NETWORK THEOREMS IN DC CIRCUITS

1.Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theroem

Apparatus Required: D.C. source of known internal resistance, plug key ,voltmeter(0-5V),resistance
box(1-100 ohm),connecting wires

Theory: MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM Statement- It states that in a linear bilateral DC
network, maximum power is delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal
resistance of a source.

Consider the circuit in fig.

If the internal resistance of the d.c. source of emf. E is RI and variable load resistance is RL, then current I
in the circuit is-

I = ER1 + RL Ampere

And the potential difference across resistance RL is -

V = IRL = ERLR1 +RL Volt

Power delivered to the load, P = I2 RL watt

P = ER1 + RL 2 RL

To find the exact value of RL, we apply differentiation to power, P with respect to RL and equating it to
zero as-

dPdRL=dE2dRLRL(RI + RL)2 = E2 RI + RL2 - 2 RL RI + RLRI + RL4 = 0

RI + RL2 -2RL RI + RL=0

RI2 +RL2 +2RI RL -2RL RI-2RL2 =0

RI2 - RL2 = 0

RI =RL (This condition is also called resistance matching)

Maximum Power, Pmax = ERI+RL2RL

Efficiency under max. Power transfer is 50%

Procedure: 1.Assemble the circuit of above given figure,

2.Select various values of resisters RL as per table below and record the values of current I and voltage
across RL

Observations : internal resistance of d.c. source RL = ohm

least count of voltmeter= V

Precautions: 1.The potential difference V must be measured with power accuracy and for this least
count of the voltmeter must be small.

2. The graph must be smooth.

2. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
object: verify the superposition theorem using d.c. source

Apparatus required: D.C source -(one 6V ,Two 2V)

resistances (three 1k, one 2k, one 3k ,two 5k )

ammeter (0.5mA),connecting wires

Principle: Principle of superposition theorem states that in any linear network containing two or more
sources ,the response in any element is equal to the algebraic sum of the resposes caused by individual
sources ,other ideal voltage sources and ideal current sources in the network are replaced by short
circuit and open circuit across their terminals respectively.

The theorem is applicable to linear networks consisting of independent sources ,linear dependent
sources ,linear passive elements and linear transformers.

Consider voltage sources E1 & E2 and E3 & five resistances R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 as shown in figure (d)

Current flowing circuit (d) is I & eq. is-

-E1 + IR1 - E2 + IR2 - E3 + IR3 + R4 R5R4 + R5= 0

I = E1 + E2 +E3 R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 R5R4 + R5

Now in Figure (e) , E1 = 6V , (Other voltages are short circuit)

Let current flowing due to E1 in circuit be I1, Equation will be -

-E1 + I1 R1 + I1 R2 +I1 R3 +I1R4 R5R4 + R5 = 0

I1 = E1R1 + R2 + R3 + R4R5R4 + R5

In figure (f)- E2 =2V , voltage source and other are short circuit

Let current flowing in this circuit be I2 ,

Now,

I2 R1 - E2 + I2 R2 + I2 R3+ I2 R4 R5R4 + R5 =0

I2 R1 + I2 R2 + I2 R3 + I2 R4 R5R4 + R5= E2

I2 = E2R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 R5R4 + R5

In fig (g)- E3 = 2V , voltage sources & other are short circuit

Current flowing through circuit be I3

Now,

I3 R1 + I3 R2 - E3 +I3 R3 + I3R4 R5R4 + R5= 0

I3 R1 + R2 + R3 +R4 R5R4 + R5 =E3

I3 = E3R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 R5R4 + R5

On adding current, we get -

I1 + I2 + I3 = E1 + E2 + E3R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 R5R4 + R5

we can write ,
I = I1 + I2 + I3

Hence superposition is verified.

Precautions : 1.All connecting wires should be tight.

2. while connecting d.c. source, make sure it is not shorted while balancing in the bread broad .

3. Check whether all the apparatus are working fine or not.

4. Voltage of dc source should be same in whole experiment.

Sources of Error: 1. There may be a error due to voltage of dc source.

2. Slight error may occur due to discharging of battery .

3. error may occur during observations of ammeter readings.

3.THEVENIN THEOREM
Object: Verify the Thevenin theorem using D.C. source .

Apparatus requried: resistances R1 = 3 ohm,R2=3 ohm , RL=1 kohm, voltmeter,ammeter,battery=

Principle: Thevenin theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit into a simple
equivalent circuit consisting of a single resistance in series with a source voltage .

Thevenin Theorem states that ," Any linear circuit consisting several voltages and resistances can be
replaced by just onesingle voltage in series with a single resistances connected across the load.
Thevenin theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or battery systems and other
interconnected resistive circuits where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of circuit.

let us consider a circuit having two resistances R1 and R2 and a load resistance RL across terminal A and B
and having a voltage source E of 6V value .We have to calculate the load current and open
circuit/Thevenin voltage across the terminal. When the AB terminal is open ,no current flows through it
(AB branch) and R1 and R2 resistances will have same value of current flowing through it.

Since voltage across R2 resistance and load resistance will be same because AB is open

Voltage across open circuit VOC / Thevenin voltage,VTH =

VOC =VTH = R1 R2R1+R2E

363+3 = 3V

As R1 and R2 in parallel, so equivalent resistance, Req, will be

Req. = R1 R2R1+R2

Load current, IL = VOCReq+RL

Observations: Least Count of voltmeter=

Load resistance RL =

~For thevenin voltage VTH/ open circuit voltage VOC -

Req = , VOC =

~For load current ,IL =

Precautions: 1.Multimeter should be connected in parallel and it should be in dc form.

2. Check the battery and resistances properly by multimeter.

3.connections should be neat and clean.

Source of error: 1. Voltmeter should be in range of required theoretical readings .

2.We should check the battery via multimeter ,(which is 6V used here).
4.NORTON THEOREM
Object: To study and verify the Norton theorem for D.C. circuit with variable current source.

Apparatus Required: d.c. source (2V),resistances (2k,8k,10k -ohm),load resistance, multimeter,

Principle: Norton theorem is exact opposite of thevenin theroem. Norton theorem states that a
network consists of several voltage sources, current sources and resistors with two terminals ,is
electrically equivalent to an ideal sources and a single parallel resistor. The theorem can be applied to
both ac and dc cases. Norton equivalent of a circuit consists of an ideal current source in parallel with an
ideal impedance.

It is used to reduce a complex circuit into a simple circuit. It is useful to solve problems on parallel
generators with unequal emfs and unequal impedances.

Let us cosisder two terminals in network containing two meshes one active and one passive .To prove the
Norton theorem , thevenin theorem can be used.

According to thevenin theorem ,load current is-

In Norton circuit , if the terminals A and B are short circuited , the current will be-

Therefore, the current in load will be as follows,

By putting value of Eeq ,

On comparing ,we can verify the Norton theorem and Thevenin theorem is equivalent.
Observations: Least count of voltmeter=

least count of multimeter=

resistances= R1 =2k , R2 =10k , R3 =8k , RL =1k -ohm

Observations table =

Equivalent voltage, Eeq=

Equivalent resistances,Req=

Equivalent current (ISC = Ieq) =

Load current IL =

Precautions:1.check all the apparatus we are using ,with multimeter.

2. Check all the resistances using multimeter to avoid calculations or reading values error.

Source of error : 1. Slightly error may occur due to observation of ammeter.

2.There may be slight error due to dicharge of battery during experiment.