CHAPTER 8 TRAINING AND DEVELOPING EMPLOYEES 253

ENSURING TRANSFER OF LEARNING TO THE JOB Unfortunately, less

than 35% of trainees seem to be transferring what they learned in training to their
jobs a year after training. Improving on that sad statistic requires taking special steps
at each stage of training. Prior to training, get trainee and supervisor input in designing
the program, institute a training attendance policy, and encourage employees to
participate. During training, provide trainees with training experiences and condi-
tions (surroundings, equipment) that resemble the actual work environment. After
training, reinforce what trainees learned, for instance, by appraising and rewarding
employees for using new skills, and by making sure that they have the tools and
materials they need to use their new skills.37

OTHER TRAINING DESIGN ISSUES Managers address several other issues

during the training design stage. Most importantly, they review relevant alternative
training methodologies (lectures, Web-based, and so on) and choose likely methods
for their program. They also decide how they will organize the various training con-
tent components, choose how to evaluate the program, develop an overall summary
plan for the program, and obtain management s approval to move ahead.

Developing the Program

Program development means actually assembling/creating the program s training
content and materials. It means choosing the actual content the program will present,
as well as designing/choosing the specific instructional methods (lectures, cases,
Web-based, etc.) you will use. Training equipment and materials include (for example)
iPads, workbooks, lectures, PowerPoint slides, Web- and computer-based activities,
course activities, trainer resources (manuals, for instance), and support materials.
Some employers create their own training content, but there s also a vast selec-
tion of online and offline content from which to choose. You ll find turnkey,
off-the-shelf programs on virtually any topic from occupational safety to sexual
harassment to Web design from tens of thousands of online and offline providers.
(See, for example, the American Society for Training and Development s Infoline at
www.astd.org, www.trainerswarehouse.com, and www.gneil.com, among thousands
of such suppliers.)38 Turnkey training packages often include trainer s guide,
self-study book, video, and other content.
Once you design, approve, and develop the program, management can imple-
ment and then evaluate it. Implement means to actually provide the training, using
one or more of the instructional methods (such as lectures) that we discuss next. We
address program evaluation at the end of this chapter.

6 Explain how to use five

IMPLEMENTING TRAINING PROGRAMS
training techniques. With objectives set and the program designed and budgeted, you can turn to imple-
menting the training program. This means actually doing the training, using one or
more of the training methods we turn to now. We ll start with simpler, low-tech
methods and proceed to computer-based ones.

On-the-Job Training
On-the-job training (OJT) means having a person learn a job by actually doing it.
Every employee, from mailroom clerk to CEO, gets on-the-job training when he or she
joins a firm. In many firms, OJT is the only training available.39 (Or worse: All too often
the supervisor simply says, Here s your desk; get started. )

on-the-job training
Training a person to learn a job while
working on it.
254 PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

