STUDY MATERIAL FOR B.C.

A
MICROPROCESSOR
SEMESTER - IV, ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-21

UNIT CONTENT Page. Nr

I MICRO PROCESSORS, MICRO COMPUTER AND ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE 3
II MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE AND MICRO COMPUTER SYSTEMS 27
III DATA TRANSFER OPERATION 43
VI COUNTERS AND TIME DELAYS 58
V CONVERSIONS 68

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UNIT- I

MICROPROCESSORS, MICROCOMPUTER AND ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

Microprocessor
 A Microprocessor is a multipurpose programmable, clock driven, register based electronic
device that reads binary instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts binary
data as input, processes data according to those instructions and provide result s as output.

 The microprocessor operates in binary 0 and 1 known as bits are represented in terms of
electrical voltages in the machine that means 0 represents low voltage level and 1
represents high voltage level.

 Each microprocessor recognizes and processes a group of bits called the word and
microprocessors are classified according to their word length such as 8 bits microprocessor
with 8 bit word and 32 bit microprocessor with 32 bit word etc.

 The microprocessor is a programmable device that takes in numbers, performs on them

arithmetic or logical operations according to the program stored in memory and then
produces other numbers as a result.

Terms used

1. CPU: - Central processing unit which consists of ALU and control unit.
2. Microprocessor: - Single chip containing all units of CPU.
3. Microcomputer: - Computer having microprocessor as CPU.
4. Microcontroller: single chip consisting of MPU, memory, I/O and
interfacing circuits.
5. MPU: - Microprocessing unit – complete processing unit with the
necessary control signals.

A Microprocessor as a Programmable device:

The microprocessor can perform different sets of operations on the data it receives
depending on the sequence of instructions supplied in the given program. By changing the
program, the microprocessor manipulates the data in different ways.

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Instructions:
Each microprocessor is designed to execute a specific group of operations. This group of
operations is called an instruction set. This instruction set defines what the microprocessor can
and cannot.

A Microprocessor as a CPU:
Traditionally, the computer is represented with four components such as memory,
input, output and central processing unit (CPU) which consists of arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
and control unit(CU).

The CPU contains various registers to store data, the ALU to perform arithmetic and
logical operations, instruction decoders, counters and control lines.

The CPU reads instructions from memory and performs the tasks specified. It
communicates with input/output (I/O) devices either to accept or to send data, the I/O devices
is known as peripherals.

Later on around late 1960’s, traditional block diagram can be replaced with computer
having microprocessor as CPU which is known as microcomputer. Here CPU was designed using
integrated circuit technology (IC’s) which provided the possibility to build the CPU on a single
chip.

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Block Diagram of a computer with the Microprocessor as CPU

Later on semiconductor fabrication technology became more advanced, manufacturers

were able to place not only MPU but also memory and I/O interfacing circuits on a single chip
known as microcontroller, which also includes additional devices such as A/D converter, serial
I/O, timer etc.

Block Diagram of a Microcontroller

Organization of a microprocessor based system

Microprocessor based system includes there components microprocessor, input/output
and memory (read only and read/write). These components are organized around a common
communication path called a bus.

Microprocessor Based System with Bus Architecture

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Microprocessor:
It is clock driven semiconductor device consisting of electronic logic circuits manufactured
by using either a large scale integration (LSI) or very large scale integration (VLSI) technique. It is
capable of performing various computing functions and making decisions to change the
sequence of program execution. It can be divided in to three segments.
A. Arithmetic/Logic unit: It performs arithmetic operations as addition and subtraction and
logic operations as AND, OR & XOR.
B. Register Array: The registers are primarily used to store data temporarily during the
execution of a program and are accessible to the user through instruction. The registers
can be identified by letters such as B, C, D, E, H and L.
C. Control Unit: It provides the necessary timing and control signals to all the operations in
the microcomputer. It controls the flow of data between the microprocessor and
memory & peripherals.

Memory:
Memory stores binary information such as instructions and data, and provides that
information to the up whenever necessary. To execute programs, the microprocessor reads
instructions and data from memory and performs the computing operations in its ALU. Results
are either transferred to the output section for display or stored in memory for later use.
Memory has two sections.

A. Read only Memory (ROM): Used to store programs that do not need alterations and can
only read.
B. Read/Write Memory (RAM): Also known as user memory which is used to store user
programs and data. The information stored in this memory can be easily read and
altered.

Input/Output:
 It communicates with the outside world using two devices input and output which are
also Known as peripherals.
 The input device such as keyboard, switches, and analog to digital converter transfer
binary information from outside world to the microprocessor.
 The output devices transfer data from the microprocessor to the outside world. They
include the devices such as LED, CRT, digital to analog converter, printer etc.

System Bus:
It is a communication path between the microprocessor and peripherals; it is nothing
but a group of wires to carry bits.

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Microprocessor instruction set and computer languages

8085 Machine Language

8085 Assembly languages

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ASCII Code

Writing and Executing an Assembly Language Program

Assembler

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High-Level Languages

Operating Systems

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From large computers to single chip microcontrollers:

Different types of computers are designed to serve different purposes. Some are
suitable for scientific calculations, while others are used simply for tuning appliances on and off.
Until the 1970s computers were broadly classified in three categories: mainframe, mini, and
microcomputers.

Large Computers
These are large, general purpose, multiuser, multitasking, computers designed to
perform such data processing tasks as complex scientific and engineering calculations and
handling of records for large corporations or government agencies. These computers can be
broadly classified into mainframes and supercomputers, and mainframes are further classified
according to their sizes. Typical examples are IBM System/390 series, Cray computers (Cray-2,
Y-MP), the Fujitsu GS8800, and the Hitachi MP5800. Mainframes are high-speed computers,
and their word length generally ranges from 32 to 64 bits. Supercomputers such as the Cray-2
and Y-MP are 64 bits high performance and high-speed computers.

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Medium-size Computers
In the 1960s, these computers were designed to meet the instructional needs of small
colleges, the manufacturing problems of small factories and the data processing tasks of
medium-size business such as payroll and accounting. These are called mini-computers. These
machines were slower and smaller in memory capacity than mainframes.

