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Chapter 2: Operating Chapter 2: Operating - System System Structures Structures

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21 views48 pages

Chapter 2: Operating Chapter 2: Operating - System System Structures Structures

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黃蕙馨
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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You are on page 1/ 48

Chapter 2: Operating-

Operating-System
Structures

Operating System Concepts 2.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Chapter 2: Operating-
Operating-System Structures
 Operating System Services
 User Operating System Interface
 System Calls
 Types of System Calls
 System Programs
 Operating System Design and Implementation
 Operating System Structure
 Virtual Machines
 Operating System Generation
 System Boot

Operating System Concepts 2.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Objectives

 To describe the services an operating system


provides to users, processes, and other systems
 To discuss the various ways of structuring an
operating system
 To explain how operating systems are installed
and customized and how they boot

Operating System Concepts 2.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Operating System Services
 One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user:
 User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user
interface (UI)
 Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface
(GUI), Batch
 Program execution - The system must be able to load a program
into memory and to run that program, end execution, either
normally or abnormally (indicating error)
 I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may
involve a file or an I/O device.
 File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular
interest. Obviously, programs need to read and write files and
directories, create and delete them, search them, list file
Information, permission management.

Operating System Concepts 2.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Operating System Services (Cont.)

 One set of operating-system services provides functions that are


helpful to the user (Cont):
 Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the
same computer or between computers over a network
 Communications may be via shared memory or through message
passing (packets moved by the OS)
 Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible
errors
 May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user
program
 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to
ensure correct and consistent computing
 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s
abilities to efficiently use the system

Operating System Concepts 2.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Operating System Services (Cont.)

 Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient


operation of the system itself via resource sharing
 Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple
jobs running concurrently, resources must be allocated to
each of them
 Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles,
main memory, and file storage) may have special
allocation code, others (such as I/O devices) may have
general request and release code.
 Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much
and what kinds of computer resources

Operating System Concepts 2.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Operating System Services (Cont.)

 Protection and security - The owners of information


stored in a multiuser or networked computer system may
want to control use of that information, concurrent
processes should not interfere with each other
 Protection involves ensuring that all access to
system resources is controlled
 Security of the system from outsiders requires user
authentication, extends to defending external I/O
devices from invalid access attempts
 If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions
must be instituted throughout it. A chain is only as
strong as its weakest link.

Operating System Concepts 2.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


User Operating System Interface - CLI

 CLI allows direct command entry


 Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by
systems program
 Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells
 Primarily fetches a command from user and executes
it
– Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just
names of programs
» If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require
shell modification

Operating System Concepts 2.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


User Operating System Interface - GUI

 User-friendly desktop metaphor interface


 Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
 Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
 Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause
various actions (provide information, options, execute function,
open directory (known as a folder)
 Invented at Xerox PARC
 Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
 Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
 Apple Mac OS X as “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel
underneath and shells available
 Solaris is CLI with optional GUI interfaces (Java Desktop, KDE)

Operating System Concepts 2.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


System Calls

 Programming interface to the services provided by the OS


 Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
 Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application
Program Interface (API) rather than direct system call use
 Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows,
POSIX API for POSIX-based systems (including virtually all
versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API for
the Java virtual machine (JVM)
 Why use APIs rather than system calls?

(Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are
generic)

Operating System Concepts 2.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Example of System Calls

 System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another


file

Operating System Concepts 2.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Example of Standard API
 Consider the ReadFile() function in the Win32 API—a function for reading
from a file

 A description of the parameters passed to ReadFile()


 HANDLE file—the file to be read
 LPVOID buffer—a buffer where the data will be read into and written
from
 DWORD bytesToRead—the number of bytes to be read into the buffer
 LPDWORD bytesRead—the number of bytes read during the last read
 LPOVERLAPPED ovl—indicates if overlapped I/O is being used

Operating System Concepts 2.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


System Call Implementation

 Typically, a number associated with each system call


 System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to
these numbers
 The system call interface invokes intended system call in OS kernel
and returns status of the system call and any return values
 The caller need know nothing about how the system call is
implemented
 Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a
result call
 Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API
 Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built
into libraries included with compiler)

Operating System Concepts 2.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


API – System Call – OS Relationship

Operating System Concepts 2.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Standard C Library Example
 C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call

Operating System Concepts 2.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


System Call Parameter Passing

 Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired


system call
 Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS
and call
 Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
 Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
 In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
 Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address
of block passed as a parameter in a register
 This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
 Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program
and popped off the stack by the operating system
 Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of
parameters being passed

Operating System Concepts 2.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Parameter Passing via Table

Operating System Concepts 2.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Types of System Calls

 Process control
 File management
 Device management
 Information maintenance
 Communications

Operating System Concepts 2.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Process Control

 End, abort, load, execute, create process,


terminate process
 Get process attributes, set process attributes
 Wait for time, wait event, signal event
 Allocate and free memory

Operating System Concepts 2.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


MS
MS--DOS execution

(a) At system startup (b) running a program

Operating System Concepts 2.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


FreeBSD Running Multiple Programs

Operating System Concepts 2.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


File & Device Management

 File Management:
 Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list, and generally
manipulate files and directories
 Get file attributes, set file attributes

 Device Management:
 Request device, release device
 Red, write, reposition
 Get device attributes, set device attributes

Operating System Concepts 2.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Information Maintenances &
Communication
 Information Maintenances:
 Get time or date, set time or date
 Get system date, set system date
 Get (set) file, device. Or process attributes
 Communication - Provide the mechanism for creating virtual
connections among processes, users, and computer
systems
 Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens, browse
web pages, send electronic-mail messages, log in remotely, transfer
files from one machine to another
 Message-passing model and shared-memory model

2007/10/1 os2, 2006 23


Operating System Concepts 2.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Communication Models
Communication may take place using either message
passing or shared memory.