TYPES OF ON-THE-JOB TRAINING The most familiar on-the-job training is

the coaching or understudy method. Here, an experienced worker or the trainee s
supervisor trains the employee. This may involve simply acquiring skills by observing
the supervisor, or (preferably) having the supervisor or job expert show the new
employee the ropes, step-by-step. On-the-job training is part of multifaceted training
at The Men s Wearhouse. It combines on-the-job training with comprehensive initia-
tion programs and continuing-education seminars. Every Men s Wearhouse manager
is accountable for the development of his or her direct subordinates.40 Job rotation, in
which an employee (usually a management trainee) moves from job to job at planned
intervals, is another OJT technique. Special assignments similarly give lower-level
executives firsthand experience in working on actual problems.
It is important that employers don t take the success of an on-the-job training
effort for granted. Instead, the employer should formally plan out and structure the
OJT process and experience. Train the trainers themselves (often the employees
supervisors), and provide the training materials. Trainers should know, for instance,
the principles of motivating learners. Because low expectations may translate into
poor trainee performance, supervisor/trainers should emphasize their high expecta-
tions. Many firms use peer training for OJT; for instance expert employees answer
calls at selected times during the day or participate in in-house radio programs
to answer their peers call-in questions about technical aspects of doing their jobs.41
Others use employee teams (instead of training professionals) to analyze the jobs and
prepare training materials. The employees, already job experts, reportedly conduct
task analyses more quickly and effectively than do training experts.42
THE OJT PROCES Here are some steps to help ensure OJT success.
Step 1: Prepare the Learner
1. Put the learner at ease.
2. Explain why he or she is being taught.
3. Create interest and find out what the learner already knows about the job.
4. Explain the whole job and relate it to some job the worker already knows.
5. Place the learner as close to the normal working position as possible.
6. Familiarize the worker with equipment, materials, tools, and trade terms.
Step 2: Present the Operation
1. Explain quantity and quality requirements.
2. Go through the job at the normal work pace.
3. Go through the job at a slow pace several times, explaining each step. Between oper-
ations, explain the difficult parts, or those in which errors are likely to be made.
4. Again, go through the job at a slow pace several times; explain the key points.
5. Have the learner explain the steps as you go through the job at a slow pace.
Step 3: Do a Tryout
1. Have the learner go through the job several times, slowly, explaining each step to you.
Correct mistakes and, if necessary, do some of the complicated steps the first few times.
2. Run the job at the normal pace.
3. Have the learner do the job, gradually building up skill and speed.
4. As soon as the learner demonstrates ability to do the job, let the work begin, but
don t abandon him or her.
Step 4: Follow-Up
1. Designate to whom the learner should go for help.
2. Gradually decrease supervision, checking work from time to time.
3. Correct faulty work patterns before they become a habit. Show why the method
you suggest is superior.
4. Compliment good work.
 CHAPTER 8 TRAINING AND DEVELOPING EMPLOYEES 255

Apprenticeship Training
Apprenticeship training is a process by which people become skilled workers, usually
through a combination of formal learning and long-term on-the-job training. It tradi-
tionally involves having the learner/apprentice study under the tutelage of a master
craftsperson. When steelmaker Dofasco discovered that many of their employees
would be retiring during the next 5 to 10 years, the company decided to revive its
apprenticeship training. Applicants are prescreened. New recruits then spend about
32 months in an internal apprenticeship training program, learning various jobs
under the tutelage of experienced employees.43
The U.S. Department of Labor s National Apprenticeship System promotes
apprenticeship programs. More than 460,000 apprentices participate in 28,000
programs, and registered programs can receive federal and state contracts and
other assistance.44 Figure 8-2 lists popular recent apprenticeships.

Informal Learning
Surveys from the American Society for Training and Development estimate that as
much as 80% of what employees learn on the job they learn through informal means,
including performing their jobs on a daily basis with their colleagues.45
Although managers don t manage informal learning, there s still much they can do
to ensure that it occurs. Most of the steps are simple. For example, Siemens Power
Transmission and Distribution in Raleigh, North Carolina, places tools in cafeteria areas
to take advantage of the work-related discussions taking place. Even installing white-
boards with markers can facilitate informal learning. Sun Microsystems implemented
an informal online learning tool it called Sun Learning eXchange. This has evolved
into a platform containing more than 5,000 informal learning items/suggestions
addressing topics ranging from sales to technical support.46

Job Instruction Training

Many jobs (or parts of jobs) consist of a sequence of steps that one best learns step-
by-step. Such step-by-step training is called job instruction training (JIT). First, list
the job s required steps (let s say for using a mechanical paper cutter) each in its proper
sequence. Then (see the following page) list a corresponding key point (if any) beside
each step. The steps in such a job instruction training sheet show trainees what to do, and
the key points show how it s to be done and why.
As an example, when training new UPS drivers to park and disembark, the company
leaves nothing to chance. Among the steps it teaches new drivers are these: Shift into the

FIGURE 8-2 Some Popular

The U.S. Department of Labor s Registered Apprenticeship program offers access to 1,000 career
Apprenticeships
areas, including the following top occupations:
Source: www.doleta.gov/oa, Able seaman
accessed July 3, 2009.
Carpenter
Chef
Child care development specialist
Construction craft laborer
Dental assistant
Electrician
Elevator constructor
Fire medic
Law enforcement agent
Over-the-road truck driver
Pipefitter

apprenticeship training job instruction training (JIT)

A structured process by which people Listing each job s basic tasks, along with
become skilled workers through a key points, in order to provide step-by-step
combination of classroom instruction training for employees.
and on-the-job training.
256 PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Steps Key Points