Microcomputers
The 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors became available in the mid-1970s, and initial
applications were primarily in the areas of machine control and instrumentation. As the price of
the microprocessors and memory began to decline, the applications mushroomed in almost all
areas, such as video games, word processing, and small-business applications. Early
microcomputers were designed around 8 bit microprocessors. Since then 16, 32, 64 bits
microprocessors, such as Intel 8086/88, Pentium I to IV, Motorola 68000, and the power PC
series have been introduced, and recent micro computers are designed around these
microprocessors. Present day micro computers can be classified in 4 groups: personal (or
business) computers (PC), work stations, single board, and single chip microcomputers
(microcontrollers).

Personal computers (PC)

These microcomputers are single user system and are used for a variety of purposes,
such as payroll, business accounts, word processing, legal and medical record keeping,
accessing Internet resources (email, Web search). They are also known as personal computers
(PC). The HP Pavilion series, Apple Macintosh series, DELL series, etc. A typical configuration of
the microcomputer spectrum includes a 32/64 bit microprocessor, 256MB-1GB of system
memory (RAM), a monitor, a hard disk with storage capacity more than 80 GB, a CD-ROM drive.

Single-Board Microcomputers

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8085 PROGRAMMING MODEL:

8085 is pronounced as "eighty-eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit microprocessor

designed by Intel in 1977 using NMOS technology.
It has the following configuration −

 8-bit data bus

 16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB

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 A 16-bit program counter
 A 16-bit stack pointer
 Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
 Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock
It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens, mobile phones, etc.

8085 consists of the following functional units −

Accumulator
It is an 8-bit register used to perform arithmetic, logical, I/O & LOAD/STORE operations.
It is connected to internal data bus & ALU.

Arithmetic and logic unit

As the name suggests, it performs arithmetic and logical operations like Addition,
Subtraction, AND, OR, etc. on 8-bit data.

General purpose register:

There are 6 general purpose registers in 8085 processor, i.e. B, C, D, E, H & L. Each
register can hold 8-bit data.
These registers can work in pair to hold 16-bit data and their pairing combination is like
B-C, D-E & H-L.

Program counter
It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory address location of the next instruction
to be executed. Microprocessor increments the program whenever an instruction is being
executed, so that the program counter points to the memory address of the next instruction
that is going to be executed.

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Stack pointer: It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is always
incremented/decremented by 2 during push & pop operations.

Temporary register:It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of arithmetic and
logical operations.

Flag register
It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops, which holds either 0 or 1 depending upon
the result stored in the accumulator.
These are the set of 5 flip-flops −

 Sign (S)
 Zero (Z)
 Auxiliary Carry (AC)
 Parity (P)
 Carry (C)
Its bit position is shown in the following table −

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

S Z AC P CY

 Sign Flag (S): Sets or Resets based on the result stored in the accumulator. If the result
stored is positive, the flag resets else if the result stored is negative the flag is set.
 Zero Flag (Z): Sets or Resets based on the result stored in the accumulator. If the result
stored is zero the flag is set else it is reset.
 Auxiliary Carry Flag(AC) : This flag is set if there is a carry from low nibble(lowest 4 bits) to
high nibble(upper 4 bits) or a borrow from high nibble to low nibble, in the low order 8-bit
portion of an addition or subtraction operation.

Instruction Classification
An instruction is a binary pattern designed inside a microprocessor to perform a specific
function. The entire group of instructions, called the instruction set, determines what
functions the microprocessor can perform. These instructions can be classified into the
following five functional categories: data transfer (copy) operations, arithmetic operations,
logical operations, branching operations, and machine-control operations.

Data Transfer (Copy) Operations

This group of instructions copy data from a location called a source to another location
called a destination, without modifying the contents of the source. In technical manuals, the
term data transfer is used for this copying function. The various types of data transfer (copy)
are listed below together with examples of each type:

Types Examples
1. Between Registers. 1. Copy the contents of the register B into

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register D.
2. Specific data byte to a register or a memory 2. Load register B with the data byte 32H.
location.
3. Between a memory location and a register. 3. From a memory location 2000H to
register B.
4. Between an I/O device and the accumulator. 4.From an input keyboard to
the accumulator.

Arithmetic Operations
These instructions perform arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, increment, and
decrement.

Addition - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register or the contents of a memory location
can be added to the contents of the accumulator and the sum is stored in the accumulator. No
two other 8-bit registers can be added directly (e.g., the contents of register B cannot be added
directly to the contents of the register C). The instruction DAD is an exception; it adds 16-bit
data directly in register pairs.

Subtraction - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or the contents of a memory
location can be subtracted from the contents of the accumulator and the results stored in the
accumulator. The subtraction is performed in 2's compliment, and the results if negative, are
expressed in 2's complement. No two other registers can be subtracted directly.

Increment/Decrement - The 8-bit contents of a register or a memory location can be

incremented or decrement by 1. Similarly, the 16-bit contents of a register pair (such as BC) can
be incremented or decrement by 1. These increment and decrement operations differ from
addition and subtraction in an important way; i.e., they can be performed in any one of the
registers or in a memory location.

Logical Operations
These instructions perform various logical operations with the contents of the accumulator.

AND, OR Exclusive-OR - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or of a memory

location can be logically ANDed, Ored, or Exclusive-ORed with the contents of the accumulator.
The results are stored in the accumulator.

Rotate- Each bit in the accumulator can be shifted either left or right to the next position.

Compare- Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or a memory location can be
compared for equality, greater than, or less than, with the contents of the accumulator.

Complement - The contents of the accumulator can be complemented. All 0s are replaced by 1s
and all 1s are replaced by 0s.

Branching Operations - This group of instructions alters the sequence of program execution
either conditionally or unconditionally.

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Jump - Conditional jumps are an important aspect of the decision-making process in the
programming. These instructions test for a certain conditions (e.g., Zero or Carry flag) and alter
the program sequence when the condition is met. In addition, the instruction set includes an
instruction called unconditional jump.

Call, Return, and Restart - These instructions change the sequence of a program either by
calling a subroutine or returning from a subroutine. The conditional Call and Return
instructions also can test condition flags.

