TECHNICAL

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
TRAINING COURSE

BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

First Edition: 2006

Copies:

All rights whatsoever in this book are strictly reserved and no portion of
it may be reproduced any process for any purpose without the written
permission of the copyright owners.
 MODEL PAPER

SECTION – A

Note: 1) Attempt all questions

2) Each question carries 2 marks 10x2=20

1. Name any four important stones used in the building construction

2. What are the advantages of refracting bricks?
3. What is meant by bulking of sand?
4. Define compaction of concrete
5. Name any four wood-based products
6. Define bearing capacity of soil
7. What are the uses of adhesives?
8. What are the important sources of dampness?
9. What are the uses of stone masonry?
10. What are the advantages of R.C.C. floors?
SECTION – B

Note: 1) Attempt any five of the following

2) Each question carries 6 marks 5x6=30

11. Explain geological classification of stones

12. Explain the quantities of good brick
13. Explain the preparation of cement mortar
14. Explain the following
1. Curing of concrete 2. Uses of steel

15. Explain the construction of flat roof madras terrace roof

16. Explain the functions of structural components of building

17. Explain the defects in timber

18. Explain different types of cement

 CONTENTS

Chapter Name of the chapter No. of Pg. No.

No. periods

1. Stones 10 1
2. Bricks 10 16
3. Cement 10 43
4. Sand 10 54
5. Mortar 09 60
6. Concrete 10 70
7. Timber 09 80
8. Miscellaneous Building
Materials 20 95
9. Types of Buildings 05 120
10. Foundations 15 132
11. Masonry 05 156
12. Floors 07 194
13. Roofs 10 208
14. Damp proof & Fire proof
Construction 07 233

MODEL PAPER
REFERENCE BOOKS
Stones Page 1

PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS

Introduction
Building materials have an important role to play in this modern age of technology. Although
their most important use is in construction activities, no field of engineering is conceivable
without their use. Also, the building materials industry is an important contributor in our national
economy as its output governs both the rate and the quality of construction work.
There are certain general factors which affect the choice of materials for a particular scheme.
Perhaps the most important of these is the climatic background. Obviously, different materials
and forms of construction have developed in different parts of the world as a result of climatic
differences. Another factor is the economic aspect of the choice of materials. The rapid advance
of constructional methods, the increasing introduction of mechanical tools and plants, and
changes in the organisation of the building industry may appreciably influence the choice of
materials.
Due to the great diversity in the usage of buildings and installations and the various processes
of production, a great variety of requirements are placed upon building materials calling for a
very wide range of their properties: strength at low and high temperatures, resistance to ordinary
water and sea water, acids and alkalis etc. Also, materials for interior decoration of residential
and public buildings, gardens and parks, etc. should be, by their very purpose, pleasant to the
eye, durable and strong. Specific properties of building materials serve as a basis for subdividing
them into separate groups. For example, mineral binding materials are subdivided into air and
hydraulic-setting varieties. The principal properties of building materials predetermine their
applications. Only a comprehensive knowledge of the properties of materials allows a rational
choice of materials for specific service conditions.

The importance of standardisation cannot be over emphasised. It requires the quality of

materials and manufactured items to be not below a specific standard level. However, the
importance of standardisation is not limited to this factor alone, since each revised standard
places higher requirements upon the products than the preceding one, with the effect that the
industry concerned has to keep up with the standards and improved production techniques. Thus,
the industry of building materials gains both in quantity and quality, so that new, more efficient
products are manufactured and the output of conventional materials is increased.
To develop products of greater economic efficiency, it is important to compare the
performance of similar kinds of materials under specific service conditions. Expenditures for
running an installation can be minimised by improving the quality of building materials and
products. Building industry economists are thus required to have a good working knowledge,
first, of the building materials, second, of their optimum applications on the basis of their
principal properties, and, third, of their manufacturing techniques, in order that the buildings and
installations may have optimum engineering, economic performance and efficiency. Having
acquired adequate knowledge, an economist specialising in construction becomes an active
Page 2 Building Materials & Construction

participant in the development of the building industry and the manufacture of building
materials.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Density () is the mass of a unit volume of homogeneous material denoted by

M
= g/ cm3
V
where M = mass (g)
V = volume (cm3)
Density of some building materials is as follows:
Material Density (g/cm3)
Brick 2.5–2.8 Granite 2.6–2.9
Portland cement 2.9–3.1
Wood 1.5–1.6
Steel 7.8–7.9
Bulk density (b) is the mass of a unit volume of material in its natural state (with pores and
voids) calculated as

= M kg/ m3 V
b

where M = mass of specimen (kg)

V = volume of specimen in its natural state (m3)

For most materials, bulk density is less than density but for liquids and materials like glass and
dense stone materials, these parameters are practically the same. Properties like strength and heat
conductivity are greatly affected by their bulk density. Bulk densities of some of the building
materials are as follows:

Material Bulk density (kg/m3)

Brick 1600–1800 Granite 2500–
2700 Sand 1450–1650
Pine wood 500–600
Steel 7850
Density index (o) is the ratio,

o= bulk density
density
Stones Page 3

b
=
❑

It indicates the degree to which the volume of a material is filled with solid matter. For almost
all building materials o is less than 1.0 because there are no absolutely dense bodies in nature.

Specific weight() also known as the unit weight) is the weight per unit volume of material,
=.g
Where
 = specific weight (kN/ m3)
 = density of the material (kg/ m)
g = gravity (m/ s2)
Specific weight can be used in civil engineering to determine the weight of a structure
designed to carry certain loads while remaining intact and remaining within limits regarding
deformation. It is also used in fluid dynamics as a property of the fluid (e.g., the specific weight
of water on Earth is 9.80 kN/ m3 at 4°C).
The terms specific gravity, and less often specific weight, are also used for relative density.
Specific gravity (Gs) of solid particles of a material is the ratio of weight/ mass of a given
volume of solids to the weight/ mass of an equal volume of water at 4°C.
s s
Gs = =
w w

At 4° C w = 1 g/cc or 9.8 kN/m3

True or absolute specific gravity(Ga) If both the permeable and impermeable voids are
excluded to determine the true volume of solids, the specific gravity is called true or absolute
specific gravity.

(s ) a
Ga =
w

The absolute specific gravity is not much of practical use.

Apparent or mass specific gravity(Gm) If both the permeable and impermeable voids are
included to determine the true volume of solids, the specific gravity is called apparent specific
gravity. It is the ratio of mass density of fine grained material to the mass density of water.
Page 4 Building Materials & Construction

❑
Gm = w

porosity is the degree to which volume of the material of the material is interspersed with pores.
It is expressed as a ratio of the volume of pores to that of the specimen.
Vv
n=
V

Porosity is indicative of other major properties of material, such as bulk density, heat
conductivity, durability, etc. Dense materials, which have low porosity, are used for
constructions requiring high mechanical strength on other hand, walls of buildings are
commonly built of materials, featuring considerable porosity.
Following inter relationship exists between void ratio and the porosity. E
e
n=
1+ e

Void ratio(e) is defined as the ratio of volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of solids (Vs).

Vv
e=
Vs

If an aggregate is poured into a container of any sort, it will be observed that not all of the space
within the container is filled. To the vacant spaces between the particles of aggregate the name
voids is applied. Necessarily, the percentage of voids like the specific weight is affected by the
compactness of the aggregate and the amount of moisture which it contains. Generally void
determinations are made on material measured loose.
There are two classes of methods commonly employed for measuring voids, the direct and the
indirect. The most-used direct method consists in determining the volume of liquid, generally
water, which is required to fill the voids in a given quantity of material. Since in poring water
into fine aggregate it is impossible to expel all the air between the particles, the measured voids
are smaller than the actual. It therefore becomes evident that the above direct method should not
be used with fine aggregate unless the test is conducted in a vacuum. By the indirect method, the
solid volume of a known quantity of aggregate is obtained by pouring the material into a
calibrated tank partially filled with water; the difference between the apparent volume of
material and the volume of water displaced equals the voids. If very accurate results are desired
void measurements should be corrected for the porosity of the aggregate and moisture it
contains.
% is the property of a material to absorb water vapour from air. It is influenced by air-
temperature and relative humidity; pores—their types, number and size, and by the nature of
substance involved.
Stones Page 5

denotes the ability of the material to absorb and retain water. It is expressed as percentage in
weight or of the volume of dry material:
M 1−M
Ww = × 100
M
M 1−M
Wv =
V

where M1 = mass of saturated material (g)

M = mass of dry material (g)

V = volume of material including the pores (mm3)
Water absorption by volume is always less than 100 per cent, whereas that by weight of
porous material may exceed 100 per cent.
The properties of building materials are greatly influenced when saturated. The ratio of
compressive strength of material saturated with water to that in dry state is known as coefficient
of softening and describes the water resistance of materials. For materials like clay which soak
readily it is zero, whereas for materials like glass and metals it is one. Materials with coefficient
of softening less than 0.8 should not be recommended in the situations permanently exposed to
the action of moisture.
Weathering resistance is the ability of a material to endure alternate wet and dry conditions for a
long period without considerable deformation and loss of mechanical strength.
Water permeability is the capacity of a material to allow water to penetrate under pressure.
Materials like glass, steel and bitumen are impervious.
Frost resistance denotes the ability of a water-saturated material to endure repeated freezing and
thawing with considerable decrease of mechanical strength. Under such conditions the water
contained by the pores increases in volume even up to 9 per cent on freezing. Thus, the walls of
the pores experience considerable stresses and may even fail.
Heat conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. It is influenced by nature of
material, its structure, porosity, character of pores and mean temperature at which heat exchange
takes place. Materials with large size pores have high heat conductivity because the air inside the
pores enhances heat transfer. Moist materials have a higher heat conductivity than drier ones.
This property is of major concern for materials used in the walls of heated buildings since it will
affect dwelling houses.
Thermal capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat described by its specific heat.
Thermal capacity is of concern in the calculation of thermal stability of walls of heated buildings
and heating of a material, e.g. for concrete laying in winter.
Page 6 Building Materials & Construction

Fire resistance is the ability of a material to resist the action of high temperature without any
appreciable deformation and substantial loss of strength. Fire resistive materials are those which
char, smoulder, and ignite with difficulty when subjected to fire or high temperatures for long
period but continue to burn or smoulder only in the presence of flame, e.g. wood impregnated
with fire proofing chemicals. Non-combustible materials neither smoulder nor char under the
action of temperature. Some of the materials neither crack nor lose shape such as clay bricks,
whereas some others like steel suffer considerable deformation under the action of high
temperature.
Refractoriness denotes the ability of a material to withstand prolonged action of high
temperature without melting or losing shape. Materials resisting prolonged temperatures of
1580°C or more are known as refractory.
High-melting materials can withstand temperature from 1350–1580°C, whereas low-melting
materials withstand temperature below 1350°C.

Chemical resistance is the ability of a material to withstand the action of acids, alkalis, sea water
and gases. Natural stone materials, e.g. limestone, marble and dolomite are eroded even by weak
acids, wood has low resistance to acids and alkalis, bitumen disintegrates under the action of
alkali liquors.
Durability is the ability of a material to resist the combined effects of atmospheric and other
factors.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The important mechanical properties considered for building materials are: strength,
compressive, tensile, bending, impact, hardness, plasticity, elasticity and abrasion resistance.
Strength is the ability of the material to resist failure under the action of stresses caused by
loads, the most common being compression, tension, bending and impact. The importance of
studying the various strengths will be highlighted from the fact that materials such as stones and
concrete have high compressive strength but a low ( 1/ 5 to 1/ 50) tensile, bending and impact
strengths.
Compressive Strength is found from tests on standard cylinders, prisms and cubes—smaller
for homogeneous materials and larger for less homogeneous ones. Prisms and cylinders have
lower resistance than cubes of the same cross-sectional area, on the other hand prisms with
heights smaller than their sides have greater strength than cubes. This is due to the fact that when
a specimen is compressed the plattens of the compression testing machine within which the
specimen is placed, press tight the bases of the specimen and the resultant friction forces prevent
the expansion of the adjoining faces, while the central lateral parts of the specimen undergoes
transversal expansion. The only force to counteract this expansion is the adhesive force between
the particles of the material. That is why a section away from the press plates fails early.
The test specimens of metals for tensile strength are round bars or strips and that of binding
materials are of the shape of figure eight.
Stones Page 7

Bending Strength tests are performed on small bars (beams) supported at their ends and
subjected to one or two concentrated loads which are gradually increased until failure takes
place.
Hardness is the ability of a material to resist penetration by a harder body. Mohs scale is used to
find the hardness of materials. It is a list of ten minerals arranged in the order of increasing
hardness (Section 3.2). Hardness of metals and plastics is found by indentation of a steel ball.
Elasticity is the ability of a material to restore its initial form and dimensions after the load is
removed. Within the limits of elasticity of solid bodies, the deformation is proportional to the
stress. Ratio of unit stress to unit deformation is termed as modulus of elasticity. A large value of
it represents a material with very small deformation.
Plasticity is the ability of a material to change its shape under load without cracking and to
retain this shape after the load is removed. Some of the examples of plastic materials are steel,
copper and hot bitumen.

CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR UNDER STRESS

The common characteristics of building materials under stress are ductility, brittleness, stiffness,
flexibility, toughness, malleability and hardness.
The ductile materials can be drawn out without necking down, the examples being copper and
wrought iron. Brittle materials have little or no plasticity. They fail suddenly without warning.
Cast iron, stone, brick and concrete are comparatively brittle materials having a considerable
amount of plasticity. Stiff materials have a high modulus of elasticity permitting small
deformation for a given load. Flexible materials on the other hand have low modulus of elasticity
and bend considerably without breakdown. Tough materials withstand heavy shocks. Toughness
depends upon strength and flexibility. Malleable materials can be hammered into sheets without
rupture. It depends upon ductility and softness of material. Copper is the most malleable
material. Hard materials resist scratching and denting, for example cast iron and chrome steel.
Materials resistant to abrasion such as manganese are also known as hard materials.