1. Start motor None

2. Set cutting distance Carefully read scale to prevent wrong-sized cut
3. Place paper on cutting table Make sure paper is even to prevent uneven cut
4. Push paper up to cutter Make sure paper is tight to prevent uneven cut
5. Grasp safety release with Do not release left hand to prevent hand from
left hand being caught in cutter
6. Grasp cutter release with Do not release right hand to prevent hand from
right hand being caught in cutter
7. Simultaneously pull cutter Keep both hands on corresponding releases avoid
and safety releases hands being on cutting table
8. Wait for cutter to retract Keep both hands on releases to avoid having hands
on cutting table
9. Retract paper Make sure cutter is retracted; keep both hands away
from releases
10. Shut off motor None

lowest gear or into park; turn off the ignition; apply the parking brake; release the
seatbelt with your left hand; open the door; and place the key on your ring finger.47

Lectures
Lecturing is a quick and simple way to present knowledge to large groups of trainees, as
when the sales force needs to learn a new product s features.48 Here are some guidelines
for presenting a lecture:49
* Don t start out on the wrong foot. For instance, don t open with an irrelevant joke.
* Speak only about what you know well.
* Give your listeners signals. For instance, if you have a list of items, start by saying
something like, There are four reasons why the sales reports are necessary. . . .
The first . . .
* Use anecdotes and stories to show rather than tell.
* Be alert to your audience. Watch body language for negative signals like fidgeting.
If they re not looking at you, they may be bored.
* Maintain eye contact with the audience.
* Make sure everyone in the room can hear. Repeat questions that you get from trainees.
* Control your hands. Leave them hanging naturally at your sides.
* Talk from notes rather than from a script. Write out notes on large index cards or
on PowerPoint slides. Use these as an outline.
* Break a long talk into a series of short talks. Speakers often give a short overview
introduction and then spend the rest of a 1-hour presentation going point by point
through their material. Experts suggest instead breaking the long talk into a series of
10-minute talks, each with its own introduction. Write brief PowerPoint slides, and
spend about a minute on each. Each introduction highlights what you ll discuss, why
it s important to the audience, and your credibility why they should listen to you.50
* Practice. If possible, rehearse under conditions similar to those under which you
will actually give your presentation.

Programmed Learning
Whether the medium is a textbook, PC, or the Internet, programmed learning (or
programmed instruction) is a step-by-step, self-learning method that consists of three parts:
1. Presenting questions, facts, or problems to the learner
2. Allowing the person to respond
3. Providing feedback on the accuracy of answers, with instructions on what to do next
 CHAPTER 8 TRAINING AND DEVELOPING EMPLOYEES 257

Generally, programmed learning presents facts and follow-up questions frame by

frame. When the learner responds, subsequent frames provide feedback on the answer s
accuracy. What the next question is often depends on how the learner answers the
previous question. The built-in feedback from the answers provides reinforcement.
Programmed learning reduces training time. It also facilitates learning by letting
trainees learn at their own pace, get immediate feedback, and reduce their risk of error.
Some argue that trainees do not learn much more from programmed learning than
from a textbook. Yet studies generally support programmed learning s effectiveness.
A typical study focused on 40 second year undergraduate students in an organic
chemistry-I course. Some studied in a conventional lecture setting and others used
programmed learning. The researchers concluded that The findings suggest that
programmed learning could be considered as a better alternative to conventional
lecturing in teaching stereochemistry. 51
Intelligent tutoring systems take programmed learning one step further. In addition
to the usual programmed learning, computerized intelligent tutoring systems
learn what questions and approaches worked and did not work for the learner, and
then adjust the instructional sequence to the trainee s unique needs.

Audiovisual-Based Training
Although increasingly replaced by Web-based methods, audiovisual-based training
techniques like DVDs, films, PowerPoint, and audiotapes are still popular.52 The Ford
Motor Company uses videos in its dealer training sessions to simulate problems and
reactions to various customer complaints, for example. Consider using them in the
following situations:
1. When there is a need to illustrate how to follow a certain sequence over time, such
as when teaching machine repair. The stop-action, instant replay, and fast- or
slow-motion capabilities of audiovisuals can be useful here.
2. When there is a need to show trainees events not easily demonstrable in live
lectures, such as a visual tour of a factory.