Machine Control Operations

These instructions control machine functions such as Halt, Interrupt, or do nothing.

Instruction, data format and storage

An instruction is a command to the microprocessor to perform a given task on a
specified data. Each instruction has two parts: one is task to be performed, called the
operation code (opcode), and the second is the data to be operated on, called the operand.
The operand (or data) can be specified in various ways. It may include 8-bit (or 16-bit) data, an
internal register, a memory location, or 8-bit (or 16-bit) address. In some instructions, the
operand is implicit.

Instruction Word Size

The 8085 instruction set is of three groups according to word size:

 One-word or one-byte instructions.

 Two-word or two-byte instructions.
 Three-word or three-byte instructions.

In the 8085 microprocessor, byte and words are synonymous because it is an 8-bit
microprocessor. But, instructions are commonly referred to in terms of bytes rather than
words.

One-byte instructions
A one-byte instruction includes a opcode and a operand in the same byte.

Task Opcode Operand Binary Code Hex code

Copy the content of accumulator in

MOV C, A 0100 1111 4FH
the register C.

Add the contents of register B to

ADD B 1000 0000 80H
the contents of the accumulator.

Invert each bit in the accumulator. CMA None 0010 2FH

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In the first instruction, operand and registers are specified. In the second instruction, the
operand B is specific and the accumulator is not there. Similarly, in the third instruction, the
accumulator is assume to be the implicit operand.

Two-byte instructions
In a two-byte instruction, the first byte specifies the operation code and second byte specifies
the operand.

Task Opcode Operand Binary code Hex code

Load an 8-bit data byte 0011 1110 3EH First byte

MVI A 35H
in the accumulator. 0011 0101 35H Second byte

Three-byte instructions
In a three-byte instruction, the first byte specifies the opcode, and the following two
bytes specify the 16-bit operand. The second byte is the low-order operand and the third byte
is the high-order operand. If a 16-bit numeral is present in the instruction then that instruction
will be of three-byte. For example, in LXI H,3500H and STA 2500H, etc.

Task Opcode Operand Binary code Hex code

Transfer the program 1100 0011 C3 First byte

JMP 2550H
sequence to the memory 0101 0000 50 Second byte
location 2085h 0010 0101 25 Third byte

Opcode Format
In the case of microprocessor, the instruction or operation are specified by using specific
bit pattern unique for each instruction. These bit patterns contain all the information about
operation, register used, memory to. The register and register pair are specified by using
certain combination of bits. These combinations of bits are in table below.

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Data Format
In 8-bit processor systems, commonly used codes and data formats are,
1. ASCII Code- This is a 7-bit alphanumeric code that represents decimal numbers, English
alphabets and non-printable characters such as carriage return.
2. BCD Code- The term BCD stands for binary-coded decimal; it is used for decimal numbers.
The decimal numbering system has ten digits.
3. Signed Integer- A signed integer is either a positive number or a negative number. In a 8-
bit processor, the most significant digit, d7, is used for the sign; 0 represents the positive
sign and 1 represents the negative sign.
4. Unsigned Integer- A integer without a sign can be represented by all the 8 bits in a
Microprocessor register.

Data Storage:Memory
Memory is a storage of binary bits. Memory chips used in most systems are nothing but
8-bit registers stacked one above the other.

How to write, assemble and execute a simple program

A program is a sequence of instruction written to tell a computer to perform a specific
function.

Illustrative Program:Adding Two Hexadecimal Numbers

Problem – Write instructions to load 2 hexa-decimal numbers 32H and 48H in registers A and B,
respectively. Add the numbers and display the sum at LED output port PORT1.
Problem analysis
1. Load the numbers in the registers.
2. Add the numbers.
3. Display the sum at the output port PORT1.

Flowchart
The steps listed in the problem analysis and the sequence can be represented in a block
diagram is called a flowchart.

Assembly Language Hex Code

MVI A,32H 3E
32
MVI B,48H 06
48

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ADD B 80
OUT 01H D3

01
HLT 76

Storing Hex Code in the Memory:

Once the hex code is ready, it has to be loaded in the memory of specially designed
microprocessor system (Microprocessor training kit) for execution. To perform this task we
should know the address range of read/write memory in the system.

Let us assume that the read/write memory ranges from 2000H to 22FFH. The
microprocessor training kit has keypad to enter the hex code, in the memory. It provides a
special routine (monitor program) to enter a hex code byte by byte and execute the program.
Typical steps for storing hex code in the memory from address from address 2000H are as
follows:
 Reset the microprocessor system by pressing the RESET key.
 Enter into store mode by pressing SET key.
 Enter the address of the memory 2000H, where the first hex code (starting address of the
program) is to be stored using hex keys.
 Enter the hex code using hex keys.
 Increment the memory address by 1 using INC key.
 Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the last hex code.

Executing the Program:

The microprocessor training kit provides a procedure to execute the program. To
activate the procedure we have to enter the starting address of the program (2000H in our
example). To enter this address we have to go into execute mode by pressing GO key and enter
the starting address using hex keys.

Once the starting address is entered, the program can be executed by pressing EXECUTE
key. The EXECUTE key procedure loads the starting address of our program, 2000H into the
program counter and program control is transferred from monitor program to our program.

After this microprocessor reads one hex code at a time, and when it fetches the
complete instruction, it executes that instruction. Then it fetches the next instruction and this
process continues until the last instruction in the program is executed.

Overview of the 8085 instruction set

The 8085 microprocessor instruction set has 74 operation codes that result in 246
instructions.
Data transfer instructions in 8085 microprocessor
Data tranfer instructions are the instructions which transfers data in the microprocessor.
They are also called copy instructions.