EXERCISES

l. (a) Why is it important to study the properties of building materials? (b) List
and define the physical properties of building materials.
2. (a) What are the factors influencing the choice of a building material?
(b) Why is it important to make standards for building materials?
3. Define the following:
(a) Density (b) Bulk density
(c) Density index (d) Specific weight
(e) Porosity (f) Void ratio
4. Write short notes on the following:
Page 8 Building Materials & Construction

(a) Refractoriness (b) Heat conductivity

(c) Selection of building materials (d) Fire resistive materials

STONES

1.0 Introduction:

All the building structures are composed of different types of materials. These materials
are either called building materials or materials of construction. It is very essential for a
builder, may be an architecture or engineer or contractor, to become conversant
thoroughly with these building materials. The knowledge of different types of material,
their properties and uses for different purposes provides and important tool in the hands of
the builders in achieving economy in material cost. The material cost in a building range
30 to 50 percent cost of total cost construction. In addition to material economy, the
correct use of material results in better structural strength, functional efficiency and
esthetic appearance

1.1 Classification of Rocks:

Building stones are obtained from rocks occurring in nature and classified in three ways.

1. Geological classification
2. Physical classification
3. Chemical classification

I. Geological Classification:

According to this classification, the rocks are of the following types.

a. Igneous rocks: Rocks that are formed by cooling of Magana (molten or pasty rocky
material) are known as igneous rocks. Eg: Granite, Basalt and Dolerite etc.
Stones Page 9

b. Sedimentary rocks: these rocks are formed by the deposition of production of

weathering on the pre-existing rocks. Examples: gravel, sandstone, limestone, gypsum,
lignite etc.
c. Metamorphic rocks. These rocks are formed by the change in character of the pre-
existing rocks. Igneous as well as sedimentary rocks are changed in character when they
are subject to great heat and pressure. Known as metamorphism.
Examples: Quartzite, Schist, Slate, Marble and Gneisses.

II. Physical Classification:

This classification based on general structure of rocks.

According to this, the rocks are classified into three types

a. Stratified Rocks: These rocks posses planes of stratification or cleavage and such rocks
can be easily split along these planes
Ex: sedimentary rocks
b. An stratified rocks: The structure may be crystalline granular or compact granular.
Examples: Igneous rocks and Sedimentary rocks affected by movements of the earth.
c. Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split up in a definite direction only. Ex:
Metamorphic rocks.

III. Chemical Classification:

According to this classification rocks are classified into three types.
a. Siliceous rocks: In these rocks, silica is predominating. The rocks are hard; durable and
not easily effected by weathering agencies. Ex: Granite, Quartzite, etc.
b. Argillaceous Rocks: In these rocks, clay predominates. The rocks may be dense and
compact or may be soft.
Ex: slates, Laterites etc.

c. Calcareous rocks: In these rocks, calcium carbonate predominates. The durability to

these rocks will depend upon the constituents present in surrounding atmosphere. Ex: Lime
Stone, marble etc.

1.2 Uses of stones:

Page 10 Building Materials & Construction

1. Structure: Stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, arches, roofs,
floors, damp proof course etc.
2.Face works. Stones are adopted to give massive appearance to the structure. Wall are of
bricks and facing is done in stones of desired shades. This is known as composite
masonry.
3. Paving stones: These are used to cover floor of building of various types such as
residential, commercial, industrial etc. They are also adopted to form paving of roads,
foot paths etc.
4. Basic material: Stones are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material
for cement concrete, murrum of roads, calcareous cements, artificial stones, hallow blocks
etc.
5.Misalliances: Stones are also used for (i) ballast for railways (ii) flux in blast furnace
(iii) Blocks in the construction of bridges, piers, abutments, retaining walls, light houses,
dams etc.

1.3 Qualities of a good building stone:

The following are the qualities or requirements of a good building stone.

1. Crushing strength: For a good building stone, the crushing strength should be greater
than l000kg per cm2.
2. Appearance: Good building stone should be a uniform colour, and free from clay holes,
spots of other colour bands etc capable of preserving the colour for longtime.
3. Durability: A good building stone should be durable. The factors like heat and cold
alternative wet and dry, dissolved gases in rain, high wind velocity etc affect the
durability.
4. Fracture: For good building stone its fracture should be sharp, even and clear.
5. Hardness: The hardness greater than 17, treated as hard used in road works. It is between
14 to 17, medium hardness, less 14 said be poor hardness.
6. Percentage wear: For a good building stone, the percentage wear should be equal to or
less then 3 percent.
7. Resistance to fire: A good building stone be fire proof. Sandstone, Argillaceous stone
resists fire quite well
8. Specific gravity: For a good building stone the specific gravity should be greater then 8.7
or so.
9. Texture: A good building stone should have compact fine crystalline structure should be
free from cavities, cracks or patches of stuff or loose material.
Stones Page 11

10. Water absorption: For a good building stone, the percentage absorption by weight after
24 hours should not exceed 0.60.
11. Seasoning: Stones should be well seasoned before putting into use. A period of about 6 to
12 months is considered to be sufficient for proper seasoning.
12. Toughness Index: Impact test, the value of toughness less than 13 – Not tough, between
13 and 19 – Moderate, greater than 19- high

1.4 Characteristics of stones

In order to ensure suitable selection of stone of particular work, one must be conversant
with its composition, characteristics, uses and place of availability.

1.4.1 Granite

1. Igneous rock

2. Composed of quart, felspar and mica and minerals

3. Available in grey, green, brown and pink and red

4. Hard and durable

5. High resistance to weathering

6. The texture varies with its quality

7. Specify gravity 2.7 and compressive strength 700 to 1300 kg/cm2

8. Used for ornamental, road metal, railway ballast, aggregate for concrete; for
construction of bridges, piers and marine works etc.

1.4.2 Balast
1. Igneous rock
2. It is compact, hard and heavy
3.Available in red, yellow grey, blue and greenish black colour
4. Specific gravity is 3 and compressive strength varies 1530 to 1890 kg/cm2.
5. Used for ornamental, rail road ballast, aggregates for concrete etc.
Page 12 Building Materials & Construction

1.4.3 Sand Stone:

1. Sedimentary rock
2. It is available in variety of formations fine grained, coarse grained compact or porous
3. Available in white, green, blue, black, red and yellow.
4. Specific gravity 2.65 to 2.95
5. Compressive strength is 650kgs / cm2
6. Used for ashlar works

1.4.4 Lime Stone:

1. Sedimentary rock: It is available in a variety of forms which differ from one another in
colour Compaction, texture, hardness and durable
a. Compact lime stone
b. Granular lime stone
c. Magnesia lime stone
d. Kanker lime stone
f. Used for paving, road metal, etc

1.4.5 Marble
1. Metamorphic rock
2. Available in white, blue, green, yellow black and red colour 3. High compactness,
4. Suitable for decorative works, wall lining columns, pile, table slabs, hearths, tiled
floors, steps of stair case etc.

1.4.6 Slate:
1. Metamorphic rock
1. Non absorbent, compact fine grained and produce metallic ringing sound when struck
2. Available in black, dark blue, grey, reddish brown etc.
3. Used for providing damp proof course, paving dados etc

1.5. Selection of stones

In contemplating the use of stone for various engineering works, the selection of
the nature and quality of stone is governed by the purpose in view, cost of stone, its
Stones Page 13

ornamental value and durability Suitability various types of stones for different purposes
and situation is briefly discussed below
a. For face work, in general marble, granite and close-grained sand stone are used in the
form of thin slabs (veneers) where the structure subjected to adverse weather effects.
b. For pillars, balustrade, pedestals, columns statues and door and window sill and paving
stone, granite marble and compact lime stone can be recommend because they can take
good polish.
c. For ornamental works such as moulding and carvings, finegrained sand stone, fine grained
marble and fine grained granite are used.

d. For bridges, piers, docks, break-waters and other marine structures the stone should be
very hard, heavy, strong and durable granite and gneiss are recommended for this purpose

e. For road metal, stones should be hard, tough, resistant to abrasion and durable. Basalt and
course-grained granite are generally recommended for this purpose.

f. For railway ballast, the stone should be hard, dense, durable, tough and easily workable
sandstone, compact lime stone, trap and quartzite are commonly used

g. In situation like steps, doors sills, pavings etc where there is a regular flow of traffic, stone
should be hard, dense, easily workable and durable. Marble, slates and sand stones are
commonly use in such places.

h. In fire proof construction, compact sand stone should always be prefferred.

1.6 Artificial stones: These are also known as cast stones or reconstructed stones. Artificial
stones may take up various forms such as
a. Cement concrete: This is the mixture of cement, fine aggregates, coarse
aggregates and water. It may be cast in site or pre-cast if steel is used with cement
concrete, it is known as reinforced cement concrete.
b. Mosaic tiles: Pre-Cast concrete tiles with marble chips at top surface are known
as tiles. They are available in different shades and widely adopted at present.
c. Terrazo : This is a mixture of marble chips and cement. It is used for bathrooms
residential buildings, temples etc.
Advantages of artificial stones:

1. Cavities may be kept in artificial stones to convey pipes, electric wires etc.
Page 14 Building Materials & Construction

2. Grooves can be kept in artificial stone while it is being cast which are useful for fixing
various fittings.
3. It can cast in desired shape

4. It can be made in a single piece and hence trouble of getting large blocks of stone for
lintels, beams etc is avoided.
5. It can be made stronger than natural stone

6. It is cheap and economical

7. It is more durable than natural stone

8. Natural bed is absent in artificial stones and hence, the question of taking precautions with
respect to the natural bed of stones does not arise.

1.7 Aggregates - Grading: Aggregates is derived from igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks or is manufacture from clays, slag etc. The properties of concrete are directly
related to those of its constituents and should be hard, strong, durable, and free from clay,
loam, vegetables and other such foreign matters. The presence of clay or dirt coating
prevents the adhesion of cement on the surface of aggregates and ultimately retards the
setting and hardening of cement and reduces the strength, durability and soundness of
concrete.
Depending upon their size, the aggregates are classified as (i) Fine Aggregative (ii) coarse
aggregates.
(i) Fine Aggregates: The material, most of when passes through 4.75mm I.S. sieve size, is
termed as fine aggregates. It should not contain more than 1 to 8% of fine particles, which
may be obtained from sea, river, lake or pit may be used as fine aggregates but care
should be taken all its impurities must be removed
(ii) Coarse Aggregates: The material whose particles are of such size as are retained on
4.75mm, I.S sieve are called coarse aggregates. The size of the coarse aggregates used
depends upon the nature of work. The maximum size may be 23mm for mass concrete
such as dams etc. and 63mm for plain concrete. Crushed hard stone and gravel is the
common materials used as coarse aggregates for structural concretes. Coarse aggregates
usually obtained by crashing granite, gneiss, crystalline lime stone and good variety of
sandstone etc.

Grading of Aggregates:
Stones Page 15

Grading of aggregates consists of proportionating the fine and coarse aggregates in

such a ratio, so as to get strongest and densest mix with the least amount of cement.
Grading the aggregates is so graded as to have minimum voids when mixed with all
ingredients, and water should render a concrete mass of easy workability.
The grading of aggregates are done by the following methods

(i) By trail – In this method, proportionating of aggregates as to give heaviest weight for
same volume, yield the densest concrete
(ii) By finesse modules method (sieve analysis method): in this method, the samples of
both coarse and fine aggregates are passed through a set of nine standard sieve and the
percentage of sample retained on each of the said sieves is determined. The total of
these percentages divided by 100 gives the finesses modulus of sample
(iii) By minimum voids method: This method is based on the fact, that so obtain dense
concrete the quantity of cement should also be slightly in excess of voids more that the
fine aggregates. In this method the voids in the fine and coarse aggregates are
separately found out with the help of graduated cylinder and water. The percentage of
voids I aggregate, “X” given by the equation.
X = (V1 – V2) x 100

V2

Where v1, volume of water filled

Where v2, volume of aggregates.

(iv) By arbitrary standards: It is a commonly adopted method of propitiating the

aggregates in a concrete mix
for small works of moderate importance. This method is not recommended for large
works or important works in this method, the volume of cement, sand and coarse
aggregates are taken in the proportion of 1:n:2n respectively. The quantity of water to
be used a varied suit the workability descried.
Ex: 1:1:2 M250 rich mix for columns, beams

1:1:3 – M200 Water retaining structures etc

1:3:6 – M150 slab’s columns roads etc

1:3:6 – M100 – foundations,

Page 16 Building Materials & Construction

1:4:8 - For mass concrete.

* * *
Stones Page 17

SYNOPYSIS

1. Building stones obtained from rocks occurring in nature is classified into

a. Geological classification
b. Physical classification
c. Chemical classification
2. According or geological classification rocks are classified as
a. Igneous rocks
b. Sedimentary rocks
c. Metamorphic rocks
3. According to physical classification the rocks are classified into
a. Stratified rocks
b. Unstratified rocks
c. Foliated rocks
4. According to chemical classification the rocks are
a. Silicious rocks
b. Argillaceous rocks
c. Calcareous rocks
5. A good building stone should have the following qualities
a. Crushing strength
b. Appearance
c. Durability
d. Fracture
e. Hardness
f. Percentage wear
g. Resistance to fire
h. Specific gravity
i. Texture
Page 18 Building Materials & Construction

j. Water absorption
k. Seasoning
l. Toughness index
6. The stones are used for
a. Structural work
b. Face work
c. Paving work
d. Basic materials
e. Other purposes like ballast for railways; flux in blast furnace etc
7. The artificial stones are cast stones or reconstructed stones Ex. 1. Cement concrete
2. Mosaic tiles
3. Terrazo
8. The artificial stones are used for to convey pipes, electric wires, fixing various fittings,
cast to any shape, stones for lintels or beams etc.
9. Depending upon their size, the aggregates are classified
a. Fine aggregates
b. Coarse aggregates
10. The grading of aggregates are done by
a. By trail
b. By fineness modulus method
c. By minimum voids method
d. By arbitrary method

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Name the classification of stones.