Vestibule Training
With vestibule training, trainees learn on the actual or simulated equipment they will
use on the job, but are trained off the job (perhaps in a separate room or vestibule).
Vestibule training is necessary when it s too costly or dangerous to train employees on
the job. Putting new assembly-line workers right to work could slow production, for
instance, and when safety is a concern as with pilots simulated training may be the
only practical alternative. As an example, UPS uses a life-size learning lab to provide a
40-hour, 5-day realistic training program for driver candidates.53

Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS)

Electronic performance support systems (EPSS) are computerized tools and
displays that automate training, documentation, and phone support.54 When you call
a Dell service rep about a problem with your new computer, he or she is probably
asking questions prompted by an EPSS; it takes you both, step-by-step, through
an analytical sequence. Without the EPSS, Dell would have to train its service reps
to memorize an unrealistically large number of solutions. Aetna Insurance cut its
13-week instructor-led training course for new call center employees by about
2 weeks by providing the employees with performance support tools.55

programmed learning electronic performance support

A systematic method for teaching job skills, systems (EPSS)
involving presenting questions or facts, Sets of computerized tools and displays that
allowing the person to respond, and giving automate training, documentation, and
the learner immediate feedback on the phone support; integrate this automation
accuracy of his or her answers. into applications; and provide support that s
faster, cheaper, and more effective than
traditional methods.
258 PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Performance support systems are modern job aids. Job aids are sets of instructions,
diagrams, or similar methods available at the job site to guide the worker.56 Job aids work
particularly well on complex jobs that require multiple steps, or where it s dangerous to
forget a step. Airline pilots use job aids (such as a checklist of things to do prior to takeoff).
GM s former Electromotive Division gave workers job aids in the form of diagrams. These
show, for example, where the locomotive wiring runs and which color wires go where.

Videoconferencing
Videoconferencing is popular for training geographically dispersed employees,
and involves delivering programs via compressed audio and video signals over cable
broadband lines, the Internet, or satellite. Vendors such as Cisco offer videoconfer-
ence products such as Webex and TelePresence (www.cisco.com/en/US/products/
ps10352/index.html). Employers typically use videoconferencing technology
with other technology. For example, Cisco s Unified Video Conferencing (CUVC)
product line combines Cisco group collaboration and decision-making software with
videoconferencing, video telephony, and realistic TelePresence capabilities.57
When Cisco organized a training program for its partners, it naturally used its
videoconferencing capabilities. The course is A hands-on course designed to assist
System Engineers and IT managers to fully understand the features, benefits and
overall operation of Cisco s videoconferencing network components. 58

Computer-Based Training (CBT)

Computer-based training refers to training methods that use interactive computer-
based systems to increase knowledge or skills. For example, employers use CBT to teach
employees safe methods for avoiding falls; the system lets the trainees replay the lessons
and answer questions, and are especially effective when paired with actual practice
under a trainer s watchful eye.59
Computer-based training is increasingly interactive and realistic. For example,
interactive multimedia training integrates the use of text, video, graphics, photos, anima-
tion, and sound to produce a complex training environment with which the trainee inter-
acts.60 In training a physician, for instance, such a system lets a medical student take a
hypothetical patient s medical history, conduct an examination, and analyze lab tests.
Then, by clicking the examine chest button, the student can choose a type of chest
examination and even hear the sounds of the person s heart. The medical student can then
interpret the sounds and draw conclusions upon which to base a diagnosis. Virtual reality
training takes this realism a step further, by putting trainees into a simulated environment.

Simulated Learning
Simulated learning means different things to different people. A survey asked training
professionals what experiences qualified as simulated learning experiences. The
percentages of trainers choosing each experience were:
* Virtual reality-type games, 19%
* Step-by-step animated guide, 8%
* Scenarios with questions and decision trees overlaying animation, 19%
* Online role-play with photos and videos, 14%
* Software training including screenshots with interactive requests, 35%
* Other, 6%61
Virtual reality puts the trainee in an artificial three-dimensional environment that
simulates events and situations that might be experienced on the job.62 Sensory devices
transmit how the trainee is responding to the computer, and the trainee sees, feels and
hears what is going on, assisted by special goggles and auditory and sensory devices.63
U.S. ARMY EXAMPLE The U.S. Armed Forces use simulation-based training
programs for soldiers and officers. For example, the army developed video game type
training programs called Full-Spectrum Command and Full-Spectrum Warrior for
 CHAPTER 8 TRAINING AND DEVELOPING EMPLOYEES 259

training troops in urban warfare. According to one description, the two games offer
extremely realistic features, within a context that emphasizes real-time leadership and
decision-making skills.64