Msg Passing Shared Memory

Operating System Concepts 2.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


System Programs

 System programs provide a convenient environment for


program development and execution. The can be divided
into:
 File manipulation
 Status information
 File modification
 Programming language support
 Program loading and execution
 Communications
 Application programs
 Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by
system programs, not the actual system calls

Operating System Concepts 2.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


System Programs

 Provide a convenient environment for program development


and execution
 Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls; others
are considerably more complex
 File management - Create, delete, copy, rename, print,
dump, list, and generally manipulate files and directories
 Status information
 Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available
memory, disk space, number of users
 Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging
information
 Typically, these programs format and print the output to the
terminal or other output devices
 Some systems implement a registry - used to store and
retrieve configuration information

Operating System Concepts 2.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


System Programs (cont.)

 File modification
 Text editors to create and modify files
 Special commands to search contents of files or perform
transformations of the text
 Programming-language support - Compilers, assemblers,
debuggers and interpreters sometimes provided
 Program loading and execution- Absolute loaders,
relocatable loaders, linkage editors, and overlay-loaders,
debugging systems for higher-level and machine language
 Communications - Provide the mechanism for creating
virtual connections among processes, users, and computer
systems

Operating System Concepts 2.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Operating System Design and
Implementation
 Design and Implementation of OS not “solvable”, but some
approaches have proven successful
 Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary
widely
 Start by defining goals and specifications
 Affected by choice of hardware, type of system (batch, time-
shared, single user, multiple user,…)
 User goals and System goals
 User goals – operating system should be convenient to use,
easy to learn, reliable, safe, and fast
 System goals – operating system should be easy to design,
implement, and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free,
and efficient

Operating System Concepts 2.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Operating System Design and
Implementation (Cont.)
 Important principle to separate
Policy: What will be done?
Mechanism: How to do it?
 Mechanisms determine how to do something,
policies decide what will be done
 The separation of policy from mechanism is a very
important principle, it allows maximum flexibility if policy
decisions are to be changed later

Operating System Concepts 2.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Simple Structure

 MS-DOS – written to provide the most


functionality in the least space
 Not divided into modules
 Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and
levels of functionality are not well separated

Operating System Concepts 2.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


MS
MS--DOS Layer Structure

Operating System Concepts 2.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


UNIX

 UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original


UNIX operating system had limited structuring. The
UNIX OS consists of two separable parts
 Systems programs
 The kernel
 Consists of everything below the system-call interface
and above the physical hardware
 Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a
large number of functions for one level

Operating System Concepts 2.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


UNIX System Structure

Operating System Concepts 2.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Layered Approach

 The operating system is divided into a number of


layers (levels), each built on top of lower layers.
The bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the
highest (layer N) is the user interface.
 With modularity, layers are selected such that
each uses functions (operations) and services of
only lower-level layers

Operating System Concepts 2.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Layered Operating System

Operating System Concepts 2.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Microkernel System Structure

 Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space


 Communication takes place between user
modules using message passing
 Benefits:
 Easier to extend a microkernel
 Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
 More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
 More secure
 Detriments:
 Performance overhead of user space to kernel space
communication

Operating System Concepts 2.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Mac OS X Structure

Operating System Concepts 2.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Modules

 Most modern operating systems implement kernel modules


 Uses object-oriented approach
 Each core component is separate
 Each talks to the others over known interfaces
 Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
 Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible

Operating System Concepts 2.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Solaris Modular Approach

Operating System Concepts 2.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Virtual Machines

 A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical


conclusion. It treats hardware and the operating system
kernel as though they were all hardware
 A virtual machine provides an interface identical to the
underlying bare hardware
 The operating system creates the illusion of multiple
processes, each executing on its own processor with its own
(virtual) memory

Operating System Concepts 2.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Virtual Machines (Cont.)

 The resources of the physical computer are shared to create the


virtual machines
 CPU scheduling can create the appearance that users have
their own processor
 Spooling and a file system can provide virtual card readers and
virtual line printers
 A normal user time-sharing terminal serves as the virtual
machine operator’s console

Operating System Concepts 2.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Virtual Machines (Cont.)

Non-virtual Machine Virtual Machine

(a) Nonvirtual machine (b) virtual machine

Operating System Concepts 2.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Virtual Machines (Cont.)

 The virtual-machine concept provides complete protection of system


resources since each virtual machine is isolated from all other virtual
machines. This isolation, however, permits no direct sharing of
resources.
 A virtual-machine system is a perfect vehicle for operating-systems
research and development. System development is done on the
virtual machine, instead of on a physical machine and so does not
disrupt normal system operation.
 The virtual machine concept is difficult to implement due to the effort
required to provide an exact duplicate to the underlying machine

Operating System Concepts 2.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


VMware Architecture

Operating System Concepts 2.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


The Java Virtual Machine

Operating System Concepts 2.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


Operating System Generation

 Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of


machines; the system must be configured for each specific
computer site
 SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specific
configuration of the hardware system
 Booting – starting a computer by loading the kernel
 Bootstrap program – code stored in ROM that is able to locate the
kernel, load it into memory, and start its execution

Operating System Concepts 2.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


System Boot

 Operating system must be made available to hardware so


hardware can start it
 Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, locates the kernel,
loads it into memory, and starts it
 Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed
location loads bootstrap loader
 When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed
memory location
 Firmware used to hold initial boot code

Operating System Concepts 2.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005


End of Chapter 2

Operating System Concepts 2.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

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