2. Name the types of rocks according to geological classification.
3. Define igneous rocks.
4. Define sedimentary rocks.
5. Define metamorphic rocks.
6. Name any four building stones.
Stones Page 19

7. Name any four good qualities of stones.

8. Name any two uses of stones.

ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the classification of stones.

2. Explain in detail about the geological classification of stones.
3. Explain the qualities of good building stone.
4. Explain the uses of stones as building materials.
5. Explain physical and chemical classification of stones.
6. Explain the uses of the following building materials.
a) Marble b) Granite c) Basalt d) Sandstone
7. Explain the grading of aggregates.

* * *
Page 20 Building Materials & Construction

CHAPTER-2

BRICKS

Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by drying
and burning these blocks. As bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly arranged, light in
weight and hence bricks replace stones.

2.1 Composition - Manufacture Process.

Composition – Following are the constituents of good brick earth.

Alumina: - It is the chief constituent of every kind of clay. A good brick earth should contain
20 to 30 percent of alumina. This constituent imparts plasticity to earth so that it can be
moulded. If alumina is present in excess, raw bricks shrink and warp during drying and
burning.

Silica-A good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 percent of silica. Silica exists in clay
either as free or combined form. As free sand, it is mechanically mixed with clay and in
combined form; it exists in chemical composition with alumina. Presence of silica prevents
crackers shrinking and warping of raw bricks. It thus imparts uniform shape to the bricks.
Durability of bricks depends on the proper proportion of silica in brick earth. Excess of silica
destroys the cohesion between particles and bricks become brittle.

Lime – A small quantity of lime is desirable in finely powdered state to prevents shrinkage of
raw bricks. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence, its shape is last due to the
splitting of bricks.

Oxide of iron- A small quantity of oxide of Iron to the extent of 5 to 6 percent is desirable in
good brick to imparts red colour to bricks. Excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue
or blackish.

Magnesia- A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts yellow tint to bricks, and
decreases shrinkage. But excess of magnesia decreases shrink leads to the decay of bricks.

The ingredients like, lime, iron pyrites, alkalies, pebbles, organic matter should not present in
good brick earth

Manufacture of bricks:
Bricks Page 21

The manufacturing of brick, the following operations are involved

1. Preparation of clay

2. Moulding

3. Drying

4. Burning

(i) Preparation of clay

The preparation of clay involves following operations
a) Unsoiling: - Top layer of 20cm depth is removed as it contains impurities.

b) Digging: - Clay dug out from ground is spread on level ground about 60cm to 120cm
heaps.
c) Cleaning: -Stones, pebbles, vegetable matter etc removed and converted into powder
form.

d) Weathering: - Clay is exposed to atmosphere from few weeks to full season.

e) Blending: - Clay is made loose and any ingredient to be added to it is spread out at
top and turning it up and down in vertical direction.

f) Tempering: - Clay is brought to a proper degree of hardness, then water is added to

clay and whole mass is kneaded or pressed under the feet of men or cattle for large
scale, tempering is usually done in pug mill as shown in the fig 2.1
Page 22 Building Materials & Construction

Fig 2.1 Pug Mill

Process: - Clay with water is placed in pug mill from the top. When the vertical staff is rotated
by using electric pair, steam or diesel or turned by pair of bullocks. Clay is thoroughly mixed
up by the actions of horizontal arms and knives when clay has been sufficiently pugged, hole
at the bottom of tub, is opened cut and the pugged earth is taken out from ramp for the next
operation of moulding.

Moulding: Clay, which is prepared form pug mill, is sent for the next operation of moulding.
Following are the two ways of moulding.

Hand Moulding: Moulds are rectangular boxes of wood or steel, which are open at top and
bottom. Steel moulds are more durable and used for manufacturing bricks on large scale as
shown in fig 2.2. Bricks prepared by hand moulding are of two types.
Bricks Page 23

Fig 2.2 Wooden mould & Steel mould

a) Ground moulded bricks

b) Table moulded bricks

(a) Ground moulded bricks: ground is first made level and fine sand is sprinkled over it.
Mould is dipped in water and placed over the ground to fill the clay. Extra clay is removed
by wooden or metal strike after the mould is filled forced mould is then lifted up and raw
brick is left on the ground. Mould is then dipped in water every time lower faces of ground
moulded bricks are rough and it is not possible to place frog on such bricks.

Ground moulded bricks of better quality and with frogs on their surface are made by using a
pair of pallet boards and a wooden block

(b) Table-moulded bricks: Process of moulding these bricks is just similar to ground bricks on
a table of size about 2m x 1m.

(1) Machine moulding: This method proves to be economical when bricks in huge quantity
are to be manufactured at the same spot. It is also helpful for moulding hard and string
clay. These machines are broadly classified in two categories

(a) Plastic clay machines

(b) Dry clay machines

a) Plastic clay machines: This machine containing rectangular opening of size equal to
length and width of a brick. Pugged clay is placed in the machine and as it comes out
Page 24 Building Materials & Construction

through the opening, it is cut into strips by wires fixed in frames, so their bricks are called
wire cut bricks.

b) Dry clay machines: In these machines, strong clay is first converted into powder form and
then water is added to form a stiff plastic paste. Such paste is placed in mould and pressed
by machine to form hard and well shaped bricks. These bricks are behavior than ordinary
hand moulded bricks. They carry distinct frogs and exhibit uniform texture.

(2) Drying: The damp bricks, if burnt, are likely to be cracked and distorted. Hence moulded
bricks are dried before they are taken for the next operation of burning. Bricks are laid
along and across the stock in alternate layers. The drying of brick is by the following
means

(i) Artificial drying – drying by tunnels usually 1200C about 1 to 3 days

(ii) Circulation of air- Stacks are arranged in such a way that sufficient air space is left
between them free circulation of air.

(iii)Drying yard- special yards should be prepared slightly higher level prevent the
accumulation of rain water

(iv) Period for frying – usually about 3 to 10 days to bricks to become dry

(v) Screens – screens are necessary, may be provided to avoid direct exposure to wind or sun.

(3) Burning: This is very important operation in the manufacturing of bricks to impart
hardness, strength and makes them dense and durable. Burning of bricks is done either in
clamps or in kilns. Clamps are temporary structures and they are adopted to manufacture
bricks on small scale. Kilns are permanent structures and they are adopted to manufacture
bricks on a large scale. A typical clamp is as shown in fig 2.3
Bricks Page 25

Fig 2.3 Clamp

(1) A trapezoidal shape in plan with shorter is slightly in excavation and wider end raised at an
angle of 150 from ground level

(2) A brick wall with mud is constructed on the short end and a layer of 70cm to 80cm thick fuel
(grass, cow dung, ground nuts, wood or coal) laid on the floor.
(3) A layer consists of 4 or 5 courses of raw bricks laid on edges with small spaces between them
for circulation of air

(4) A second layer of fuel is then placed, and over it another layer of raw bricks is put. The total
height of clamp in alternate layers of brick is about 3 to 4 m

(5) When clamp is completely constructed, it is plastered with mud on sides and top and filled
with earth to prevent the escape of heat

(6) The period of burning is about one to two months and allow the same time for coding

(7) Burnt bricks are taken out from the clamp

Page 26 Building Materials & Construction

Advantages:
(i) The bricks produced are tough and strong because burning and cooling are gradual

(ii) Burning in clamps proves to be cheap and economical

(iii) No skilled labour and supervision are required for the construction of clamps

(iv) There is considerable saving of clamps fuel

Disadvantages:

(i) Bricks are not of required shape

(ii) It is very slow process

(iii) It is not possible to regulate fire in a clamp

(iv) Quality of brick is not uniform

Kilns: A kiln is a large oven, which is used to burnt bricks by

1) Intermittent kilns

2) Continuous kilns

1) Intermittent kilns: These intermittent in operation, which means that they are loaded, fired,
cooled and unloaded.
a) Intermittent up-draught kilns

b) Intermittent down-draught kilns

a) Intermittent up-draught kiln: This is in the form of rectangular with thick outside walls as
shown in the fig 2.4. wide doors are provided at each end for loading and unloading of kilns. A
temporary roof may be installed to protect from rain and it is removed after kiln is fired. Fuels
are provided to carry flames or hot gases through the body of kiln.
Bricks Page 27

Fig 2.4 Intermittent kiln

(i) Raw bricks are laid in row of thickness equal to 2 to 3 bricks and height 6 to 8 bricks
with 2 bricks spacing between rows

(ii) Fuels are filled with brush wood which takes up a free easily

(iii) Loading of kiln with raw bricks with top course is finished with flat bricks and other
courses are formed by placing bricks on edges

(iv) Each door is built up with dry bricks and are covered with mud or clay

(v) The kiln is then fired for a period of 48 to 60 hours draught rises in the upward direction
from bottom of kiln and brings about the burning of bricks.
(vi) Kiln is allowed to cool down and bricks are then taken out

(vi) Same procedure is repeated for the next burning

Bricks manufactured by intermittent up drought kilns are better than those prepared by clamps
but bricks burnt by this process is not uniform, supply of bricks is not continuous and wastage
of fuel heat.
(b) Intermittent down-draught kilns:
Page 28 Building Materials & Construction

These kilns are rectangular or circular in shape. They are provided with permanent walls and
closed tight roof. Floor of the kiln has opening which are connected to a common chimney
stack through flues. Working is same as up-draught kiln. But it is so arranged in this kiln that
hot gases are carried through vertical flues up to the level of roof and they are then released.
These hot gases move down ward by the chimney draught and in doing so, they burn the
bricks.
Advantages:

(i) Bricks are evenly burnt

(ii) Performance of this kiln is better than that of up-draught kiln

(iii) This kiln is suitable for burning of structural clay tiles, terra cota because of close
control of heat.
2. Continuous kilns:

These kilns are continuous in operations. This means that loading, firing, cooling and
unloading are carried out simultaneously in these kilns. There are three types of continuous
kilns.
a) Bull’s trench kiln

b) Hoffman’s kiln

c) Tunnel kiln

a) Bull’s trench kiln: This kiln may be of rectangular, circular or oval shape in the plan as
shown in fig 2.5. It is constructed in a trench excavated in ground either fully under ground
partially projecting above ground openings is provided in the outer walls to act as flue holes.
Dampers are in the form of iron plates and they are used to divide the kilns in suitable sections
and most widely used kiln in India.
Bricks Page 29

Fig 2.5 Bull’s trench kiln

The bricks are arranged in such a way that flues are formed. Fuel is placed in flues and it is
ignited through flue holes after covering top surface with earth and ashes to prevent the escape
of heat usually two movable iron chimneys are employed to form draught. These chimneys are
placed in advance of section being fired. Hence, hot gases leaving the chimney warm up the
bricks in next section. Each section requires about one day to burn. The tentative arrangement
for different sections may be as follows
Section 1 – loading

Section 2 – empty

Section 3 – unloading

Section 4 – cooling

Section 5 – Burning

Section 6 – Heating

b) Hoffman’s kiln: this kiln is constructed over ground and hence, it is sometimes known as
flame kiln. Its shape is circular to plan and it is divided into a number of compartments or
Page 30 Building Materials & Construction

chambers. A permanent roof is provided; the kiln can even function during rainy season. Fig
2.6 shows plan and section of Hoffman’s kiln with 12 chambers

Fig 2.6 Hoffman’s kiln

Chamber 1 - loading

Chamber 2 to 5 – drying and pre-heating

Chambers 6 and 7 - burning

Chambers 8 to 11 - cooling
Bricks Page 31

Chamber 12 – unloading

The initial cost in stalling this kiln is high, the following advantages

(i) Good quality of bricks is produced

(ii) It is possible to regulate heat inside the chambers through fuel holes
(iii) Supply of bricks is continuous and regular

(iv) There is considerable saving in fuel due to pre heating of raw bricks by flue gases
c) Tunnel kiln: This type of kiln is in the form of tunnel, which may be straight, circular or
oval in the plan. Raw bricks are placed in trolleys which are then moved from one end too the
other end of tunnel. Raw bricks get dried and pre-heated as they approach zone of fire. In zone
of fire, bricks are burnt to the required deque and they are then pushed forward for cooling.
When bricks are sufficiently cooled, they are unloaded. The kiln proves to be economical
when the bricks are manufactures on a large scale. As temperature is under control, uniform
bricks of better quality are produced.
COMPARISON BETWEEN CLAMP-BURNING AND KILN-BURNING
No. Item Clamp-burning Kiln-burning
1. Capacity About 20000 to 100000 Average 25000 bricks
bricks can be prepared at can be prepared per day.
a time.
2. Cost of fuel Low as grass, cow dung, Generally high as coal dust
litter, etc. may be used. is to be used.
3. Initial cost Very low as no structures More as permanent
are to be built. structures are to
be constructed.
4. Quality of Percentage of good Percentage of good
bricks quality bricks is small quality bricks is more
about 60% or so. about 90% or so.
5. Regulation It is not possible to Fire is under control
of fire control or regulate fire throughout the process
during the process of of burning.
burning
6. Skilled Not necessary Continuous skilled super
supervision throughout the process vision is necessary.
Page 32 Building Materials & Construction

of burning.
7. Structure Temporary structure. Permanent structure.
8. Suitability Suitable when bricks are Suitable when bricks are
to be manufactured on a to be manufactured on a
small scale and when large scale and when
the demand of bricks is there is continuous
not continuous. demand of bricks.
9. Time of It requires about 2 to Actual time for burning of
burning and 6 months for one chamber is about 24
cooling. burning and cooling of hours and only about 12
bricks. days are required for
cooling of bricks.
10. Wastage of There is considerable Hot flue gas is used to dry
heat. wastage of heat from and pre-heat raw bricks.
top and sides and hot Hence wastage of heat is
flue gas is not properly the least.
utilised.

2.2 Classification:

Bricks can broadly be divided into two categories.