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Following is the table showing the list of logical instructions:

OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

MOV Rd, Rs Rd = Rs MOV A, B

MOV Rd, M Rd = Mc MOV A, 2050

MOV M, Rs M = Rs MOV 2050, A

MVI Rd, 8-bit data Rd = 8-bit data MVI A, 50

MVI M, 8-bit data M = 8-bit data MVI 2050, 50

LDA 16-bit address A = contents at address LDA 2050

STA 16-bit address contents at address = A STA 2050

LXI r.p., 16-bit data loads the specified register pair with data LXI H, 3050

LDAX r.p. indirectly loads at the accumulator A LDAX H

STAX 16-bit address indirectly stores from the accumulator A STAX 2050

XCHG none exchanges H with D, and L with E XCHG

PUSH r.p. pushes r.p. to the stack PUSH H

POP r.p. pops the stack to r.p. POP H

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OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

IN 8-bit port address inputs contents of the specified port to A IN 15

OUT 8-bit port address outputs contents of A to the specified port OUT 15

Arithmetic instructions in 8085 microprocessor

Arithmetic Instructions are the instructions which perform basic arithmetic operations such
as addition, subtraction and a few more. In 8085 microprocessor, the destination operand is
generally the accumulator. In 8085 microprocessor, the destination operand is generally the
accumulator.
Following is the table showing the list of arithmetic instructions:
OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

ADD R A=A+R ADD B

ADD M A = A + Mc ADD 2050

ADI 8-bit data A = A + 8-bit data ADD 50

ADC R A = A + R + prev. carry ADC B

ADC M A = A + Mc + prev. carry ADC 2050

ACI 8-bit data A = A + 8-bit data + prev. carry ACI 50

SUB R A=A–R SUB B

SUB M A = A – Mc SUB 2050

SUI 8-bit data A = A – 8-bit data SUI 50

SBB R A = A – R – prev. carry SBB B

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OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

SBB M A = A – Mc -prev. carry SBB 2050

SBI 8-bit data A = A – 8-bit data – prev. carry SBI 50

INR R R=R+1 INR B

INR M M = Mc + 1 INR 2050

INX r.p. r.p. = r.p. + 1 INX H

DCR R R=R–1 DCR B

DCR M M = Mc – 1 DCR 2050

DCX r.p. r.p. = r.p. – 1 DCX H

DAD r.p. HL = HL + r.p. DAD H

In the table,
R stands for register
M stands for memory
Mc stands for memory contents
r.p. stands for register pair

Logical instructions in 8085 microprocessor

Logical instructions are the instructions which perform basic logical operations such as AND,
OR, etc. In 8085 microprocessor, the destination operand is always the accumulator. Here logical
operation works on a bitwise level.

Following is the table showing the list of logical instructions:

OPCODE OPERAND DESTINATION EXAMPLE

ANA R A = A AND R ANA B

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OPCODE OPERAND DESTINATION EXAMPLE

ANA M A = A AND Mc ANA 2050

ANI 8-bit data A = A AND 8-bit data ANI 50

ORA R A = A OR R ORA B

ORA M A = A OR Mc ORA 2050

ORI 8-bit data A = A OR 8-bit data ORI 50

XRA R A = A XOR R XRA B

XRA M A = A XOR Mc XRA 2050

XRI 8-bit data A = A XOR 8-bit data XRI 50

CMA none A = 1’s compliment of A CMA

CMP R Compares R with A and triggers the flag register CMP B

CMP M Compares Mc with A and triggers the flag register CMP 2050

CPI 8-bit data Compares 8-bit data with A and triggers the flag register CPI 50

RRC none Rotate accumulator right without carry RRC

RLC none Rotate accumulator left without carry RLC

RAR none Rotate accumulator right with carry RAR

RAL none Rotate accumulator left with carry RAR

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OPCODE OPERAND DESTINATION EXAMPLE

CMC none Compliments the carry flag CMC

STC none Sets the carry flag STC

In the table,
R stands for register
M stands for memory
Mc stands for memory contents

Branching instructions in 8085 microprocessor

Branching instructions refer to the act of switching execution to a different instruction
sequence as a result of executing a branch instruction.
The three types of branching instructions are:
1. Jump (unconditional and conditional)
2. Call (unconditional and conditional)
3. Return (unconditional and conditional)

1. Jump Instructions – The jump instruction transfers the program sequence to the memory address
given in the operand based on the specified flag. Jump instructions are 2 types: Unconditional Jump
Instructions and Conditional Jump Instructions.

(a) Unconditional Jump Instructions: Transfers the program sequence to the described
OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

JMP address Jumps to the address JMP 2050

memory address.

(b) Conditional Jump Instructions: Transfers the program sequence to the described memory
address only if the condition in satisfied.
OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

JC address Jumps to the address if carry flag is 1 JC 2050

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OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

JNC address Jumps to the address if carry flag is 0 JNC 2050

JZ address Jumps to the address if zero flag is 1 JZ 2050

JNZ address Jumps to the address if zero flag is 0 JNZ 2050

JPE address Jumps to the address if parity flag is 1 JPE 2050

JPO address Jumps to the address if parity flag is 0 JPO 2050

JM address Jumps to the address if sign flag is 1 JM 2050

JP address Jumps to the address if sign flag 0 JP 2050

2. Call Instructions – The call instruction transfers the program sequence to the memory
address given in the operand. Before transferring, the address of the next instruction after CALL
is pushed onto the stack. Call instructions are 2 types: Unconditional Call Instructions and
Conditional Call Instructions.

(a) Unconditional Call Instructions: It transfers the program sequence to the memory address
given in the operand.

OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

CALL address Unconditionally calls CALL 2050

(b) Conditional Call Instructions: Only if the condition is satisfied, the instructions executes.

OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

CC address Call if carry flag is 1 CC 2050

CNC address Call if carry flag is 0 CNC 2050

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OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

CZ address Calls if zero flag is 1 CZ 2050

CNZ address Calls if zero flag is 0 CNZ 2050

CPE address Calls if parity flag is 1 CPE 2050

CPO address Calls if parity flag is 0 CPO 2050

CM address Calls if sign flag is 1 CM 2050

CP address Calls if sign flag is 0 CP 2050

3. Return Instructions – The return instruction transfers the program sequence from the
subroutine to the calling program. Jump instructions are 2 types: Unconditional Jump
Instructions and Conditional Jump Instructions.

(a) Unconditional Return Instruction: The program sequence is transferred unconditionally

from the subroutine to the calling program.

OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

RET none Return from the subroutine unconditionally RET

(b) Conditional Return Instruction: The program sequence is transferred unconditionally from
the subroutine to the calling program only is the condition is satisfied.

OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

RC none Return from the subroutine if carry flag is 1 RC

RNC none Return from the subroutine if carry flag is 0 RNC

RZ none Return from the subroutine if zero flag is 1 RZ

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OPCODE OPERAND EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

RNZ none Return from the subroutine if zero flag is 0 RNZ

RPE none Return from the subroutine if parity flag is 1 RPE

RPO none Return from the subroutine if parity flag is 0 RPO

RM none Returns from the subroutine if sign flag is 1 RM

RP none Returns from the subroutine if sign flag is 0 RP

The Machine Control instructions are as follows:

HLT - Halt

NOP - No Operation

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UNIT II

MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE AND MICROCOMPUTER SYSTEMS

Microprocessor Architecture and its operations

The microprocessor is a programmable logic device, designed with registers, flip-flops.
The microprocessor has a set of instructions designed internally, to manipulate data and
communicate with peripherals. This process of data manipulation and communication is
determined by the logic design of the microprocessor, called the architecture.

The microprocessor can be programmed to perform functions on given data by selecting

necessary instructions from its set. These instructions are given to the microprocessor by
writing them into its memory. Writing (Or entering) instruction and data is done through an
input device such as a keyboard. The result can be stored in memory or scent to such output
devices as LEDs or a CRT terminal. All the various functions performed by the microprocessor
can be classified in three general categories:

♦ Microprocessor-initiated operations
♦ Internal data operations
♦ Peripheral (or externally) initiated operations.

To perform these functions, the microprocessor requires a group of logic circuits and a
set of signals called control signals. However, early processors do not have the necessary
circuitry on one chip; the complete units are made up more than one chip. Therefore, the term
Micro Processing Unit (MPU) is defined here as a group of devices that can perform these
functions with the necessary set of control signals. This term is similar to the term Central
Processing Unit (CPU).

Microprocessor-Initiated Operations and 8085/8080A Bus Organization

The MPU performs primarily four operations:
1. Memory Read: Reads data from memory.
2. Memory Write: Writes data into memory.
3. I/O read: Accepts data from input devices.
4. I/O Write: Sends data to output devices.

All these operations are part of the communication process between the MPU and peripheral
devices (including memory). To communicate with a peripheral (or a memory location), the
MPU needs to perform the following steps:

Step 1 : Identify the peripheral or the memory location (with its address).

Step 2 : Transfer data

Step 3 : Provide timing or synchronization signals.

The 8085/8080A MPU performs these functions using three sets of communication lines called
buses : The address bus, the data bus, and the control bus.

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Internal Data Operations and the 8085/8080A Registers
The internal architecture of the 8085/8080A microprocessor determines how and what
operations can be performed with the data. These operations are,
1. Store 8-bits data.
2. Perform arithmetic and logical operations.
3. Test for conditions.
4. Sequence the execution of instructions.
5. Store data temporarily during execution in the defined R/W memory locations called the
stack.
To perform these operations, the microprocessor requires registers, an arithmetic logic unit
(ALU) and control logic, and internal buses (path for information flow).

Externally Initiated Operations in Microprocessor

8085 microprocessor support some Externally initiated operations, which are also known
as Peripheral operations. Different external input/output devices or signals can initiate these
type operations. Following are the some externally initiated operations:

1. RESET–
This RESET key is used to clear the program counter and update with 0000H memory
location. When this RESET pin is activated by any external key, then all the internal
operations are suspended for that time. After that the execution of the program can begin
at the zero memory address.

2. Interrupt–
8085 microprocessor chip have some pins for interrupt like TRAP, RST 5.5, RST 6.5 and RST
7.5. The microprocessor can be interrupted from the normal instructions and asked to
perform some other emergency operations, which are also known as Service routine. The
microprocessor resumes its operation after the completion Service routine.

3. READY–
The 8085 microprocessor has a pin called READY. If the signal at this READY pin is in low
state then the microprocessor enters into the Wait state. This signal is used mainly to
synchronize slower external devices with the microprocessor.

4. HOLD–
When the HOLD pin is activated by an external signal, the microprocessor relinquishes
control buses and allows the external peripheral to use them. For example, the HOLD signal
is used Direct memory access (DMA) data transfer.

MEMORY
Memory is an essential component of a microcomputer system. It stores binary
instructions and data for the microprocessor. There are two types of memory: Read/Write
Memory(R/WM) and Read-Only Memory (ROM).

1. Memory Organization (R/W Memory): To communicate with memory, the MPU should
be able to:
 select the chip

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 Identify the register
 Read from or Write into the register

Figure (a) shows memory chip of eight register with three address lines, one chip select (CS)
line,one read write (R/W) line, and eight I/O lines. The MPU uses the CS line to select the chip,
and the R/W line to control data flow.

Memory Map
Memory map is defined as the assignment of addresses to memory registers in various
memory chips in asystem. In a system based on the 8085/8080A microprocessor, the entire
memory map can range from 0000h to FFFFh (216= 65.536).

Example-1- Illustrate the memory map of the chip with 256 bytes of memory and hardware of
the chip select (CS) line in fig 2.

Fig 2:-Memory map :256 bytes of memory

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Memory classification
Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without it computer
can’t perform simple tasks. Computer memory is of two basic type – Primary memory(RAM and
ROM) and Secondary memory(hard drive,CD,etc.). Random Access Memory (RAM) is primary-
volatile memory and Read Only Memory (ROM) is primary-non-volatile memory.Memory can
be classified into two groups as shown in fig.

1. Random Access Memory (RAM) –

 It is also called as read write memory or the main memory or the primary memory.
 The programs and data that the CPU requires during execution of a program are stored in this
memory.
 It is a volatile memory as the data loses when the power is turned off.
 RAM is further classified into two types- SRAM (Static Random Access
Memory) and DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory).

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2. Read Only Memory (ROM)

 Stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the program essential to boot
the computer.
 It is not volatile.
 Always retains its data.
 Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no change.
 Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
 ROM is further classified into 4 types- ROM, PROM, EPROM,and EEPROM.

