aspect of ion-beam the coatings to the substrate is quite strong since the con-
assisted deposition. A more permanent bond may be created version is created in place. One common type of conversion
thanks to this characteristic, which permits the fabrication of coating called passivation is utilised to easily safeguard reac-
a gradual transition between the substrate material and the tive biomaterials like magnesium and its alloys. Mg-based
coating [299]. According to Rautray et al. [297], whereas plasma biomaterials may quickly create a passive layer of Mg(OH)2
sprayed coatings and ion-beam implanted coatings appeared with a nanometric thickness by submerging them in a solu-
to have equal adhesion qualities, the atomic intermixing tion with an astable pH of 11 or higher [264]. It is also possible
interfacial layer generated by ion dynamic intermixing helped to generate a coating of anti-corrosive metal phosphates by
to improve binding strength. Ion-beam assisted deposition adding combinations of oxides or hydroxides to the solution.
outperformed plasma spraying, which only managed to obtain Although the converted layer protects against the early stages
a tensile bonding strength of 51 MPa while synthesising HA of corrosion in a live body, the protective capacity is found to
coating on a titanium substrate, by achieving a tensile bonding be insufficient [264]. As a result, scientists have tended to
strength of 70 MPa. Such a phenomena was considered to be create novel processes that result in more reliable and potent
caused by the presence of a transition structure at the HA/Ti conversion coatings. Because it is easy to regulate the coating
interface made up of amorphous HA, amorphous calcium thickness, the anodization technique is preferred and is
Table 2 e Summary table for selected studies.