(i) Unburnt or sundried bricks

(ii) Burnt bricks

(i) Un burnt or Sun-dried bricks- UN burn or sun dried with the help of heat received
from sun after the process of moulding. These bricks can only be used in the
constructions of temporary and cheap structures. Such bricks should not be used at
places exposed to heavy rains.
(ii) Burnt Bricks: The bricks used in construction works are burnt bricks and they are
classified into the following four categories.
a. First Class bricks: These bricks are table moulded and of standard shape. The
surface and edges of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight. The
comply all the qualities of good bricks and used for superior work of permanent
nature.
Bricks Page 33

b. Second class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in
kilns. The surface of bricks is some what rough and shape is also slightly
irregular. These bricks are commonly used at places where brick work is to be
provided with a coat of plaster.
c. Third class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and they burnt in clamps.
These bricks are not hard and they have rough surfaces with irregular and
distorted edges.
These bricks give dull sound when struck together. They are used for
unimportant and temporary structures and at places where rainfall is not heavy.
d. Fourth class bricks: These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark
colour. These bricks are used as aggregate for concrete in foundation, floors,
roads, etc because of the fact that the over burnt bricks have compacted
structure and hence, they are some times found stronger than even first-class
bricks.

2.3 Qualities of Good Brick:

(i) Bricks should be table moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks
and with sharp and square edges.
(ii) Bricks should be uniform shape and should be of standard size.
(iii) Bricks should give clear ringing sound when struck each other.
(iv) Bricks when broken should show a bright homogeneous and compact structure free
from voids.
(v) Bricks should not absorb water more than 20 percent by weight for first class bricks
and 22 percent by weight for second class bricks, when soaked in cold water for a
period of 24 hours.
(vi) Bricks should be sufficiently hard no impression, should be left on brick surface,
when it is scratched with finger nail.
(vii) Bricks should be low thermal conductivity and they should be sound proof.
(viii) Bricks should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one
meter.
(ix) Bricks, when soaked in water for 24hours, should not show deposits of white salts
when allowed to dry in shade.
Page 34 Building Materials & Construction

(x) No brick should have crushed strength below 55kg/cm2

2.4 Special Types: Bricks are made in a wide range of shapes and to suit the requirements of
the location where they are to be used. Special form of bricks may be needed due to
structural consideration or for ornamental decoration as defined by the architect.
Specially moulded bricks avoid the cumbersome process of cutting and rounding the
rectangular bricks to the desired shape. Some of the special types of bricks commonly
used are given below.
a. Squint Bricks: These bricks are made in a variety of shapes and are used to the
construction of a cute and obtuse squint quoins as shown in the fig2.7.
Bricks Page 35

Fig 2.7 Types of Special Bricks

b. Bull Nosed Bricks: These bricks are used to form rounded quoins.
c. Perforated Bricks: These bricks may be standard size bricks produced with
perforations running through their thickness. Perforated bricks are easy to burn and
their light weight makes it possible to cut down the weight of the structure and effect in
foundations. The aperture of the perforations is such that it gives maximum amount of
ventilation. But does not permit the entry of rats or mice. These bricks are used for
Page 36 Building Materials & Construction

constructing load bearing walls of low buildings, panel walls for multistoried buildings
and for providing partition walls.
d. Hallow Bricks: These bricks are made of clay and are provided with one or more
cavities. Hallow bricks are light in weight and are used to increase insulation against
heat and dampness. They are used for the construction of load bearing walls, partition
walls or panel walls to multistoried buildings.
e. Circular Bricks: These bricks have internal and external faces curved to meet the
requirement of the particular curve and radius of the wall. These bricks are used for
wells, towers etc
f. Plinth cornice and String Course Brick: These bricks are moulded in several patterns
with the object of adding architectural beauty to the structure and at the same time to
helping to throw the rack water off the face of the walls.
g. Coping Bricks: These bricks are manufactured in a variety of shapes to set the
thickness of the wall and are throated on the underside to throw off rain water as shown
in the fig2.7
h. Paving Bricks: These bricks are specially made for paving the surface of streets and
highways. These bricks are usually made from shale, fire clay on a mixture of the two.
They are unaffected by weather and ordinary traffic wear. They are loaded on the bed of
sand which in term rests on foundation of stone or concrete. The bricks are laid by
grouting with cement mortar or asphalt. They are machine moulded and are burnt in a
continuous kiln to ensure high degree of vitrification.
2.5 Tests for bricks :

A brick is generally subjected to following tests to find out its suitability of the
construction work.
ii. Absorption iii. Crushing strength or compression strength iv.
Hardness
v. Presence soluble salts vi. Shape and
size vii. Soundness viii. Structure
1) Absorption: A good should not absorb not more than 20 percent of weight of dry brick
2) Compressive strength: crushing or compressive strength of brick is found out by placing
it in compression testing machine. It is pressed till it breaks. Minimum crushing strength
of brick is 35kg/cm2 and for superior bricks, it may vary from 70 to 140 kg/cm2.
3) Hardness: No impression is left on the surface the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard
4) Presence of soluble salts: The bricks should not show any grey or white deposits after
immerted in water for 24 hours
Bricks Page 37

5) Shape and size: It should be standard size and shape with sharp edges
6) Soundness: The brick should give clear ringing sound struck each other
7) Structure: The structure should be homogeneous, compact and free from any defects
2.6 Grading of Bricks

As per IS10719557 and 1970 code specifications,

a. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 140kg/cm2 – Grade A-A class.
b. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 105kg/cm2 – First class bricks - Grade A.
c. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 70kg/cm2 – Second class bricks – Grade
B.
d. Bricks with compressive strength not less than the average value 35kg/cm2 – class III
bricks – Grade C.
* * *

SYNOPYSIS

1. Brick is a building material composed of following materials

a. Alumina
b. Silica
c. Lime
d. Oxide of iron
e. Magnesia
2. The manufacture of bricks is carried out by the following operations
a. Preparation of clay
b. Moulding
c. Drying
d. burning
3. Bricks are classified as
1. Un-burnt or sun dried bricks
Page 38 Building Materials & Construction

2. Burnt bricks
a. First class bricks
b. Second class bricks
c. Third class bricks
d. Fourth class bricks
4. A good brick should
Table moulded, well burnt, uniform shape size, should give clear ringing sound, should
be hard, water absorption not more than 20% for 24 hours.
5. The special types of bricks commonly used are
a. Squint bricks
b. Bult nosed bricks
c. Perforated bricks
d. Hallow bricks
e. Circular bricks
f. Coping bricks
g. Paving bricks
6. As per IS1077-1957 & 1970

1. Grade A – A class < 140kg/cm2

2. Second class bricks – grade B < 70kg/cm2

3. First class bricks – grade A < 105kg/cm2

4. Class III bricks – grade C average 35kg/cm2
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. What are the constituents of good brick earth?

2. What are the harmful ingradients in brick earth?
3. Name the operations involved in the manufacture of brick.
4. What are the types of bricks?
5. Name the types of special bricks.
6. Name any four uses of bricks.
Bricks Page 39

7. What are the important qualities of brick?

8. What is the use of frog?
9. What are the uses of fire bricks?
10. What are the uses of hallow bricks?
11. What is the size and weight of standard brick?
12. What is meant by blending?
13. What is tempering?

ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the manufacturing process of bricks in detail.

2. Explain the classification of bricks.
3. Explain the qualities of bricks.
4. Explain the special types of bricks.
5. Explain the composition of good brick in detail (function of each constituent).
6. Explain the tests to be conducted to a brick.
* * *
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Page 40 Building Materials & Construction

CHAPTER -3 CEMENT

Cement in its broadest term means any substance which acts as a binding agent for
materials natural cement (Roman Cement) is obtained by burning and crushing the stones
containing clay, carbonates of lime and some amount of carbonate of magnesia. The clay content
in such stones is about 20 to 40 percent. Natural cement resembles very closely eminent
hydraulic lime. It is not strong as artificial cement, so it has limited use in practice.

Artificial cement is obtained by burning at very high temperature a mixture of calcareous

and argillaceous materials in correct proportion. Calcined product is known as clinker. A small
quantity of gypsum is added to clinker and it is then pulverized into very fine powder is known
as cement. Cement was invented by a mason Joseph Aspdin of leeds in England in 1824. The
common variety of artificial cement is known as normal setting cement or ordinary cement or
Portland cement.

3.1 Ingradeints – Functions

Ordinary Portland cement contains two basic ingredients, namely argillaceous and
calcareous. In argillaceous materials, clay predominates and in calcareous materials,
calcium carbonate predominates. Good ordinary cement contains following ingradients.
1. Lime (cao) ………. 62%
2. silica (Sio2) ………. 22%
3. Aluminca(Al2 u3) ………. 5%
4. Calcium sulphate (CaSo4) ………. 4%
5. Iron Oxide (Fe2 O3) ………. 3%
6. Magnescia (Mgo) ………. 2%
7. Sulphur ………. 1%
8. Alkalies ………. 1%

Functions of Ingradients:
1. Lime: Lime is the important ingredient of cement and its proportion is to be maintained
carefully. Lime in excess makes the cement unsound and causes the cement to expand and
disintegrate. On the other hand, if lime is in deficiency the strength of the cement is decreased
and it causes cement to set quickly

Property of Mr. Alphonce Kimutai Kirui

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Email Address: <[email protected]><[email protected]>

Cement Page 41

2. Silica: This also an important ingredient of cement and it gives or imparts quick setting
property to imparts strength to cement.

3.Alumina: This ingredient imparts quick setting properly to cement.

Express alumina weakens the cement.

4. Calcium Sulphate: This ingredient is in the form of gypsum and its function is to
increase the initial setting time of cement.

5. Magnesia: The small amount of this ingredient imparts hardness and colour to cement.

6. Sulphur: A very small amount of sulphur is useful in making sound cement. If it is in

excess, it causes the cement to become unsound.

7. Alkalies: Most of the alkalies present in raw material are carried away by the flue gases
during heating and only small quantity will be left. If they are in excess in cement, efflorescence
is caused.

3.2 Types of Cement

In addition to ordinary cement, the following are the other varieties of cement.
a. Acid Resistance Cement: This is consists of acid resistance aggregates such as
quartz, quartzite’s, etc, additive such as sodium fluro silicate (Na 2SiO6) and
aqueous solution of sodium silicate. This is used for acid- resistant and heat
resistant coating of installations of chemical Industry. By adding 0.5 percent of
unseed oil or 2 percent of ceresil, its resistance to water is increased and known as
acid water resistant cement.
b. Blast Furnace Cement: For this cement slag as obtained from blast furnace in
the manufacture of pig iron and it contains basic elements of cement, namely
alumina, lime and silica. The properties of this cement are more or less the same
as those of ordinary cement and prove to be economical as the slag, which is
waste product, is used in its manufacture.

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 Property of Mr. Alphonce Kimutai Kirui
Telephone:+254728801352
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Page 42 Building Materials & Construction

c. Coloured Cement: Cement of desired colour may be obtained by intimately
mixing mineral pigments with ordinary cement. The amount of colouring may
vary from 5 to 10 percent and strength of cement if it is exceeds 10 percent.
Chromium oxide gives brown, red or yellow for different proportions. Coloured
cements are used for finishing of floors, external surfaces, artificial marble,
windows
d. Expanding Cement : This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding
medium like sulpho – aluminate and a stabilizing agent to ordinary cement.
Hence this cement expands where as other cement shrinks. Expanding cement is
used for the construction of water retaining structures and also for repairing the
damaged concrete surfaces.
e. High alumina Cement: This cement is produced by grinding clinkers formed by
calcining bauxite and lime. The total content should not be less than 32 percent
and the ratio by weight of alumina to lime should be between
0.85 and 1.30.
Advantages
1. Initial setting time is about 31/2 hours therefore, allows more time for mixing and placing
operations.
2. It can stand high temperatures.

3. It evolves great heat during setting therefore not affected by frost.

4. It resists the action of acids in a better way.

5. It lets quickly and attains higher ultimate strength.

Disadvantages:
1. It is costly
2. It cannot be used in mass construction as it evolves great heat and as it sets soon.
3. Extreme care is to taken to see that it does not come in contact with even traces of lime or
ordinary cement.

f. Hydrophobic Cement: This type of cement contains admixtures, which decreases the
wetting ability of cement grains. The usual hydrophobic admixtures are acidol napthene
soap, oxidized petrolatum etc when hydrophobic cement is used, the fire pores in

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Cement Page 43
concrete are uniformly distributed and thus the frost resistance and the water resistance of
such concrete are considerably increased.

g. Low Heat Cement: Considerable heat is produced during the setting action of cement. In
order to reduce the amount of heat, this type of cement is used. It contains lower
percentage of tri calcium aluminates C 3A and higher percentage of dicalcium silicate C 2s.
This type of cement is used for mass concrete works because it processes less compressor
strength.

h. Pozzuolona Cement: Pozzuolona is a volcanic powder and the percentage should be

between 10 to 30.
Advantages
1. It attains compressive strength with age.
2. It can resist action of sulphates.
3. It evolves less heat during setting.
4. It imparts higher degree of water tightness.
5. It imparts plasticity and workability to mortar and concrete prepared from it.
6. It offers great resistance to expansion
7. It possesses higher tensile strength

Disadvantages:
1. Compressive strength in early days is less.
2. It possesses less resistance to erosion and weathering action.

i. Quick Setting Cement: This cement is prepared by adding a small percentage

aluminum sulphate which reduce the percentage of gypsum or retarded for setting action
and accelerating the setting action of cement. As this cement hardness less than 30
minutes, mixing and placing operations should be completed. This cement is used to lay
concrete under static water or running water.

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j. Rapid Hardening cement: This cement has same initial and final setting times as that of
ordinary cement. But it attains high strength in early days due to
1. Burning at high temperature.
2. Increased lime content in cement composition.
3. Very fine grinding.
Advantages:
1.Construction work may be carried out speedily.
2.Formwork of concrete can be removed earlier.
3. It is light in weight.
4. It is not damaged easily.
5. This cement requires short period of curing.
6. Use of this cement also higher permissible stresses in the design.
7. Structural member constructed with this cement may be loaded earlier.

k. Sulphate Resisting Cement: In this cement percentage of tricalcium aluminates is kept

below 5 to 6 percent and it results in the increase in resisting power against sulphate. This
cement is used for structure which are likely to be damaged by sever alkaline condition
such as canal linings, culverts, siphons etc.

l. White Cement: This is a variety of ordinary cement and it is prepared form such raw
materials which are practically free from colouring oxides of Iron, manganese or
chromium. For burning of this cement, oil fuel is used instead of coal. It is used for floor
finish; plaster work, ornamental works etc.