OTHER EXAMPLES Employers use computerized simulations to inject more

realism into their training. For example, Orlando-based Environmental Tectonics
Corporation created an Advanced Disaster Management simulation for emergency
medical response trainees. One of the simulated scenarios involves a passenger plane
crashing into a runway. So realistic that it s unsettling, trainees including firefighters
and airport officials respond to the simulated crash s sights and sounds via pointing
devices and radios.65 When Cisco Systems decided it needed a better way to train the
tens of thousands of Cisco trainees for Cisco certification exams it turned to gaming.
Cisco embedded the learning within a video game like atmosphere that included
music, graphics, and sound effects.66 Training simulations are expensive, but for
larger companies the cost per employee is usually reasonable.67
One way to reduce the cost is to capitalize on virtual environments such as Second
Life. For example, British Petroleum uses Second Life to train new gas station
employees. The aim here is to show new gas station employees how to use the safety
features of gasoline storage tanks. BP built three-dimensional renderings of the tank
systems in Second Life. Trainees could use these to see underground and observe
the effects of using the safety devices.68

ADVANTAGES In general, interactive and simulated technologies reduce learning time

by an average of 50%.69 Other advantages include instructional consistency (computers,
unlike human trainers, don t have good days and bad days), mastery of learning (if the
trainee doesn t learn it, he or she generally can t move on to the next step), increased reten-
tion, and increased trainee motivation (resulting from responsive feedback).
Specialist multimedia software houses such as Graphic Media of Portland, Oregon,
produce much of the content for these programs. They produce both custom titles
and generic programs such as a $999 package for teaching workplace safety.

Interactive Learning
Employers are also moving from textbook and classroom-based learning to interactive
learning. For example, Cheesecake Factory employees use VideoCafé, a YouTube-type
platform, to let employees upload and share video snippets on job-related topics,
including customer greetings and food preparation. The company is also emphasizing
interactive games, including a simulation that shows employees how to build the
perfect hamburger. Amongst vendors, Learning Tree International employs class-
room, live online, and on-site training solutions that resonate with Gen Y learners
because of their interactive features; hands-on exercises; and live, online experiences. 70

Internet-Based Training
Trainers increasingly employ Internet-based learning to deliver programs. Until 2004,
ADP s new sales associate training required two weeks of expensive classroom training
at ADP s Atlanta, Georgia, training center. Today, ADP trains its new salespeople
online, using a Blackboard learning management system similar to one used by many
online college students.71 The Italian eyewear company Luxottica (whose brands
include LensCrafters, Pearl Vision, and Sunglass Hut) provides standardized training
to its 38,000 employees worldwide via instant access online to information such as new
products and regulations.72
There are two basic ways to offer online courses to employees. First, the employer can
encourage and/or facilitate having its employees take relevant online courses from either

job aid
A set of instructions, diagrams, or similar
methods available at the job site to guide
the worker.
260 PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

its own online (intranet) offerings or from the hundreds of online training vendors on the
Web. For example, the employer might arrange with www.puresafety. com to let its
employees take one or more occupational safety courses from those puresafety.com offers.

LEARNING PORTALS The second approach is to arrange with an online training

vendor to make its courses available via the employer s intranet-based learning portal.
A learning portal is a section of an employer s Web site that offers employees online
access to many or all of the training courses they need to succeed at their jobs. Most
often, the employer contracts with applications service providers (ASPs). A Google
search for e-learning companies reveals many vendors such as SkillSoft, Plateau
Systems, and Employment Law Learning Technologies. When employees go to their
firm s learning portal, they actually access the menu of training courses that the ASP
offers for the employer.