Sr. No. Authors Process Name Products Name Key Points Ref. no.
1 Peng, Can et al. (2018) Abrasive flow machining aluminium alloy workpiece Effective finishing, [19]
improved surface integrity
2 Jun Li et al. (2017) Soft abrasive flow Workpiece of 45 steel better surface uniformity, [22]
machining improved processing efficacy
3 Jindal, A et al. (2021) Magnetic abrasive flow metal matrix composites of Increased surface finishing, [24]
machining Al/SiC/B4C increased material removal
4 Ge, Jiang-qin et al. (2021) ultrasonic-assisted soft single crystal silicon wafer Improved polishing [26]
abrasive flow polishing efficiency, precision
finishing
5 Singh, P. et al. (2020) Magnetically Assisted Aluminium tube holes Improved surface finish [31]
Abrasive Flow Machining
6 Jayant and Jain, V. K (2019) magnetorheological Knee joint of stainless steel Improved rate of material [33]
abrasive flow finishing removal
7 Sun, Xu et al. (2021) Electrochemical Effects Steel SUS304 plate Reduced surface roughness, [37]
Assisted Magnetic Abrasive increased removal of
Finishing passive films
8 HS Farwaha et al. (2019) Ultrasonic Assisted Cylindrical workpiece of Improved surface finishing [40]
Electrochemical Magnetic 316 L stainless stee
Abrasive Finishing
9 Tong, Xin et al. (2019) Elastic Abrasive Finishing M300 mold steel curved Reduced surface roughness [47]
surface
10 Kumar, KR. et al. (2018) Abrasive Water Jet aluminium/tungsten Maximized material [56]
Machining carbide composites removal, minimized surface
roughness
11 Xie, Huijun et al. (2019) magnetic abrasive finishing aluminium alloy plate Improved surface [61]
roughness
12 Khan, D. A et al. (2018) Ball-End Workpiece of Copper Reduction in surface [68]
Magnetorheological roughness
Finishing
13 Vahdati M. et al. (2020) Magnetic Float Polishing Optical lenses Decreased surface [73]
roughness
mostly used to create or thicken native oxide coatings on methods of machining and finishing, including abrasive-
metal substrates. The coating thickness typically ranges from based methods, magnetically assisted methods, magneto-
5 to 200 lm and rises as the applied voltage is increased [304]. rheological methods, and hybrid methods. Different abrasive-
Numerous investigations have demonstrated that anodized based methods represented in this study for nano finishing of
layers outperform conventional chemical conversion layers in the surfaces would help to select an appropriate type of
terms of stability and corrosion resistance [304e306]. With technique for the finishing of a specific work specimen.
anodizing the metal above the breakdown voltage, porous Moreover, the abrasive media used in these techniques is still
layers with increased resistance to abrasion and corrosion can needed to be investigated for their sustainability, cost-
be created [306]. These processes include micro arc oxidation effectiveness, and waste analysis; environmental impacts
(MAO), anodic spark deposition (ASD), and plasma electrolytic are required to be analyzed. After a critical observation of the
anodization (PEO) [264]. PEO has emerged as the industry's above study, it can be surmised as following-
preferred way of protecting magnesium alloy [264]. However,
the coating procedure would cause electric isolation, 1. In the case of orthopaedic implants, abrasive blasting, laser
rendering PEO unsuitable for further processing by electric texturing, or electrochemical etching can be used for Sur-
deposition [264]. In addition to the aforementioned applica- face texturing of the material to improve its tribological
tions, conversion coating processes are occasionally used as a (friction and wear) properties. Abrasive blasting involves
pre-treatment step to enhance the anticipated adherence of a high-pressure jets of abrasive particles to roughen the
deposition coating. The summary table for key aspects of surface and to create a textured finish that improves the
surface post-treatments for bio-implants is shown in Table 2. wear resistance and reduces the coefficient of friction of
the implant. Laser texturing involves laser beam to etch a
pattern onto the surface that can be used to create a wide
8. Conclusions and future directions range of textures, including microgrooves, microstruc-
tures, and micropumps. Electrochemical etching, can pro-
Several conventional and non-conventional finishing tech- vide highly precise and can be used to create a wide range
niques have been presented for the finishing of bioimplants. It of patterns and structures.
is difficult to attain a uniform surface with enhanced 2. As rough or uneven surfaces can cause irritation or damage
smoothness, especially in the case of free-form surfaces. The to surrounding tissue surface finish of the implant must be
complex geometrical-shaped structures require advanced smooth and free of defects. Bioimplant materials also need
to be durable and biocompatible, as well as be compatible different techniques that can be used to apply coatings to
with the manufacturing processes. Some common mate- bioimplant surfaces, including plasma spraying, sputter
rials used in bioimplants include metals (such as titanium coating, and Ion beam assisted deposition.
and stainless steel), ceramics (such as alumina and zirco-
nia), and polymers (such as polyethylene and poly- 8.1. Future scope
urethane). Researchers are also exploring the use of newer
materials, such as biodegradable polymers and nano- The abrasive media used in these techniques is still needed to
materials, for use in bioimplants. be investigated for their sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and
3. There are several conventional abrasive finishing methods waste analysis; environmental impacts are required to be
that can be used to produce smooth, high-quality surfaces on analyzed. Bioimplant surface modification using coatings can
orthopaedic implants. Superfinishing, Honing, Lapping, be a useful way to improve the performance and longevity of