3.3. Uses of Cement:

1. Cement mortar for masonry work, plaster, pointing etc
2. Concreter for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, weather sheds,
stairs, pillars etc.
3. Construction of important engineering structure such as bridges, culverts, dams,
tunnels storage reservoirs, light houses, deckles etc.
4. Construction of water tanks, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, lampposts, roads,
telephone cabins etc.

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5. Making joints for drains, pipes etc.
6. Manufacture of pre cast pipes, piles, garden seats, artificially designed urns,
flowerpots, etc dustbins, fencing posts etc.
7. Preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths etc.

3.4. Admixtures – Uses.

These are the ingredients or substance, which are added to concrete to improve its properties
like strength, hardness, water resisting power, workability etc. Many admixtures like alum
etc are commonly used for this purpose.

* * *
SYNOPYSIS

1. Ordinary cement conatins

i) Lime (Cao) -62% ii) Silica (Sco2) – 22% iii) Alumina (Al2O3)
– 5% iv) Calcium Sulphate (CaSo4) – 4% v) Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) – 3%
vi) Magnesia (MgO) – 2% vii) Sulphur & Alkalies – 1% each
2. The main types cements are
i) Acid resistance cement ii) Blast furnace cement iii) Coloured
cement iv) Expanding cement
v) High alumina cement vi) Hydrophobic
cement vii) Low heat cement viii)
Pozzolona cement ix) Quick setting cement
x) Rapid hardening cement xi) Sulphate resistance
cement xii) White resistance cement
3. The cement is used for
i) Masonary work
ii) Floors, roofs of concrete

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iii) Bridges, culverts, dems, tunnels etc iv) Water tanks, wells , septic
tanks, roads, telephone cable etc
v) Making joints for drains, pipes vi) Manufacture of pipes, piles etc vii)
Preparation of foundation, water tight floors etc.
4. Addition of admixture in cement concrete increases strength, harness, water resisting
power, work ability etc.

* * *

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SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Name the important ingradients of cement

2. Name any four uses of cement
3. What are the important types of cement
4. What are the uses acid-resistant cement?
5. What is use of rapid hardening cement?
6. Explain the following
a) Quick setting cement b) white cement 7. What is the use of
sulphate resisting cement?
8. What is meant by blast furnace cement?

ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Name and explain the ingradients functions in the cement

2. Explain the qualities of cement
3. Explain the varieties of cement
4. Explain the following
a) Rapid hardening cement
b) High alumina cement
5. Explain in detail the uses of cement

* * *

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CHAPTER -4

SAND

Sand is an important building material used in the preparation of mortar, concrete, etc.
4.1 Sources of Sand: Sand particles consist of small grains of silica (Si02). It is formed by the
decomposition of sand stones due to various effects of weather. The following are the
natural sources of sand.

a. Pit Sand: This sand is found as deposits in soil and it is obtained by forming pits to a
depth of about 1m to 2m from ground level. Pit sand consists of sharp angular grains,
which are free from salts for making mortar, clean pit sand free from organic and clay
should only be used.

b. Rive Sand: This sand is obtained from beds of rivers. River sand consists of fine rounded
grains. Colour of river sand is almost white. As the river sand is usually available in clean
condition, it is widely used for all purposes.

c. Sea Sand: This sand is obtained from sea shores. Sea sand consists of rounded grains in
light brown colour. Sea sand consists of salts which attract the moisture from the
atmosphere and causes dampness, efflorescence and disintegration of work. Due to all
such reasons, sea sand is not recommendable for engineering works. However be used as
a local material after being thoroughly washed to remove the salts.

4.2 Characteristics of sand:

1. It should be chemically inert

2. It should be clean and coarse. It should be free from organic matter.

3. It should contain sharp, angular and durable grains.

4. It should not contain salts, which attract the moisture from atmosphere.
5. It should be well graded (i.e.) should contain particles of various sizes in suitable
proportions.

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4.3. Grading of Sand:

According to the site of grains, sand is classified as fine, coarse and gravelly
Sand passing through a screen with clear opening of 1.5875mm is known as fine
sand. It is generally used for masonry works.
Sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 7.62mm is known as
gravely sand. It is generally used for plastering.
Sand passing through a screen with clear opening of 3.175mm is known as coarse
sand. It is generally used for masonary work..
4.4 Bulking of Sand:

The presence of moisture in sand increases the volume of sand. This is due to fact that
moisture causes film of water around the sand particles which result in the increase of
volume of sand. For a moisture content of 5 to 8 percent, the increase in volume may be
about 5 to 8 percent, depending upon the grading of sand. The finer the material, the
more will be the increase in volume for a given moisture content. This phenomenon is
known as bulking of sand.
When moisture content is increased by adding more water, sand particles pack near each
other and the amount of bulking of sand is decreased. Thus the dry sand and the sand
completely flooded with water have practically the same volume.
For finding the bulking of sand, a test is carried out with following procedure as in the
fig 4.1.

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Fig 4.1. Bulking of Sand

I. A container is taken and it is filled two third with the sample of sand to be tested.

II. The height is measured, say 20cm.

III. Sand is taken out of container

IV. The container is filled with water

V. Sand is then slowly dropped in the container and it is thoroughly stirred by means of a rod.

VI. The height of sand is measured say 16cm, then bulking of sand =

20 – 16 4
= -------------- = ------ or 25%
16 16

* * *
SYNOPYSIS

1. The sand is important building material used in the preparation of mortar, concrete etc
2. The sources of sand are

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a. Pit sand
b. Rever sand
c. Sea sand
3. The sand should be
a. Chemically inert
b. Clean and coarse
c. Sharp, angular and durable
d. Not contain salts
e. Well graded
4. According to the size of grains, sand is classified as fin, coarse and gravelly.
5. The presence of moisture in sand increases the volume of sand known as bulking of sand.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. What are the main types of sand according to the natural source?
2. What is meant by bulking of sand?
3. What are the important characteristics of sand?

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ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the sources of sand.

2. Explain the characteristics of sand.
3. Explain how bulking of sand is found using the experiment.
4. Explain the grading of sand. 5. Explain the bulking of sand.

* * *

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CHAPTER 5 MORTAR

The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required quantity of water to a
mixture of binding material like cement or Lime and fine aggregates like sand. The two
components of mortar namely the binding material and fine aggregates are some times referred
to as matrix the durability, quality and strength of mortar will mainly depends on quantity and
quality of the matrix. The combined effect of the two components of mortar is that the mass is
able to bind the bricks or stones firmly

5.1 Properties – Uses:

The important properties of a good mortar mix are mobility, placeability and water
retention. The mobility is used to indicate the consistency of mortar mix, which may
range from stiff to fluid
The mobility of mortar depends upon composition of mortar and mortar mixes to be
used for masonry work, finishing works, etc are made sufficiently mobile.
The placeability or the ease with which the mortar mix can be placed with minimum cost
in a thin and uniform layer over the surface depends on the mobility of mortar. The
placeablity of mortar mix should be such that a strong bond is developed with the surface
of the bed.
A good mortar mix should posses the ability if retaining adequate humidity during the
transportation and laying over the porous bed.
If water retention power of mortar mix is low it separates into layers during
transportation and when it comes contact with the porous bed like brick, wood, etc, it
gives away its water to that surface. Thus the mortar becomes poor in a amount of water
and remaining water proves to be insufficient for its hardening. Hence required strength
of mortar will not be achieved with such a mortar mix will.

Properties of good mortar

1. It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as
bricks, stones etc.
2. It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.

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3. It should be capable of resisting penetration of rainwater.

4. It should be cheap.
5. It should be durable.
6. It should be easily workable.
7. It should not affect the durability of materials with which it comes into contact.

Uses:
1. To bind the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
2. To carry out painting and plaster works on exposed surfaces of masonry
3. To form an even bedding layer for building units
4. To form joints of pipes
5. To improve the appearance of structure.

5.2 Types of Mortar

The mortar are classified on the bases of the following
1. Bulk density
2. Kinds of binding material
3. Nature of application
4. Special mortars

5.2.1 Bulk density:

According to bulk density of mortar in dry state, the mortars are two types
a. Heavy mortars bulk density is more than 1500kg/m3 and prepared from heavy
quartz
b. Lightweight mortars – bulk density is less than 1500/mg3 and prepared from
light porous sands.

5.2.2. Kinds of binding Material

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According to the kinds of binding material, several factors such as expected working
conditions, hardening temperature, moisture conditions, etc should be considered. The
mortars are classified into four categories.
a. Lime Mortar - in this motor, lime is used as binding material. Lime may be fate lime or
Hydraulic lime. Fat lime mortar 1:2 to 1:3 and hydraulic lime mortarmay be1:2 by
VOLUME.
b. Cement mortar: In this mortar, cement is used as binding material. Depending upon the
strength required and importance of work, the proportion of cement to sand varies from
1:2 to 1:6 or more.
c. Gauged Mortar or composite mortar:

The process of adding cement to lime mortar to improve the quality of lime mortar is
known as gauging. It makes lime mortar economical, strong and dense. The usual
proportion of cement to lime by volume is about 1:6 to 1:8
d. Gypsum mortar:

These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding material such as building gypsum and
anhydrite binding materials.

5.2.3 Nature of Application:

According to the nature of application, the mortars are classified into two categories.

A. Brick laying mortars: Mortars for brick laying are intended to be used for brick works
and walls. Depending up on the working conditions and type of construction, the
composition of masonry mortars with respect to the kind of binding materials is decided.

B. Finishing Mortars: these mortars include common plastering work and mortars for
developing architectural or ornamental effects. Generally cement or lime is used as
binding material.

5.2.4. Special Mortars:

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A. Fire resistant mortar- This mortar is prepared by adding 1:2 ratio of aluminous
cement with crushed powder of fire bricks used for fire brick lining furnaces, fire
places, ovens etc.
B. Light weight mortar – This mortar is prepared by adding sawdust, wood powder to
lime or cement mortar for sound proof and heat proof construction
C. Packing Mortar – To pack of oil wells, special mortars possessing the properties of
high homogeneity, water resistance, predetermined setting time, ability to form solid
water proof plugs in cracks and voids of rocks, resistance to subsoil water pressure
etc. have to be formed with cement sand, cement loam and cement sand loam
mortars.
D. Sound absorbing mortars: To reduce the noise level, sound absorbing mortars with
Portland cement, lime, gypsum, slag Portland cement etc as the binding materials
employed in its composition. The aggregates re selected from lightweight porous
material such as pumice, cinders etc.
E. X-ray shielding mortar: This type of mortar is used for providing the plastering coat
to walls and celling of x-ray cabinets. This is heavy mortar with bulk density over
2200kg/m3 is used. The aggregates are obtained from heavy rock and suitable
admixture are added to enhance protective property of such a mortar.

5.3. Preparation of cement mortar

For preparing mortar, water is added to intimate mixtures of binding material and
sand. The water to be used for this purpose should be free from clay, earth and other
impurities. Water which is fit for drinking should only be used for preparing mortar.

Cement mortar may be prepared by manual mixing or by mechanical mixing.

Mechanical mixing is preferred when mortar is required in large quantities to be used in
continuous order.
a. Mixing in mechanical mixer: In this case, cement and sand in desired proportion
are fed in the mixer and mixed dry. Water is then added gradually and the wet
mixing a continued for at least one minute to obtain the mortar of desired
consistency. It is necessary to ensure that only the quantity of mortar which can be
used within half an hour of its mixing should be prepared at a time. This is essential
as after 30 minutes the mortar begins to set.

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b. Manual mixing: In this case, specified quantity of sand is spread and leveled on
clean dry masonry platform. Required quantity of cement bags are emptied over the
sand layer. The ingredients are then mixed thoroughly by turning them over the
sand layer. The ingredients are then mixed thoroughly by turning them over and
over. Backward and forward several times with the help of spade. Dry mixing is
continued till the mix have attains a uniform colour. A batch of dry mix is then put
in the shallow masonry tank and just sufficient quantity of water is added to bring
the mortar to the consistency of a paste. The quantity of dry mix taken in each batch
should be such the mortar formed each time is consumed within half an hour.
Precautions in using mortar
1. Consumption of mortar – the consumption of mortar
should be as early as possible
Line mortar – with in 36 hours after its preparation
Cement mortar – within 30 minutes Gaged mortar –
within 2 hours.
2. Frost action - Setting action of mortar is affected by the presence of frost and not
advisable in frosty weather.
3. Soaking of building units: Building units should not be soaked before application of
mortar. If this precaution is not taken, water of mortar will be absorbed by the building
units and mortar will become weak.
4. Sprinkling of water: The construction work carried out by mortar should be kept dam or
wet by sprinkling water for about 7 to 10 days to avoid rapid drying of mortar.
5. Workability: Mortar should not contain excess water and it should be stiff as can be
conveniently used. Joints should be well formed and excess mortar from joints should be
neatly taken off by a trowel. Surface formed by mortar for building units to rest should be
even.
SYNOPYSIS

1. The mortar is a paste prepared by adding required quantity of water to a mixture of

cement and fine aggregates
2. A good mortar mix should have
a. Mobility

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b. Placeability
c. Cheap
d. Durable
e. Parable
3. The mortar is used for
a. to bind bricks, stones
b. to plastering
c. to form joints
d. to improve the appearance
4. The types of mortars
a. Lime mortar
b. Cement mortar
c. Composed mortar
d. Gypsum mortar
5. According to nature of application mortars are classified’
a. Brick laying mortars
b. Finishing mortars
6. The special mortars used generally are
a. Fire resistant mortars
b. Light weight mortars
c. Packing mortars
d. Sound absorbing mortars
e. X-ray shielding mortars
7. The preparation of cement mortar by
a. Manual mixing – for smaller works
b. Mechanical mixing – in larger quantities to be used in continuous order
8. Precautions using mortar are

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a. Consumed within the specified time
b. Frosty weather affect the setting time
c. Building units should not be soaked before application of mortar
d. Apply sprinking of water for a period of 7 to 10 days
e. Mortar should not contain excess water and should be stiff as can be
conviently used.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1.Define mortar.