Types of Read Only Memory (ROM) –

1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory) – It can be programmed by user. Once

programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.
2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory) – It can be reprogrammed. To erase
data from it, expose it to ultra violet light. To reprogram it, erase all the previous data.
3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only memory) – The data can be erased
by applying electric field, no need of ultra violet light. We can erase only portions of the
chip.

Input and output (i/o) devices

The MPU accepts the binary data from input devices such as keyboard and
analog/digital converters and sends data to output devices such as printers and LEDs. For
performing this task, MPU first need to identify the input/output devices.

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There are two different methods by which I/O devices can be identified: Using 8-bit address,
and Using 16-bit address. These methods are described briefly in the following sections:

I/Oswith8-bitaddresses–
This is also known as peripheral-mapped I/O or I/O-mapped-I/O. In this type of I/O, MPU uses
eight address lines to identify an input or an output devices. This is an 8-bit numbering system
for I/Os used in conjunction with the input and output instructions. This is also known as I/O
space that is separate from the memory space which is 16-bit numbering system. The eight
address lines have 2^8 combinations which is total 256 addresses; therefore MPU can identify
256 input devices and 256 output devices with addresses ranging from 00H to FFH.

The input and output devices can be differentiated by using the control lines I/O Read
and I/O Write. MPU uses I/O Read control signal for input devices and I/O Write control signal
for output devices.

I/Oswith16-bitaddresses–
This is also known as Memory-mapped I/O. In this type of I/O, MPU uses sixteen address lines
to identify an input or an output devices; an I/O is connected as if it is a memory register. The
MPU uses same control signal (Memory Read and Memory Write) and instructions as those of
memory. In some microprocessors, such as the Motorola 6800, all I/Os have 16-bit addresses;
I/Os and memory share the same memory map (64K). The steps are summarized below:
1. The MPU places an 8-bit address ( or 16-bit address) on the address bus, which is decoded
by external decode logic.
2. The MPU sends a control signal (I/O Read or I/O Write) and enables the I/O device.
3. Data are transferred using the data bus.

Example of microcomputer system

The 8085 microprocessor is an example of Microcomputer System. A microprocessor

system contains : two types of memory that are EPROM and R/WM, Input and Output devices
and the buses that are used to link all the peripherals (memory and I/Os) to the MPU.In 8085,
we 16 address lines ranging from A0 to A15 that are used to address memory. The lower
order address bus A0-A7 is used in the identification of the input and output devices.

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This microcomputer system has 8 data lines D0-D7 which are bidirectional and common
to all the devices.It generates four control signals: Memory Read, Memory Write, I/O Read and
I/O Write and they are connected to different peripheral devices. The MPU communicates with
only one peripheral at a time by enabling that peripheral through its control signal.

For example, sending a data to the output device, the MPU places the device address
(or output port number) on the address bus, data on the data bus and enables the output
device by using its control signal I/O Write. After that the output device display the result.

8085 Microprocessor architecture and memory interfacing

The 8085 MPU

The term Micro Processing Unit (MPU) is similar to the term Central Processing Unit
(CPU) used in traditional computers. We define the MPU as a device or a group of devices (as a
unit) that can communicate with peripherals, provide timing signals, direct data flow, and
perform computing tasks as specified by the instructions in memory. The unit will have the
necessary lines for the address bus, the data bus, and the control signals, and would require
only a power supply and a crystal (or equivalent frequency - determining components) to be
completely functional.
Using this description, the 8085 microprocessor can almost qualify as an MPU, but with the
following two limitations.
1. The low-order address bus of the 8085 microprocessor is multiplexed (time shared) with the
data bus. The buses need to be de multiplexed.
2. Appropriate control signals need to be generated to interface memory and I/O with the
8085. (Intel has some specialized memory and I/O devices that do not require such control
signals).

The 8085 Microprocessor

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The 8085 is an 8-bit general purpose microprocessor capable of addressing 64K of memory. The
device has forty pins, requires a +5 V single power supply, and can operate with a 3-MHz single-
phase clock. The 8085 is an enhanced version of predecessor, the 8080A; its instruction set is
upward-compatible with that of the 8080A, meaning that the 8085 instruction set includes all
the 8080A instructions plus some additional ones. Programs written for the 8080A will be
executed by the 8085, but the 8085 and the 8080A are not pin compatible.
Multiplexed Address / Data Bus

The signal lines AD7 to AD0 are bidirectional, they serve a dual purpose. They are used as the
low-order address bus as well as the data bus. In executing an instruction, during the earlier
part of the cycle, these lines are used as the low-order address bus. During the later art of the
cycle, these lines are used as the data bus. (This is also known as multiplexing the bus).
However, the low-order address bus can be separated from these signals by using a latch.
Control and Status Signals

This group of signals includes two control signals (RD and WR), three status signals (IO/M, S 1 and
S0) to identify the nature of the operation, and one special signal (ALE) to indicate the beginning
of the operation. These signals are as follows :

 ALU - Address Latch Enable : This is a positive going pulse generated every time the 8085,
begins an operation (machine cycle); it indicates that the bits on AD 7 - AD0 are address bits.
This signal is used primarily to latch the low-order address from the multiplexed bus and
generate a separate set of eight address lines, A7 to A0.

 RD - Read : This is a Read control signal (active low). This signal indicates that the selected
I/O or memory device is to be read and data are available on the data bus.

 WR - Write : This is a Write control signal (active low). This signal indicates that the data on
the bus are to be written into a selected memory or I/O location.

 IO/M: This is a status signal to differentiate between I/O and memory operations. When it is
high, it indicates and I/O Operation; when it is low, it indicates a memory operation. This
signal is combined with RD (Read) and WR (Write) to generate I/O and memory control
signals.

 S1 and S0: There status signals, similar to IO/M, can identify various operations; but they are
rarely used in small systems.

Power Supply and Clock Frequency

The power supply and frequency signals are as follows:
 VCC: + 5 volt power supply.
 VSS: Ground Reference.

 X1, X2: A crystal (or RC, LC network) is connected at these two pins. The frequency is
internally divided by two; therefore, to operate a system at 3 MHz, the crystal should have
frequency of 6 MHz.

 CLK (OUT) - Clock Output: This signal can be used as the system clock for other devices.