Polishing, each of these abrasive finishing methods has its implants, but it is important to carefully consider the potential
own benefits and limitations. However, abrasive finishing risks and benefits of any coating procedure before proceeding.
methods, such as abrasive flow machining, magneto-
rheological finishing, magnetic abrasive finishing, and
others, are discussed for fine finishing of biomedical com- Declaration of Competing Interest
ponents (hip joint, knee joint, elbow joint, and so on) to
improve their surface quality and functionality. Implants are The authors declare that they have no known competing
also made of skin, bone, as well as metals, plastics, ceramics. financial interests or personal relationships that could have
The abrasive-based finishing process provides better finish- appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
ing accuracy, efficiency, consistency, and economy.
4. As discussed, there are several non-traditional abrasive
finishing methods that have been developed for use on Acknowledgement
orthopaedic implants. Abrasive flow machining: This pro-
cess uses a viscous, abrasive-laden fluid to polish and The authors would like to thank the Science and Engineering
deburr the surface of the implant. Magnetic abrasive fin- Research Board, Department of Science and Technology,
ishing: This technique uses a rotating magnetic field and Government of India for supporting this work through the
abrasive particles to remove material from the surface of grant DST-SERB EMR/2016/003372.
the implant. Each of these non-traditional abrasive fin-
ishing methods has its own benefits and limitations, and
the most appropriate method will depend on the specific references
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[305] Zhang X, Zhao Z, Wu F, Wang Y, Wu J. Corrosion and wear Dr. Anoj Meena has Ph.D.(Tribology) from
resistance of AZ91D magnesium alloy with and without MNIT JAIPUR(2017), M.Tech.(Production En-
microarc oxidation coating in Hank's solution. J Mater Sci gineering) from IIT DELHI(2011), B.E.(Me-
2007;42(20):8523e8. chanical Engineering) from JAI NARAIN
[306] Jo J-H, Hong J-Y, Shin K-S, Kim H-E, Koh Y-H. Enhancing VYAS UNIVERSITY(2008). She is currently an
biocompatibility and corrosion resistance of Mg implants Assistant Professor in the Department of
via surface treatments. J Biomater Appl 2012;27(4):469e76. Mechanical Engineering a Malaviya National
Institute of Technology Jaipur, India. She
has ten years of experience in teaching. Her
research expertise in the tribology of dental
Abdul Wahab Hashmi began his Ph.D. composite materials and high entropy al-
research studying post-processing tech- loys. Address- Dr.Anoj Meena, Assistant Professor, ME Depart-
niques to improve the surface quality of ad- ment, MNIT Jaipur302,017, India, [email protected].
ditive manufacturing parts in the
Department of Mechanical Engineering at
Malaviya National Institute of Technology Prof. (Dr.) Kuldeep Kumar Saxena has done his
Jaipur, India, specifically FDM printed parts. B.Tech, in Mechanical Engineering and
Currently, he is focusing on numerical M.Tech in Material Science and Engineering
simulation using the CFD technique of from MNNIT Allahabad. He has completed his
abrasive flow finishing processes. He does doctoral degree from IIT Roorkee. He has 12þ
research in designing and developing abra- years of experience in academics, Research
sive flow finishing techniques for AM parts, magnetic-based fin- and industry. Prof. Saxena holds expertise in
ishing, advanced finishing techniques, 3D printing, & composite hot deformation behaviour of materials,
materials for different applications, surface finishing of Bio- microstructural characterization of materials,
implants, surface metrology, computer vision techniques for and micro manufacturing. He has served as
measuring the surface characteristics, intelligent machining. He Senior Research Fellow (SRF) for 2 years and 8
is skilled in material characterization techniques such as XRD, months on a project sponsored by Board of Research in Nuclear
TEM, SEM, TGA, FTIR, and rheology. Also, proficient in various Sciences (BRNS), a research unit of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,
CAD/CAM/CAE tools (AutoCAD, Creo. Solid works, solid-edge, Trombay, Mumbai. Dr. Saxena is an author of many book chapters
Autodesk fusion 360, Autodesk inventor, ANSYS, Abaqus, Com- published by reputed publishers such as Elsevier and many more. He
sol Multiphysics. Currently, he is working on the 'Investigation of has authored 182þ research papers which are published in reputed
the abrasive flow finishing and magnetic-based finishing of international journals indexed by SCI/ Scopus. He has organised
polymer-based & metal-based AM parts produced by the Selective many International Conferences in India and Abroad. He is currently
Laser Melting method. Now, he is focusing on AM techniques, working as Professor and Head, Department of Research Impact and
Post-processing of AM parts, Modeling and simulation techniques, Outcome (LFTS) in the Division of Research and Development,
Abrasive flow machining, Magnetic based finishing processes, and Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India. He is an active
numerical simulation using the CFD technique of abrasive flow member of The Indian Institute of Metals (IIM) and Secretary of The
finishing processes. He has a keen interest in exploring new Indian Institute of Metals Mathura Chapter. He is also a guest editor
technologies and research. He has researched innovative mate- in many reputed journals such as Journal of Process Mechanical
rials and their various applications in the field of Mechanical en- Engineering (SAGE, SCI, IF 1.8), Indian Journal of Engineering and
gineering under the guidance of Dr.Harlal Singh Mali and Dr. Anoj Materials Science (CSIR, SCI, IF 0.8), International Journal of Inter-