2.What are the important properties of mortar?

3.Write any four important uses of mortar.

4.Name the types of mortar.

5.What are the precautions to be taken while preparing a cement mortar?

ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1.Explain the properties of mortar.

2.Explain the procedure for preparation of mortar.

3.Write all the uses of mortar.

* * *

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CHAPTER-6 CONCRETE

Cement concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, pebbles or crushed rock and water. When
placed in the skeleton of forms and allowed to cure, becomes hard like a stone. Cement
concrete is important building material because of the following reasons.
1. It can be moulded into any size and shape of durable structural member.
2. It is possible to control the properties of cement concrete.

3. It is possible to mechanise completely its preparation and placing processes.

4. It possesses adequate plasticity for mechanical working.

The cement concrete has the following properties

1. It has high compressive strength

2. It is free from corrosion

3. It hardens with age and continues for a long time after concrete has attained sufficient
strength
4. It is proved to be economical than steel

5. It binds rapidly with steel and it is weak in tension, steel reinforcement is placed in
cement concrete at suitable places to take up tensile concrete or simply R.C.C.
6. It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion stresses.
This is called reinforced cement.
7. It has tendency to be porous to avoid this proper grading & consolidation of the
aggregates, minimum water-cement ratio should be adopted.
6.1 Constituents - Requirements.

The main constituents of concrete are

a) Cement / Lime: Before introduction of ordinary Portland cement, lime was used
as cementing material. At present most of the cement concrete works in the
building construction is done with ordinary Portland cement. But other special
varieties of cement such as rapid hardening cement, high alumina cement are
used under certain circumstances. The cement should comply with all standard
specifications

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b) Fine Aggregates: The material, which is passed through 4.7625mm B.S.test
sieve, is termed as fine aggregates. Usually natural river sand is used as fine
aggregates. But places where natural sand is not available economically, finely
crushed stone may be used as fine aggregates.
c) Coarse Aggregates: The material retained on 4.7625mm size B.S.test sieve is
termed as coarse aggregates. Broken stone is generally used as coarse aggregates.
For thin slabs, and walls, the maximum size of coarse aggregates should be
limited to one third the thickness of the concrete section
d) Water: Water to be used in the concrete work should have the following
properties.
1) It should be free from oils
2) It should be free from acids or alkalies

3) It should be free from Iron, Vegetables matter or other substance, which is likely to
have adverse effect on concrete.
4) It should be fit for drinking purpose

Function of Water

1. It acts as lubricant for fine and coarse aggregates.

2. It acts chemically with cement to form binding paste with coarse aggregates and
reinforcement.
3. It is necessary to flux the cementing material over the surface of the aggregates.
4. It is employed to damp the concrete in order to prevent them absorbing water vitally
necessary for chemical action
5. It enables the concrete mix to blow into moulds.

6.2. Uses and types

Uses of Concrete:

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1:2:2 - For heavy loaded R.C.C columns and R.C.C arches of long spans
1:2:2 - For small pre cast members of concrete like fencing poles, telegraph poles etc. watertight
construction.
1:2:3 - For water tanks, bridges, sewers etc.

1:2½:3½ - For foot path, concrete roads

1:2:4 - For general work of RCC such as stairs, beams, columns, slabs, etc
1:4:8 /

1:5:10 For mass concrete for heavy walls, foundation footings etc.

6.3 Preparation of concrete mix: There are two types of

concrete mixing
(i) Hand mixing

(ii) Machine mixing

1. Hand Mixing: This method of mixing concrete is resorted to when the quantity if
concrete to be used in a work is insufficient to warrant the necessity of machine. This is
used with advantage in places where machinery cannot be used on account of their non-
availability or in works near a hospital where the noise of machine is not desirable. Hand
mixing is done on a clean, hard and impermeable surface. Cement and sand are first mixed
dry with the help of shovels until the mixture attains a uniform colour. Aggregative are then
added to this mixture and the whole mixture is then turned by shovels until the stone pieces
uniformly spread throughout. After this, desired are quantity of water is poured into the
heap from a can fitted with a rose. The mass is then turned until a workable mixture is
obtained. It is advised to add 10% extra cement to guard against the possibility of
inadequate mixing by this method.
2. Machine Mixing: - The machine used for mixing concrete is termed as concrete
mixer. Two types of concrete mixers are in common are
1. Continuous mixers

2. Batch mixers

Continuous mixers are employed in massive construction where large and

continuous flow of concrete is desired. The process of feeding the mixing is more

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or less automatic. The machine requires careful supervision so as to obtain the
concrete mix of desired consistency.
In batch type of concrete mixer. The desired proportion of materials are fed
into the hopper of a drum in which the materials get mixed by the series of blades
or baffles inside the mixer. Batch mixers are further two types 1. Tilting drum type
2. closed drump type. In the first type, components are fed in the revolving drum in
a tilted position and after sometime the concrete mix is discharged by tilting the
drums in the opposite direction. In the latter type the drum remains rotating in one
direction and emptied by means of hopper which tilts to receive the discharge.
While using the mixer, coarse aggregates should be fed first, sand and
cement should be put afterwards. In this revolving state, the components get mixed
while water is poured with the help of can. The concrete should be for atleast 2
minutes, the time being measured after all the ingredients including water have
been fed into the drum. The batch type concrete mixer is as shown in the fig 6.1.

Fig 6.1 Batch type Concrete Mixer

6.4 Compaction - Methods:

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Concrete should be placed and compacted immediately after mixing. The
concrete should be placed within 30 to 40 minutes to prevent the danger of
concrete getting its initial set, before laying the concrete, the shuttering should be
cleaned of all of dust or debris. Crude oil or grease etc is usually applied to the
shuttering before concreting to prevent the shuttering absorbing the water from the
concrete or getting struck to it. In placing the concrete, care should be taken to see
that it should not be thrown from heights. Concrete should be laid in layers 15 to 30
cm (6” to 12”) in thickness and each layer should be properly compacted before
laying the next one.
Compaction of concrete should be proceed immediately after placing. The
function of compaction of concrete is to expel the air bubbles in the mass and make
it impermeable in addition to its securing the desired strength. The concrete mass
should be consolidated or compacted till the cream of the cement starts appearing
on the surface. Over compaction may lead to segregation of concrete while-under-
compaction may leave air voids in concrete and results in honey combing.
Compaction may be done by hand or mechanical device.
(i) Hand compaction: The hand compaction may be done by rodding,
tamping or hammering. Tamping is usually adopted for compacting
concrete for slabs or other such surfaces. Rodding is done for thin
vertical members. Hammering is done for massive plain concrete works
and for compacting an almost dry concrete the surface is beaten with
heavy flat bottom rammers till the thin film of mortar start appearing on
the surface.
(ii) Mechanical compaction: Mechanical compaction is done by the use of
vibrators. Vibrators are of three types 1. Internal 2. External 3.
Surface. Internal vibrators are commonly used in large works for flat
surface compaction. In this the vibrator is immersed in the full depth of
concrete layer. The vibrator should be kept in one position for about 3
minutes and then removed and placed another position. External
vibrators are placed against the form work and are only adopted for thin
section of members or in places where internal vibrators cannot be used
with ease. Surface vibrators are generally employed in concrete road
construction. Compaction of concrete by use of vibrators permits the
use of stiff concrete mix of high strength and ensure better compaction
than that obtained by the method of hand compaction
6.5 Curing of concrete:

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Curing of concrete is one of the essential requirement of process of concreting.
Curing is process of keep the set concrete damp for some days in order to enable
the concrete gain more strength Purposes:
(i) Curing protects concrete surfaces from sun and wind

(ii) Presence of water is essential to cause the chemical action which a companies
the setting of concrete

* * *

SYNOPYSIS

1. Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, pebbles or crushed rock and water

2. Concrete is uses for
i) Heavy loaded RCC columns, arches etc ii) Pre-cast
members iii) Water tanks, bridges, sewers etc iv) Foot path,
concrete roads etc v) Foundation footings
3. The preparation of concrete may be
i) By hand mixing ii) Machine
mixing
4. Machine mixing may be carried out commonly by
i) Continuous mixers
ii) Batch mixers

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5. The function of consolidation or compaction is to expel the air bubbles in the mass and
make it impermeable in addition to its securing desired depth
6. Compaction may be done by
i) rodding – vertical members like columns ii) tamping –
slabs
iii) hammering – massive plain concret works
7. Mechanical compaction may be done by
i) Internal vibrators ii) External vibrations
iii) Surface vibrations
8. Curing of concrete is the process of keep the set concrete damp for some days in order
to enable the concrete gain more strength
9. By curing the concrete should get
i) Strength
ii) Durability and impermeability iii) Resistance to abrasion
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. What are the ingradients of concrete?
2. What are requirements of materials in concrete
a) Cement b) Sand c) C.A. d) Water
3. Write any four important uses of concrete
4. What are the types of concrete?
5. What is meant by compaction?
6. What is the importance of compaction?
7. What is meant by curing?
8. What is use of curing of concrete?

ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the requirements of constituents of concrete
2. Write the uses of concrete
3. Explain the preparation of concrete by
1. Hand mixing 2. Machine mixing

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4. What is meant by curing of concrete? Explain importance of curing.
5. What is compaction of concrete? Explain the importance of compaction.

* * *

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CHAPTER 7

TIMBER

Timber denotes wood, which is suitable for building or carpentry or various other engineering
purposes like for construction of doors, windows, roofs, partitions, beams, posts, cupboards,
shelves etc
Uses of timber:

(i) Used in the form of piles, posts, beams, lintels, door/window frames and leaves, roof
members etc
(ii) Used for flooring, ceiling, paneling and construction of
partition walls

(iii) Used for form work for concrete, for the timbering of trenches, centring for arch
work, scaffolding, transmission poles and fencing
(iv) Used in wagon and coach building, marine installations and bridges
(v) Used in making furniture of agriculture implements, sports goods, musical
instruments, well curbs, mortar bodies, carts and carriages, railway sleeps, packing
cases etc
7.1 Classification of trees

Depending upon their mode of growth trees may be divided in the following two
categories
(i) Endogeneous trees – These trees grow inwards and fibrous mass is seen in their
longitudinal sections. Timber from
these trees has very limited engineering applications Ex: bamboo, cane , palm etc
(ii) Exogeneous trees: These increases in bulk by growing outwards and used for
engineering purposes.
Exogeneous trees are further sub divided into two groups
a) conifers b) deciduous

a) Conifers or evergreen trees: These trees having pointed, needle like or scale like
leaves and yield soft wood

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b) Deciduous trees: The trees having flat broad leaves and leaves of those trees fall
in autumn and new ones appear in spring season. Timber for engineering
purpose is mostly derived from deciduous trees. These trees yield hard wood.
Ex: ash, beach, oak, sal, teak, shishum and wallnut

Comparison of softwood and hard wood

S.No. Item Soft wood Hard wood
1. Annual rings Distinct Indistinct
2. colour light dark
3. fire resistance poor more
4. modullary rays Indistinct distinct
5. Structure resinous and non-resinous
split easily & close grained
6. weight light heavy
7. strength strong for direct equally strong
Pull & weak for for resisting
Resisting thrust tension,compr
or shear -ession & shear
Structure of tree: From the visibility aspect, the structure of a tree can be divided into two
categories
1. Macro structure

2. Micro structure

I. Macro structure: The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small
magnification is called macro structure. Fig
7.1 shows the macro structure of exogenous tree.

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Fig 7.1 Micro structure of exogenous tree

(i) Pith: The innermost central portion or core of the tree is called pith or
medulla
(ii) Heart wood: The inner annual rings surrounding the pith is known as heart
wood. It imparts rigidity to tree
(iii) Sap wood: The cuter annual rings between heart wood and cambium layer is
known as sap wood
(iv) Cambium layer: Thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner bark is
known as cambium layer
(v) Inner bark: The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as
inner bark
(vi) Outer Bark: The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as outer bark
(vii) Medullary rays: The thin radial fibres extending from pith to cambium layer
are known as medullary rays
II. Micro structure: The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is
called micro structure under micro scope, it becomes evident that the wood consists
of living and lead cells of various sizes and shapes.
7.2 Defects in Timber:

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Defects occurring in timber are grouped into the following divisions.
a) Defects due to conversion: During the process of converting timber to commercial form,
the following defects may occur.
(i) Chip mark: mark or sign placed by chip on finished surface of timber
(ii) Diagonal grain: Due to improper sawing of timber
(iii) Torn grain: Due to falling of tool small impression is formed
(iv) Wane: Presence of original rounded surface on the manufactured piece of
timber
b) Defects due to fungi: The attack of timber by fungi when moisture content of timber is
above 20% and presence of air and warmth for the growth of fungi the following defects
are caused (i) Blue stain: Sap of wood is stained to bluesh colour
(ii) Brown rot: Decay or disease of timber by removal of cellulose compounds from
wood and wood assumes the brown colour
(iii) Dry rot: Convert the wood into dry powder form

(iv) Heart rot: This is formed when branch has come out of a tree and the tree
becomes weak and gives out hallow sound when struck with a hammer
(v) Sap stain: The sap wood looses its colour because of feed on cell contents of sap
wood.
(vi) Wet rot: Caused chemical decomposition of wood of the timber and timber
converts to grayish brown powder known as wet rot.
(vii) White rot: Attack lignin of wood and wood assumes the appearance of white
mass

c) Defects due to insects:

(i) Beetles: Small insects form holes of size about 2mm diameter and attack sap
wood of all spacies of hard woods. Tunnels are formed in all directions in sapwood by

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the larvae of these beetles and converted into fine flour like powder. They do not disturb
outer cover and looks sound.
(ii) Marine borers: These make holes or bore tunnels in wood for taking shelter. The
wood attacked by marine borers loses colour and strength
(ii) Termites: White ants are very fast in eating away the wood from the core of the cross
section. They make tunnels inside in different directions and usually donot disturb the
outershell or cover
d) Defects due to natural forces:

The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber are abnormal growth
and rapture of tissues
(i) Burls: Irregular projections appear on the body of timber because of shock at
younger age
(ii) Callus: Soft tissue or skin which covers the wound of tree.
(iii) Chemical stain: Discoloured due to the chemical action caused
(iv) Coarse grain: Annual rings are widened, tree grows rapidly hence timber
possesses less strength
(v) Dead wood: Timber obtained from dead standing tree

(vi) Druxiness: White decayed spots by fungi

(vii) Foxiness: Due to poor ventilation during storage or by commencement of decay

due to over maturity indicated by red or yellow tinge in wood
(viii) Knots: Bases of branches or limbs which are broken or cut off from the tree as
shown in the fig 7.2.