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Interrupts and Externally Initiated
Signals
Line Location from which next instruction is picked up
 HOLD (INPUT): HOLD indicates
that another device is
requesting for the use of the TRAP 0024
address and data bus.
 HLDA (OUTPUT): HLDA is a
RST 5.5 002C
signal for HOLD
acknowledgement which
indicates that the HOLD RST 6.5 0034
request has been received.
After the removal of this
RST 7.5 003C
request the HLDA goes low.
 INTR (Input): INTR is
an Interrupt Request Signal. Among interrupts it has the lowest priority. The INTR is
enabled or disabled by software.
 INTA (Output): INTA is an interrupt acknowledgement sent by the microprocessor after
INTR is received.
 RST 5.5, 6.5, 7.5 and TRAP (Inputs): These all are interrupts. When any interrupt is
recognized the next instruction is executed from a fixed location in the memory as given
below:

RST 7.5, RST 6.5 and RST 5.5 are the restart interrupts which cause an internal restart to be
automatically inserted.

The TRAP has the highest priority among interrupts. The order of priority of interrupts is as follows:

 TRAP (Highest priority)

 RST 7.5
 RST 6.5
 RST 5.5
 INTR (Lowest priority).

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Reset Signals
 RESET IN (Input): It resets the program counter (PC) to 0. It also resets interrupt enable
and HLDA flip-flops. The CPU is held in reset condition till RESET is not applied.
 RESET OUT (Output): RESET OUT indicates that the CPU is being reset.

Clock Signals
 X1, X2 (Input): X1 and X2 are terminals to be connected to an external crystal oscillator
which drives an internal circuitry of the microprocessor. It is used to produce a suitable clock
for the operation of microprocessor.
 CLK (Output): CLK is a clock output for user, which can be used for other digital ICs. Its
frequency is same at which processor operates.

Serial I/O Signals

 SID (Input): SID is data line for serial input. The data on this line is loaded into the seventh
bit of the accumulator when RIM instruction is executed.
 SOD (Output): SOD is a data line for serial output. The seventh bit of the accumulator is
output on SOD line when SIM instruction is executed.

A Detailed Look at the 8085 MPU and its Architecture

It includes the ALU, Timing and Control Unit, Instruction Register and Decoder, Register
Array,Interrupt Control and Serial I/O Control.

1. ALU
 The ALU performs the actual numerical and logic operation such as ‘add’, ‘subtract’, ‘AND’,

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‘OR’ etc.
 Uses data from memory and from Accumulator to perform arithmetic operation and always
stores result of operation in Accumulator.
 The ALU consists of accumulator, flag register and temporary register.

a. Accumulator :-
The accumulator is an 8-bit register that is a part of arithmetic/logic unit (ALU). This
register is used to store 8-bit data and to perform arithmetic and logical operations. The
result of an operation is stored in the accumulator. The accumulator is also identified as
register A.
b. Flag Register:-
8085 has 8-bit flag register. Flags are flip-flops which are used to indicate the status of
the accumulator and other register after the completion of operation. There are only 5
active flags.

S Z AC P CY

i. Sign flag(S):
Sign flag indicates whether the result of a mathematical or logical operation is negative
or positive. If the result is negative, this flag will be set (i.e. S=1) and if the result is positive, the
flag will be reset (i.e. S=0).

ii. Zero flag (Z):

Zero flag indicates whether the result of a mathematical or logical operation is zero or
not. If the result of current operation is zero, the flag will be set (i.e. Z=1) otherwise the flag will
be reset (Z=0). This flag will be modified by the result in the accumulator as well as in the other
register.

iii. Auxiliary carry flag (AC):

In operation when a carry is generated by bit D3 and passes on to bit D4, the AC flag will be set
otherwise AC flag will be reset. This flag is used only internally for BCD operation and is not
available for the programmer to change the sequence of program with the jump instruction.

iv. Parity flag (P):

This flag indicates whether the current result is of even parity (no. of 1’s is even) or odd parity
(no. of 1’s is odd). If even parity, P flag will be set otherwise reset.

v. Carry flag (CY):

This flag indicates whether during an addition or subtraction operation carry or borrow is
generated or not. If carry or borrow is generated, the flag will be set otherwise reset.

c. Temporary register
It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of arithmetic and logical operations.

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2. Timing and control unit

 This unit produces all the timing and control signal for all the operation.
 This unit synchronizes all the MP operations with the clock and generates the control
signals necessary for communication between the MP and peripherals.

3. Instruction register and decoder

 The instruction register and decoder are part of ALU. When an instruction is fetched from
memory, it is loaded in the instruction register.
 The decoder decodes the instruction and establishes the sequence of events to follow.
 The IR is not programmable and cannot be accessed through any instruction.

4. Register array
The register unit of 8085 consists of
 Six general-purpose data registers B,C,D,E,H,L
 Two internal registers W and Z
 Two 16-bit address registers PC (program counter) and SP (stack pointer)
 One increment/decrement counter register
 One multiplexer (MUX)
 The six general-purpose registers are used to store 8-bit data. They can be combined as
register pairs BC, DE, and HL to perform some 16-bit operations.
 The two internal registers W and Z are used to hold 8-bit data during the execution of some
instructions, CALL and XCHG instructions.
 SP is 16-bit registers used to point the address of data stored in the stack memory. It always
indicates the top of the stack.
 PC is 16-bit register used to point the address of the next instruction to be fetched and
executed stored in the memory.

Example of an 8085-based microcomputer

The 8085 MPU module includes devices such as the 8085 microprocessor, an octal latch
and logic gates. The octal latch demultiplexes the bus AD7-AD0 using the signal ALE and the
logic gates generate the necessary control signals.

THE 8085 MACHINE CYCLES

The 8085 executes several types of instructions with each requiring a different number
of operations of different types. However, the operations can be grouped into a small set. The
three main types are:
 Memory Read and Write.
 I/O Read and Write.
 Request Acknowledge.
These can be further divided into various smaller operations (machine cycles).