Meena. He had attended the one-year research fellowship from active Design and Manufacturing (Springer, Scopus & ESCI), Mate-
RRCAT, Indore (M.P.) under the direction of Scientific officer and rials today: Proceedings at Elsevier platform and many more.
Design Engineer Mr. Arvind Singh Padiyar in the ACDFS section on Address- Dr.Kuldeep K Saxena, Professor, and COD, Department of
the topic of nanofinishing techniques. Here He worked on Research Impact and Outcome (LFTS), Division of Research &
designing and developing a Magnetorheological Finishing setup Development, Lovely Professional University. Jalandhar - Delhi,
for predicting the polishing behavior of M.R. polishing fluid. Grand Trunk Rd, Phagwara, Punjab 144001, [email protected].
Address- Abdul Wahab Hashmi, PhD Research Scholar, ME
Department, MNIT Jaipur302,017, India, [email protected], Dr. Shadab Ahmad is a Ph.D. in Mechanical
[email protected]. Engineering with a major in Advanced
Manufacturing Technology from Delhi Tech-
nological University, Delhi. He is currently
Dr. Harlal Singh Mali has post graduated in working as a Post Doctoral fellow at the School
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong Uni-
from Punjab University, Chandigarh, India, versity of Technology, Zibo 255000, China.
in 2004, after his diploma and graduation in Before joining the post-doctoral position, he
Mechanical Engineering. He received his served as an Assistant Professor at the Na-
doctoral in Mechanical Engineering from tional Institute of Technology Delhi. He does
Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be research in designing and developing
University), Chandigarh, India, in 2010. He is magnetically assisted finishing techniques, hybridized advanced
currently an Associate Professor at the manufacturing techniques, 3D printing, & composite materials for
Department of Mechanical Engineering at different applications. He is skilled in material characterization
Malaviya National Institute of Technology techniques such as XRD, TEM, SEM, and FTIR. Also, he has experi-
Jaipur, India. His experience includes 12 years in teaching and 10 ence in MATLAB and ANSYS. Currently, he is working on 'Modeling
years in the aviation industry. His research expertise in abrasive and simulation of shear-thickening polishing techniques and mag-
flow machining (AFM), electric discharge machining of superalloys, netic abrasive-based finishing of Additive manufactured parts.
bio-medical orthoses (Club-foot orthoses), and textiles composite Address- Dr. Shadab Ahmad, Post Doctoral fellow at School of Me-
materials. Address- Dr.Harlal Singh Mali, Associate Professor, ME chanical Engineering, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo
Department, MNIT Jaipur302,017, India, [email protected]. 255000, China. [email protected].
Dr Manoj Kumar Agrawal has done his 'Investigation of the Effect of Secondary Treatments on the Sur-
B.Tech. in Mechanical Engineering from face Properties of AlSi10Mg Parts Produced by Selective Laser
Pune University, Poona and M.Tech. also in Melting Method '. Binnur Sagbas can be contacted at: bsagbas@
Mechanical Engineering from UP Technical gmail.com.
University, Lucknow. He has completed his
doctorial degree from GLA University,
Mathura.He has 24þ years of experience in
academics, Research and Industry. Dr. Dr. Ana Pilar Valerga Puerta is a Ph.D. in
Agrawal holds expertise in Materials Char- Manufacturing Engineering who currently
acterisation, Micro and Non-conventional works at the Department of Mechanical En-
Manufacturing Processes and Systems, gineering and Industrial Design at the Uni-
Lean Manufacturing associated with Six sigma and Frugal versidad of Cadiz, Spain. She does research
Manufacturing approach. Dr. Manoj is an author of many book in Manufacturing Engineering, Materials
chapters published by reputed publishers such as Elsevier and Engineering, in particular, Additive
many more. He has authored 40þ research papers which are Manufacturing processes. She is a member
published in reputed international journals indexed by SCI/Sco- of the Materials and Manufacturing Engi-
pus. He has presented his work in many international conferences neering and Technology research group.
and forums. He has published more than 6 patents. He is currently Their current project is 'Analysis and Evalu-
working as an Associate Professor in Institute of Engineering and ation of the performance of Manufacturing and Materials Pro-
Technology, GLA University, Mathura (UP). He is an active mem- cessing Technologies in Additive Manufacturing'. Ana Pilar
ber of The Indian Institute of Metals (IIM). Address- Dr. Manoj Valerga Puerta can be contacted at: [email protected].
Kumar Agrawal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA
University, Mathura, UP, India. 281406, [email protected].
Dr. Muhammad Ijaz Khan is working as a
full Professor in the Department of Me-
Dr. Binnur Sagbas is a Ph.D. in
chanical Engineering, Lebanese American
Manufacturing Engineering who currently
University, Beirut, Lebanon. He is working
works as the Associate Professor and Vice
mainly in the field of Newtonian, non-
Dean of Mechanical Engineering Faculty at
Newtonian fluid mechanics, building mate-
Yildiz Technical University, 34349, Besiktas,
rials, concrete materials, fluid mechanics,
Istanbul, Turkey. She does research in Me-
heat transfer, artificial neural networking,
chanical Engineering, Construction and
numerical simulations of partial differential
Manufacturing, Tribology, Biomaterials,
equations as well as ordinary differential
Plating, Engineering and Technology, and
equations. Address- Dr. Muhammad Ijaz
Additive Manufacturing. She is a member of
Khan, full Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
the research group of Yıldız Technical Uni-
Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon.
versity Research Information System. Their current project is