Improving Productivity Through HRIS

Learning Management Systems
Learning management systems (LMS) are special software tools that support
Internet training by helping employers identify training needs, and in scheduling,
delivering, assessing, and managing the online training itself. For example, General
Motors uses an LMS to help its dealers in Africa and the Middle East deliver
training. The Internet-based LMS includes a course catalog, supervisor approved
self-enrollment, and pre- and post-course tests. The system then automatically
schedules the individual s training.73 Blackboard and WebCT are two familiar
college-oriented learning management systems.
The movement today is toward integrating the e-learning system with the
company s enterprisewide information systems. In that way, for instance, employers
automatically update skills inventory and succession plans as employees complete
their training.74

USING INTERNET-BASED LEARNING Whether to use e-learning often comes

down to efficiency. Web learning doesn t necessarily teach faster or better. In one
review of the evidence, Web-based instruction was a bit more effective than class-
room instruction for teaching memory of facts and principles, and Web-based
instruction and classroom instruction were equally effective for teaching informa-
tion about how to perform a task or action.75 But of course, the need to teach large
numbers of students remotely, or to enable students to study at their leisure, often
makes e-learning so much more efficient that the small differences in Web-based
versus classroom learning become somewhat meaningless.76
In practice, many employers opt for blended learning. Here, the trainees make
use of several delivery methods (such as manuals, in-class lectures, self-guided
e-learning programs, and Web-based seminars or webinars ) to learn the material.77
Intuit (which makes software such as TurboTax) uses instructor-led classroom training
for bringing in new distributors and getting them up to speed. Then they use their
virtual classroom systems to provide additional training, for monthly meetings with
distributors, and for short classes on special software features.78

Mobile Learning
Mobile learning (or on-demand learning ) means delivering learning content on
demand via mobile devices like cell phones, laptops, and iPads, wherever and whenever
the learner has the time and desire to access it.79 For example, using dominKnow s
(www.dominknow.com) iPod touch and iPhone-optimized Touch Learning Center
Portal, trainees can log in and take full online courses.80
Employers use mobile learning to deliver corporate training and downloads on
everything from how to close an important sales deal to optimizing organizational
change to learning business Spanish . . . You can be . . . riding your bike while listening
to the training program.81 Capital One purchased 3,000 iPods for trainees who had
 CHAPTER 8 TRAINING AND DEVELOPING EMPLOYEES 261

enrolled in one of 20 instructor-led courses at its Capital One University. The training
department then had an Internet audio book provider create an audio learning site
within Capital One s firewall. Employees used it to download the instructor-requested
books and other materials to their iPods.82 IBM uses mobile learning to deliver just-
in-time information (for instance, about new product features) to its sales force.
To increase such learning s accessibility, IBM s training department often breaks up, say,
an hour program into 10-minute pieces. That way, employees needn t put away a full
hour to listen. Some employers use blogs to communicate learning to trainees.83 JP
Morgan encourages employees to use instant messaging as a quick learning device, for
instance, to quickly update colleagues about new products.

The Virtual Classroom

Conventional Web-based learning tends to be limited to the sorts of online learning
with which many students are already familiar reading PowerPoint presentations,
participating in instant message type chat rooms, and taking online exams, for instance.
The virtual classroom takes online learning to a new level. A virtual classroom
uses special collaboration software to enable multiple remote learners, using their
PCs or laptops, to participate in live audio and visual discussions, communicate via
written text, and learn via content such as PowerPoint slides.
The virtual classroom combines the best of Web-based learning offered by systems
like Blackboard and WebCT with live video and audio. For example, Elluminate Live!
enables learners to communicate with clear, two-way audio; build communities with
user profiles and live video; collaborate with chat and shared whiteboards; and learn
with shared applications such as PowerPoint slides.84

Lifelong and Literacy Training Techniques

Lifelong learning means providing employees with continuing learning experiences
over their tenure with the firm, with the aims of ensuring they have the opportunity
to learn the skills they need to do their jobs and to expand their horizons. For
example, one senior waiter at the Rhapsody restaurant in Chicago received his
undergraduate degree and began work toward a master of social work using the
lifelong learning account (LiLA) program his employer offers. Lifelong learning may
thus range from basic remedial skills (for instance, English as a second language)
to college. Somewhat similar to 401(k) plans, employers and employees contribute to
LiLA plans (without the tax advantages of 401(k) plans), and the employee can use
these funds to better himself or herself.85