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Fig 7.2 Knot

(ix) Rind galls: Rind means bark and gall indicates abnormal growth and pecullar
curved swellings found on the body of a tree.
(x) Shakes: These are cracks which partly or completely separate the fibres of wood
as shown in fig. 7.3.

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Fig 7.3 Different types of shakes

(xi) Twisted fibres: or Wandering hearts: caused by twisting of young trees by fast
blowing wind as shown in fig 7.4.

Fig 7.4
(xii) Upsets or ruptures: Indicate wood fibres which are injured by crushing or
compression as shown in fig 7.5.

Fig 7.5

7.3 Wood based products:

Timber which is prepared scientifically in a factory is termed as industrial timber and

such timber possesses desired shape, appearance strength
(a) Veneers: These are thin sheets or slices of 0.40 to 6mm wood of superior
quality. Indian timbers, which are suitable for veneers, are mahagony, oak,
rosewood, sissoo, teak etc. The process of preparing a sheet of veners is
known as veneering. Veneers are used to produce plywoods batten boards and
lamin boards.

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(b) Plywoods: Plywoods are boards, which are prepared from thin layers of wood
or veneers. Three or more veneers in odd number are pressed using adhesives.
The plywoods are used for various purposes such as ceilings, doors, furniture,
partitions, panelling walls, packing cases, railway coaches, formwork for
concrete etc. Thickness may vary from 6 to 25mm.
(c) Fibre boards: These are rigid boards and they are also known as pressed
wood or reconstructed wood. The thickness varies from 3mm to 12mm. These
are available in lengths from 3 to 4.5m and width varying from 12 to 18m.
These are used for
(i) For internal finish of rooms such as wall panelling; suspended ceilings.
(ii) To construct form work for cement concrete.

(iii) To construct partitions.

(iv) To prepare flush doors, tops of tables etc.

(v) To provide an insulating material of heat and sound.

(vi) To work as paving or flooring material.
(d) Impreg timbers: Timber which is fully or partially covered with resin is
known as impreg timber. The usual resin employed is phenol formaldehyde
which is soluble in water. Impreg timber is available under trade names such
as formica, sungloss, sunmica etc and it is used for moulds, furniture,
decorative artuicles etc.
(e) Compeg timbers: The process of preparing compreg timbers is same as that
of impreg timbers except that curing is carried out under pressure. The
strength and durability of compreg timbers is more as compared to the impreg
timbers.
7.4. Characteristics of good timbers:

1. Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and of shining
appearance.
2. Colour: A colour should preferably be dark

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3. Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such as knots, flaws,
shakes etc
4. Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the action of
fungi, insects, chemicals, physical agencies, and mechanical agencies.
5. Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load causing its deformation
is removed
6. Fibres: The timber should have straight fibres
7. Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire

8. Hardness: A good timber should be hard

9. Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical
wear or abrasion
10. Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or
seasoning
11. Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant smell indicates decayed
timber
12. Sound : A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when struck
13. Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural
member such as joist, beam, rafter etc.
14. Structure: The structure should be uniform

15. Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of offering resistance to
shocks due to vibration
16. Water permeability: A good timber should have low water permeability, which is
measured by the quantity of water filtered through unit surface area of specimen of
wood.
17. Weathering effects: A good timber should be able to stand reasonably the weathering
effects (dry & wet)
18. Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and strong.
19. Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth
of saw.

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SYNOPYSIS

1. Timber is building material used for the construction of doors, windows, roofs,
partitions, beams, cupboards etc.
2. The classification of trees depending upon their mode of growth
i) Endegeneous trees-bamboo, can, palma ii) Exogeneous trees-
a. Confers deodar, keel, cher, fir, pine, spruce, ledar etc
b. Deceduous trees-ash, beach, oak, sal, teak, shishum and wallnut
3. From the visibility aspect the structure of a tree can be divided into two categories
i) Macro structure ii) Micro structure
4. The defects occurring in a timber are classified into
i) Defects due to conversion chip mark, diagonal grain, torn gain, wane
ii) Defects due to fungi, blue shain, brown rot, dry rot, heart rot, sap stain, wet rot,
white rot etc
iii) Defects due to insects beetles, marine borers, termites etc iv) Defects due to natural
forces burls, callus, chemical stain, coarse grain, dead wood, druxenous, knots,
shakes etc
5. The wood based products are
i) Veneers
ii) Plywood
iii) Fibre boards iv) Impreg timbers
v) Compreg timbers
6. A good timber should have
i) Shinning appearance ii) Dark colour iii) Free from defects iv) Durable to
action of fungi, insects, chemicals etc v) Fire resistance vi) Should hard vii)
Mechanical wear viii) Sweet smell ix) Should give char ringing sound x)
Structure should be uniform xi) Should have low water permeability

* * *

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

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1.Give the examples to the exogenous trees

2.Give the examples to the endogeneous tress
3.Define the following a) pith b) heart wood
4.Name any four defects in timber
5.What are the important qualities of timber?
6.Name any four wood based products
7.What is plywood?
8.What is meant by seasoning?

ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the classification of trees.

2. Explain different defects in timber
3. What are the important qualities of timber and explain.
4. Explain the wood based products
5. What are the advantages of plywoods?

* * *

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Mislaneous Buildings Materials Page 79

CHAPTER 8

MISLANEOUS BUILDINGS MATERIALS

8.1 Metals: Metals are employed for various engineering purposes such as structural members,
roofing materials, damp proof courses, pipes, tanks, doors, windows etc out of all the
metals, iron is the most popular metal and it has been used in construction activity since
pre-historic times. For the purpose of study metals are grouped in the following two
categories
(i) Ferrous metals: Ferrous metals contain iron as their main constituent
Ex: Cast iron, wrought iron, steel

(ii) Non-ferrous metal: Non ferrous metal does not contain iron as their main
constituent
Ex: Aluminium, copper etc

Important varieties of iron ores:

The following are the important commercial varieties of iron ores, which are commonly used, in
the manufacturing process
(1) Haematite – Red oxide of iron (Fe2O3) 65 to 70% of iron

(2) Limonite – 2Fe2O3, 3H2O ( 60% of iron)

(3) Magnetite – Fe3O4 (70 to 73% of iron)

(4) Pyrite – FeS2 (45 to 47% of iron)

(5) Siderite – FeCO3 (40% of iron)

8.1.1 Pig Iron: The crude impure iron, which is extracted from iron ores, is known as pig-iron
and it forms the basic material for the manufacture of cast-iron, wrought iron and steel.
The pig iron is manufactured by the following operations

(i) Dressing: Crushed into pieces 25mm, impurities of clay, loam and other earthy
matter removed by washing, magnetic separators are used for magnetic impurities

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(ii) Calcination and roasting: Water and carbon dioxide are removing from ores by
calcinations. By roasting, making the ares hot and very dry after removal of
sulphur
(iii)Smelting: smelting is carried out in a special type furnace known as blast furnace.
The raw material consists of iron ores, the fluxing materials like limestone and
fuel like coal, charcoal is allowed to through throat portion of the furnace. By the
reduction, the pig iron collects in the hearth of furnace. The slag formed is
removed and hot gases dust escapes through outlet, which is provided in the
throat portion of furnace as shown in fig 8.1.

Fig 8.1 Blast Furnace

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8.1.2 Cast iron:

Cast iron is manufactured by remelting pig iron with coke and limestone. This remelting
is done in a furnace known as cupola furnace, which is more or less same as blast
furnace. Its shape is cylindrical with diameter about 1m and height of about 5m as shown
in fig 8.2. The raw materials are led from the top and the furnace is fired. The impurities
of pig iron are removed to some extent by oxidation. The molten cast iron is led into
moulds of required shapes to form what are known as cast iron castings and slag is
removed from the top of cast iron at regular intervals.

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Fig 8.2 Cupola Furnace

Composition of cast iron:

(1) Cast iron contains about 2 to 4 percent of carbon.

(2) Manganese makes cast iron-brittle and hard, so it may be kept below 0.75 percent.
(3) Phosphorous makes brittle and percentage may be 1 to 1.5 percent.
(4) Silicon decreases shrinkage and ensures softer and better castings and it may be less
than 2.5 percent.
(5) Sulphur makes cast iron brittle and hard and should be kept below 0.10 percent.

Properties of casi-iron:

(1) If placed in salt water, it becomes soft.

(2) It can be hardened by heating and sudden cooling.

(3) It cannot be magnetized.

(4) It does not be rust easily.

(5) It is fusible.

(6) It is hard, but brittle also.

(7) It is not ductile and cannot be adopted to absorb shocks and impacts.
(8) Melting temperature is about 12500 C.

(9) It shrinks on cooking.

(10) Its structure is granular and crystalline with whitish or grayish tinge.
(11) Its specific gravity is 7.5.

(12) It lacks plasticity and hence it is unsuitable for forging work.

(13) It is weak in tension (1500kg/cm2) and strong in compression (6000kg/cm2).

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(14) Two pieces of C.I. cannot be connected by the process of riveting or welding (They are to
be connected by nuts and bolts).

Uses cast iron:

(1) For making cisterns, water pipes, gas pipes and sewers, manhole covers and sanitary
fittings.
(2) For making ornamental castings like brackets, gates, lampposts etc.
(3) For making parts of machinery which are not subjected to shock loads.
(4) For manufacture of compression members.

(5) For preparing rail chairs, carriage wheels etc.

8.1.3 Wrought Iron: Wrought iron is almost pure and it hardly contains carbon more than 0.15
percent. But the process of its manufacture is laborious and tedious. Wrought iron is
manufactured by four operations
a. Refining

b. Pudding

c. Shinging

d. Rolling

Properties of wrought iron:

1) It can be easily forged and welded

2) It can be used to form temporary magnets

3) It is ductile, melleable and tough

4) It is moderately elastic

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5) It is unaffected by saline water

6) It resists corrosion in a better way

7) Its melting point is about 15000C

8) Its specific gravity is about 7.8

9) Its ultimate compressive strength is about 2000 kg/cm2

10) Its ultimate tensile strength is about 4000kg/cm2.

Uses of wrought iron:

It is used for rivets, chains, ornamental iron work, railway couplings, water and steam
pipes, bolts and nuts, horse shoe bars, hand rails, straps for timber roof trusses, boiler tubes,
roofing sheets etc.

8.1.4 Steel : As per as carbon content is concerned, steel forms an intermediate stage between
cast iron and wrought iron. Cast iron contains carbon from 2 to 4 percent and wrought iron
contains 0.15 percent. In steel the carbon content varies from 0.25 to 1.5 percent. The steel is
manufactured by the following processes.
1) Bessemen process

2) Cementation process

3) Crucible steel process

4) Duplex process

5) Electric process

6) L.D. Process

7) Open-hearth process

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Physical properties of steel:

i) Carbon content: Variation in carbon percentage produces steel of different grades. Carbon
always assists in increasing the hardness and strength of steel and decreases the ductility of steel.
ii) Presence of impurities:
a) Silicon content is about 0.30 to 0.40 percent, elasticity and strength of steel are
considerably increased.
b) Sulphur content between 0.02 to 0.10 percent, no appreciable effect on ductility or
strength however mealleability and weld ability decreases.
c) Phosphorous content below 0.12 percent reduces shock resistance, ductility and
strength of steel.
d) Manganese content 0.3 to 1.00 percent, the steel becomes very brittle and hence, it
loses its structural value
iii) Heat treatment processes: It is possible to alter the properties of steel by heating and
cooling under controlled conditions. The following are the purposes of heat treatment
i) To alter magnetic properties of steel ii) To change the structure of
steel iii) To increase resistance to heat and corrosion iv) To increase
surface hardness
v) To make steel easily workable vi) To vary strength and
hardness
The principal processes involved in the heat treatment of steel

1) Annealing- To make steel soft

2) Case hardening-The core of specimen remains tough and ductile

3) Cementing- The skin of the steel is saturated with carbon (880 to 9500C)
4) Hardening- It is reverse process of annealing to make hard
5) Normalising-To restore steel to normal condition and it is adopted when structure of
steel is seriously disturbed for any reason

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6) Tempering-This process is applied to steel, which are treated with hardening process
iv) Magnetic properties of steel: Steel widely used in electrical machinery,
generates, transformers etc. For making steel suitable for such use, its magnetic
properties are given supreme importance and these properties are obtained by
carefully adjusting its chemical composition.
i) Carbon – carbon content as low as possible and should not exceed 0.10
percent.
ii) Silicon-presence of silicon results in considerable increase of electrical
losses and hence it highly undesirable.
iii) Sulphur and phosphorous: Combines content of sulphur and
phosphorous exceeds 0.3 percent, magnetic properties of steel are greatly
affected.
iv) Manganese: If manganese content exceeds 0.3 percent, it proves to be
injurious to the magnetic properties of steel.