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j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 4 8 6 6 e4 9 0 8

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

A comprehensive review on surface

Abdul Wahab Hashmi a, Harlal Singh Mali a, Anoj Meena a,

article info abstract

roughness, the polishing and coating of the implants, like hip

Fig. 1 e Classification of bio-implant for human body [23].

Table 1 e Applications of different materials to make bioimplants [25,26].

Fig. 3 e Metal v/s polymer based materials for bio-implants [32].

2.3. Titanium-based alloy Although polymer biomaterials' mechanical property of low

Fig. 4 e Classification of metal based bio-implant materials based on density [23].

Fig. 5 e Advantages and disadvantages aspects for selection of bio-materials [69].

Fig. 7 e Extruding filament's cross-section and profile [92].

Fig. 8 e Metal based AM processes for fabrication of bio-implants [94].

Fig. 10 e Additive manufacturing steps for fabrication of hip-implant component [24].

respectively. This new technology is expected to be an effec-

a. Ultrasonic assisted abrasive flow finishing b. Centrifugal force assisted AFF

Fig. 16 e Principle of abrasive flow finishing [131].

polished using this method in which a mixture of “carbonyl

Fig. 18 e The schematic of R-MRAFF [163].

Fig. 20 e The principle of EEM [180].

Fig. 21 e Process of Magnetic abrasive finishing [186].

the magnetic field, the magnetic particles are attracted

4.2.8. Fiber flow finishing (FFF)

Fig. 26 e Mechanism of laser treatment [229].

Fig. 27 e Electropolishing [256].

Table 2 e Summary table for selected studies.

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