LITERACY TRAINING By one estimate, about 39 million people in the United

States have learning disabilities. Another study called the American workforce
ill-prepared.86 Yet today s emphasis on teamwork and quality requires that employees
read, write, and understand numbers.87
Employers often turn to private firms like Education Management Corporation
to provide the requisite education.88 Another simple literacy training approach is to
have supervisors teach basic skills by giving employees writing and speaking exercises.89
For example, if an employee needs to use a manual to find out how to change a part,
teach that person how to use the index to locate the relevant section. Another
approach is to bring in outside professionals (such as teachers from a local high
school) to teach, say, remedial reading or writing. Having employees attend adult
education or high school evening classes is another option.

virtual classroom lifelong learning

Teaching method that uses special Provides employees with continuing learning
collaboration software to enable multiple experiences over their tenure with the firm,
remote learners, using their PCs or laptops, to with the aims of ensuring they have the
participate in live audio and visual discussions, opportunity to learn the skills they need
communicate via written text, and learn via to do their jobs and to expand their
content such as PowerPoint slides. occupational horizons.
262 PART 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

MANAGING THE NEW WORKFORCE

Diversity Training
Diversity training aims to improve cross-cultural sensitivity, with the goal of
fostering more harmonious working relationships among a firm s employees.
Such training typically includes improving interpersonal skills, understanding and
valuing cultural differences, improving technical skills, socializing employees into
the corporate culture, indoctrinating new workers into the U.S. work ethic,
improving English proficiency and basic math skills, and improving bilingual skills
for English-speaking employees. 90 For example, IBM has online programs
to educate managers regarding diversity, inclusive leadership, and sexual harass-
ment. Training materials include interactive learning modules that enable
trainees to practice what they ve learned, testimonials from IBM executives,
and self-assessment tools. 91
Most employers opt for an off-the-shelf diversity training program such as Just Be
F.A.I.R.: A practical approach to diversity and the workplace, from VisionPoint
productions. The package includes streaming video, a facilitator and discussion
guide, participant materials and workbook, a DVD with print materials, PowerPoint
slides, and two videos (the purchase price for the entire program is about $1,000).
It includes, for instance, vignettes illustrating such things as the importance of
communicating, and the potential pitfalls of stereotyping people.92

Team Training
Teamwork is not something that always comes naturally. Companies therefore devote
many hours to training new employees to listen to each other and to cooperate. Toyota s
training process stresses dedication to teamwork. For example, the program uses short
exercises to illustrate examples of good and bad teamwork, and to mold new employees
attitudes regarding good teamwork.
A team-building program at a Baltimore Coca-Cola plant illustrates what team
training typically involves.93 In this case, the plant suffered from high turnover and
absenteeism. The new plant manager decided to reorganize around teams and to use
team training to support the new organization.
Team training focused on technical, interpersonal, and team management issues.
In terms of technical training, for instance, management encouraged team employees
to learn each other s jobs, with the aim of encouraging flexible team assignments.
Cross training means training employees to do different tasks or jobs than their own;
doing so facilitates flexibility and job rotation, as when you expect team members to
occasionally share jobs.
When teamwork fails, it is often due to interpersonal problems such as intra-team
conflict, lack of agreement, guarded communications, and personal criticism. In this
case, team training therefore included interpersonal skills training such as in listening,
handling conflict, and negotiating.94 In practice, effective teams also require certain
team management skills. In this case, team management skills included training in
problem solving, meetings management, consensus decision making, and team leader-
ship (since each team member had to exercise team leadership at one time or another).
Employers also use team training to build stronger management teams. This often
involves special training methods. For example, some use outdoor adventure or
extreme training such as Outward Bound programs to build teamwork. Such training
usually involves taking a firm s management team out into rugged, mountainous
terrain. Activities might include, for instance, white water rafting, and maneuvering
through obstacle courses.95 The aim is to foster trust and cooperation among trainees.
For example, the chief financial officer for a bank helped organize a retreat for 73 of his
firm s financial officers and accountants. As he said, They are very individualistic
in their approach to their work. . . . What I have been trying to do is get them to see the
power of acting more like a team. 96 Other team training methods include action
learning and team building, both of which we ll address later in this chapter.