Uses of steel:
1. Mild steel 0.10% Motar body, sheet metal, tin
carbon plates etc
2. Medium carbon steel 0.25% Boiler plates, structural steel,
0.45% rails, tyres etc
Hammers, large
0.60%
stampaing dies etc

3. High carbon steel 0.75% Sledge hammers, springs,

stamping dies etc

0.95% Minor drills, smith & tools,

Masons tools
1.00% Chisels, hammers, saws, wood,
working tools

1.10% Axes, cutlery, drills, knives,

picks, punches etc.

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8.1.5 Non Metals:

I. Aluminium:- Aluminium is important non metal occurs in abundance on the surface of

earth in various forms such as oxides, sulphates, silicates, phosphates etc. Bauxite (Al 2
O3, 2H2O) is hydrated oxide of aluminium produced commercially.

Aluminum is extracted from bauxite are as follows.

1. Bauxite is purified.
2. It is then dissolved in fused cryolite which is double fluoride of aluminium and sodium,
Al F2, 3NaF.
3. This solution is then taken to an electric furnace and aluminium is separated out by
electrolysis.
Properties:
1. It is good conductor of heat and electricity
2. It is a silvery white metal with bluish tinge and it exhibits luster on a freshly broken
surface.
3. It is rarely attacked by nitric acid, organic acid or water. It is highly resistant to corrosion.
4. It is light in weight, malleable and ductile
5. It is very soft.
6. It melts at about 6580C.
7. It possesses great toughness and tensile strength
8. It readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid
9. Its specific gravity is about 2.70.
Uses:
1. This metal is used for making parts of aeroplane, utensils, paints, electric wires, window
frames, glazing bars, correlated sheets, structural members, focts, posts, panels,
balustrades, etc.
II. Copper:

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The important ores of copper are cuprite Cu 2O, Copper glance Cu2S, copper
pyrites CuFeS2, Malachete CuCo3, Cu(OH)2 and Azuritc @CuCo3, cu(OH)2.
Properties:
1. It becomes brittle just below its melting point
2. It can be worked in hot or cold condition but it cannot be welded.
3. It has a peculiar red colour
4. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity
5. It is attacked by steam at white heat.
6. It is not attacked by dry air, but moist air gases a green coating to copper surface.
7. It is not attacked by water at any temperature
8. It is melleable, ductile and soft
9. Its specific gravity is 8.90.

Uses:-

1. The market forms of copper are ingots, sheets, tubes and wires.
2. It is extensively used for making electric cables, alloys, household utensils,
electroplating, lighting conductors, dowels in stone masonry, etc.

8.2. Plastics:
Plastic is one the recent engineering materials, which has appeared in the market all over the
world. Plastic is an organic substance and it consists of natural or synthetic binder or resins with
or without moulding compounds. Plastics are the compounds of carbon with other elements such
as hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.

Properties:
1. Appearance: Some Plastics are completely transparent in appearance
2. Chemical resistance: Plastics offer great resistance to moisture, chemicals and solvents.
3. Dimensional Stability: This property of plastic favours quite satisfactorily with that of
other common engineering materials.
4. Ductility: Plastic lacks ductility. Hence its member may fail without warning
5. Electrical Insulation: Plastic posses excellent electric insulating property

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6. Durability: Please are quite durable.
7. Finishing: Any surface treatment may be given to plastic. It is also easy to have technical
control during its manufacture.
8. Fire Resistance: Plastic are organic in nature and hence, all plastics are combustible.
9. Fixing: Plastics can be easily fixed in position they can be bolted, clamped, drilled,
glued, screw threaded or simply push filled in position.
10. Humidity: The properties of plastic are governed to some extent by humidity.
11. Maintenance: It is easy to maintain plastic surfaces.

12. Melting Point: Most of the plastics have low melting point is about 500C.

13. Optical Property: Several types of plastics are transparent and translucent.
14. Sound Absorption: Acoustical boards are prepared by impregnating fiberglass with
phenolic resins.
15. Strength: Plastic are reasonably strong. The strength of plastics may be increased by
reinforcing with various fibrous materials.
16. Thermal property: Thermal conductivity of plastics is low compared to with wood.
17. Weather Resistance: Only certain varieties of plastics can be exposed to weather.
18. Weight: Low Specific gravity. The length weight of the plastic reduces the transport costs
and facilitates fixing.

Uses of Plastics:
1. Bath and Sink units
2. Cistern ball floats
3. Corrugated and plain sheets
4. Decorative laminate and mouldings
5. Electrical conducts
6. Electrical insulations

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7. Films of water proofing, damp proofing
8. Floor tiles
9. Foams for thermal insulation
10. Jiontless flooring
11. Lighting fixtures
12. Overhead water tanks
13. Paints and varnishes
14. Pipes to carry cold water
15. Roof lights
16. Wall tiles
17. Safety glass
18. Water resistant adhesives etc.

8.3. Adhesives:

An adhesive is a substance, which is used to join two or more parts so as to form a single
unit.

Advantages:
1. A wide variety of combination is joining is possible
2. It can be used for bonding the surfaces of glass, metal, plastics and wood.
3. It creates a massive effect
4. It is possible to prevent corrosion between different metals joined by adhesive.
5. It produces adequate strength
6. Permeable joint can be made impermeable for water and gas by the application of
adhesives
7. The process of applying adhesives is easy, economical and speedy.
Disadvantages
1. It is not possible to adopt any adhesive for all substances.
2. The adhesive substances does not become strong immediately after its application

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3. The adhesive substances does not generally remain stable at high temperatures.

8.4 Asbestos:
Asbestos is naturally occurring fibrous mineral substance. It is composed of hydrous
silicates of calcium and magnesium (CaSio 3,3MgSio3) It also contains small amounts of
Iron Oxide and alumina Natural asbestos can be divided into two groups.
1. Acid resistances asbestos.
2. Non Acid resistance asbestos.

Properties:
1. Holes can be drilled and screws can be fitted on its surface.
2. It can be cut into pieces
3. It is an excellent insulator of heat and electricity.
4. It is fire proof and acid proof
5. It is flexible soft and Non-proof
6. It is smooth like glass and silk
7. It prossesses a good adsorption capacity
8. Its colour is brown, grey or white
9. Its melting point is 1200C to 15500C
10. Its specific gravity is 3.10
11. Its quality is critically affected by the length of fibers
12. Its molecules are strong bound together only in one direction and that is why it possesses
very high tensile strength along the fibers.

Uses:
1. Asbestos cement products have become very popular at present

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2. Asbestos felt can be prepared by coating asbestos fibers with bitumen and it is used as
damp proof layer.
3. It is used as covering material for magnetic coils 4. It is used as lining material of fuse
box and switch box
5. It is used for insulating boilers, furnaces, etc.
6. It is used for preparing five proof cloths, ropes etc
7. It is used to form asbestos paint.

8.5 Glass:
Glass is a mixture of a number of metallic silicates, one of which is usually that of an alkali
metal. It is a amorphous, transparent or translucent. It may also be considered as a solidified
super cooled solution of various metallic silicates having infinite viscosity. For the purpose if
classification glass may be graped into the following three categories.
1. Soda-lime glass. Na2, CaO, 6SiO2
2. Potash-lime glass. K20, CaO, 6SiO2
3. Potash – Lead glass. K20, PbO, 6SiO2
Properties:-
1. It absorbs, refracts or transmits light.
2. It can take up high polish and may be used as substitute for every costly gems.
3. It has no definite crystalline structure.
4. It has no sharp melting point.
5. It is affected by alkalies 6. It is an excellent electrical insulator
7. It is available in beautiful colours.
8. It behaves more as solid than most solids in the sense that it is elastic
9. It is capable of being worked in many ways
10. It is extremely brittle.
11. It is not usually affected by air or water
12. It is possible to intentionally after some of its properties such as fusibility, hardness,
refractive power or to suit different purposes.
13. It is not easily attacked by ordinary chemical reagents.

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14. It is possible to objects glasses with diversified properties. The glasses may be clear,
colourless, deffused and stained. 15. It is possible to weld pieces of glass by fusion
16. It is transparent and translucent.
17. When it is heated, it becomes soft and soft with rise in temperature.
18. It is possible to make glass lighter than cork or softer than cotton or stronger then steel by
using advancement of science.

Uses:
1.Soda lime glass: It is used in the manufacture of glass tubes, laboratory apparatus,
plate glass, window glass etc.
2. Potash lime glass: It is used in the manufacuter of glass articles, which have to with
stand high temperatures.
3.Potash – Lead glass: It is used in the manufacture of artificial gems, electric bulbs,
lenses, prisms etc.
4.Comman Glass: It is mainly used in the manufacture of medicine bottles.

8.6 Plaster of paries.

When finely ground gypsum rock is heated to a temperature between 100 0c and 1400c,
three fourth of the combined water passes offas gas stream. The remaining product is
known as ‘Plaster of Paris’ if pure gypsum has been used and ‘Hard wall Plaster’ of the
gypsum rock contains impurities.

Uses: 1.Plaster of Paris is used for cast of nonmetal plasterwork

2. It produces hard surface, sharp contours.

8.7 Lenoleum:
It is a mixture of oxidized unseed oil, pulverized cork, wood flour, pigments and colours,
all spread in a uniform layer on canvas the surface of which may be painted in different
patterns, the surface is then, afterwards water-proofed with the help of an oil paint.
It is available in different gauges(i.e thickness 6.7, 6.0, 4.5, 3.2, 2.0 and 1.6mm) and is
easily cleaned with soap water. It is not affected by oil but slightly affected by acids.

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Linoleum is made in rolls as well as in tiles. Linoleum is used for floor coverings of
hospitals, canteens, residences, offices and industrial buildings.

8.8 Wall paper:

Wall paper are now widely used for developing decorative finished of interior
walls and they are made exclusively from paper or combined with other materials. They
may be unprimed, primed, embossed, metal-coated etc. They are available in single or
multicolour patterns printed on the face surfaces. Varnished wall paper can be polished
after hanging to develop the effect of veneer panelled wall. Certain types of wall papers
are washable. Wall paper with sound absorbing properties are also available Metal-coated
wall papers are prepared from wall papers coated with a primer of metallic powder and
then patterns are printed or embossed in the surface.
8.9 a) Bitumen: Bitumen is the binding material, which is prevent in asphalt. This is also
called far obtained from partial distillation of crude petroleum
1. It is chemically a hydro-carbon
2. Insoluble in water
3. Soluble in carbon disulphide
4. Black or brown in colour
The following are the forms of bitumen
1. Bitumen emulsion
2. Blow bitumen
3. cut-back bitumen
4. plastic bitumen 5. straight run bitumen
b) Tar: Tar is a dark black liquid with high viscosity. According to its source, tar is
classified into following categories
1) Coal Tar
2) Mineral Tar
3) Wood Tar
1) Coal Tar: Usually obtained as a bye-product during the manufacture of coal gas.
Coal tar is used for making macadam roads, preserving timber etc.
2) Mineral tar: This variety of tar is obtained by distilling bituminous shales. It
contains less volatile matter

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3) Wood tar: This type of tar is obtained by distillation of pines and similar other
resinous trees. It contains creosote oil hence, it possesses strong preservative property.

Uses:
1. Rooting, damp proofing felts
2. Fill eracks in masonary structures, for stopping leakages etc

8.10 Thermocole:
It is used for thermal insulation and sound insulation.

* * *

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SYNOPYSIS

1. The ferrous metals used for various engineering purposes cast iron, wrought iron and
steel
2. The non-ferrous metals which are generally used in engineering structures are
Aluminium, cobalt, copper, lead, magnesium, nickel, tin, zinc etc
3. The important ores of iron are hematite, lemonite, magnetite, pyrite and siderite.
4. The manufacture of pig iron involved following operations
(i) Dressing
(ii) Calcination and roasting
(iii) Smelting
5. Cast iron contains 2 to 4 percentage of carbon, wrought iron the carbon content does
not exceed 0.15 percent and where as in steel, carbon percentage should be 0.15 to 1.5
percent
6. Aluminium is extracted from bauxite and used for making the parts of aeroplane,
utensils, paints, electric wires, window frame, structural members etc.
7. Copper is a non-ferrous metal used for sheets, tubes, wires, cables, alloys, household
utensils, electroplating, lightening conductors etc.
8. Plastics are the compounds of carbon with other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen used for the following. Electrical conducts, insulators, floor tiles, thermal
insulation, corrugated and plain sheets, banth and sink units etc

9. Adhesive is a substance used to join two or more parts so as to form single unit have
following uses
(i) To join glass, metal, plastic, wood
10. Asbestors is naturally occurring fibrous mineral substance used for the following
(i) Damp proof layer
(ii) Covering material for magnetic coils
(iii) Lining material for fuse box and switch box
(iv) Insulating boilers, furnaces etc
(v) Fire proof cloths, ropes etc
11. Glass is a mixture of metallic silicates used for the following glass tubes, laboratory
apparatus, window glass, artificial gems, electric bulbs, prisms, medicine bottles

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12. Plaster of paris is used fro the following purposes
(i) Ornamental works
(ii) Produces hard surface, sharp contours
13. Linoleum is mixture of oxidized unseed oil pulverized cork, wood flour, pigments and
colour, all spread in a uniform layer on canvas the surface of which may be painted in
different patterns, the surface is then, afterwards water-proofed with the help of an oil
paint.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1.Name important metals used in building construction 2.Name important non-metals
used in the building construction
3.What are the uses of cast iron?
4.What are the uses of wrought iron?
5.What the properties of steel?
6.Name any four uses of steel.
7.What are the properties of plastics?
8.Name any four uses of plastics.
9.What are the uses of glass?
10. What are the uses of adhesives?
11. Name any four uses of asbestos.
12. What is the use of thermocole?
13. What is the importance of plaster of paris in the building construction industry?
14. Name the uses of linoleum
15. What are the uses of wall paper?
16. Write the uses of bitumen & tar
17. What are the uses of plasticrete?
ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS
1.Explain the properties and uses of steel 2.Explain the following

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a. Plastics b. asbestos
3.Explain the properties and uses of cast iron
4.Explain the following
a. Plaster of paris b. Linoleum
* * *

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Damp Proof and Fire Proof Construction Page 99

1. .

* * *

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