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OPCODE FETCH MACHINE CYCLE

 The first step of executing any instruction is the Opcode fetch cycle.
 In this cycle, the microprocessor brings in the instruction’s Opcode from memory.
 To differentiate this machine cycle from the very similar “memory read” cycle, the control &
status signals are set as follows:
 IO/M=0, s0 and s1 are both 1.
 This machine cycle has four T-states.
 The 8085 uses the first 3 T-states to fetch the opcode.
 T4 is used to decode and execute it.
 It is also possible for an instruction to have 6 T-states in an opcode fetch machine cycle.

Memory read machine cycle

The memory read machine cycle is exactly the same as the opcode fetch except:
It only has 3 T-states. The s0 signal is set to 0 instead.

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Above diagram represents:

 05 – lower bit of address where opcode is stored. Multiplexed address and data bus AD0-
AD7 are used.
 20 – higher bit of address where opcode is stored. Multiplexed address and data bus AD8-
AD15 are used.
 ALE – Provides signal for multiplexed address and data bus. If signal is high or 1,
multiplexed address and data bus will be used as address bus. To fetch lower bit of
address, signal is 1 so that multiplexed bus can act as address bus. If signal is low or 0,
multiplexed bus will be used as data bus. When lower bit of address is fetched then it will
act as data bus as the signal is low.
 RD (low active) – If signal is high or 1, no data is read by microprocessor. If signal is low or
0, data is read by microprocessor.
 WR (low active) – If signal is high or 1, no data is written by microprocessor. If signal is
low or 0, data is written by microprocessor.
 IO/M (low active) and S1, S0 – If signal is high or 1, operation is performing on input
output. If signal is low or 0, operation is performing on memory.

Memory interfacing
Memory is an integral part of a microprocessor system, and in this section, we will
discuss how to interface a memory device with the microprocessor. The Memory Interfacing in
8085 is used to access memory quite frequently to read instruction codes and data stored in
memory. This read/write operations are monitored by control signals. The microprocessor
activates these signals when it wants to read from and write into memory. In the last section
we have already seen the memory read and memory write machine cycles, and status of the
RD, WR and IO/M status signals for read/write operation. In the following section we will see
memory structure and its requirements, concepts in Memory Interfacing in 8085 and
interfacing examples.

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Memory Structure and its Requirements: As mentioned earlier, read/write memories consist
of an array of registers, in which each register has unique address. The size of the memory is N
x M as shown in Fig. 1 where N is the number of registers and M is the word length, in number
of bits.

Fig 1

Basic Concepts in Memory Interfacing:

For Memory Interfacing in 8085, following important points are to be kept in mind.
Microprocessor 8085 can access 64Kbytes memory since address bus is 16-bit. But it is not
always necessary to use full 64Kbytes address space. The total memory size depends upon the
application.
1. Generally EPROM (or EPROMs) is used as a program memory and RAM (or RAMs) as a data
memory. When both, EPROM and RAM are used, the total address space 64Kbytes is shared
by them.
2. The capacity of program memory and data memory depends on the application.
3. It is not always necessary to select 1 EPROM and 1 RAM. We can have multiple EPROMs and
multiple RAMs as per the requirement of application.
4. We can place EPROM/RAM anywhere in full 64 Kbytes address space. But program memory
(EPROM) should be located from address 0000H since reset address of 8085 microprocessor is
0000H.
5. It is not always necessary to locate EPROM and RAM in consecutive memory For example : If
the mapping of EPROM is from 0000H to OFFFH, it is not must to locate RAM from 1000H. We
can locate it anywhere between 1000H and FFFFH. Where to locate memory component
totally depends on the application.

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The memory interfacing requires to:

 Select the chip
 Identify the register
 Enable the appropriate buffer.
Microprocessor system includes memory devices and I/O devices. It is important to note that
microprocessor can communicate (read/write) with only one device at a time, since the data,
address and control buses are common for all the devices. In order to communicate with memory
or I/O devices, it is necessary to decode the address from the microprocessor. Due to this each
device (memory or I/O) can be accessed independently. The following section describes
common address decoding techniques.

INTERFACING THE 8155 MEMORY SEGMENT

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UNIT III

DATA TRANSFER OPERATION

Data transfer (Copy) operations

It is the longest group of instructions in 8085. This group of instruction copy data from a
source location to destination location without modifying the contents of the source. The
transfer of data may be between the registers or between register and memory or between an
I/O device and accumulator. None of these instructions changes the flag. The instructions of
this group are:

1) MOV Rd, RsRdRs (move register instruction)

–1 byte instruction

–Copies data from source register to destination register.

–Rd & Rs may be A, B, C, D, E, H &L

–E.g. MOV A, B

2)MVI R, 8 bit data (move immediate instruction)

–2 byte instruction

–Loads the second byte ( 8 bit immediate data) into the register specified.

–R may be A, B, C, D, E, H & L

– E.g. MVI C, 53H53H

3)MOV M, R (Move to memory from register)

–Copy the contents of the specified register to memory. Here memory is the location specified
by contents of the HL register pair.

–E.g. MOV M, B

4)MOV R, M (move to register from memory)

–Copy the contents of memory location specified by HL pair to specified register.

–E. g. MOV B, M

Write a program to load memory locations 7090 H and 7080 H with data 40H and 50H and
then swap these data.

Soln :
MVI H, 70H
MVI L, 90H

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MVI A, 40H
MOV M, A
MOV C, M
MVI L, 80H
MVI B, 50H
MOV M, B
MOV D, M
MOV M, C
MVI L, 90H
MOV M, D
HLT

5. LXI RP, 2 bytes data (load register pair)

–3-byte instruction

–Load immediate data to register pair

–Register pair may be BC, DE, HL & SP(Stack pointer)

–1st byte- Op-code

–2nd byte – lower order data

–3rd byte- higher order data

– E.g. L X I B, 4532H; B 45, C 32H

6) MVI M, data (load memory immediate)

–2 byte instruction.
–Loads the 8-bit data to the memory location whose address is specified by the contents of HL
pair.

7) LDA 4035H (Load accumulator direct)

–3-byte instruction

–Loads the accumulator with the contents of memory location whose address is specified by 16
bit address.-A [4035H ]

8) IN 8-bit address

– 2-byte instruction

– Read data from the input port address specified in the second byte and loads data into the
accumulator.

9) OUT 8-bit address

– 2-byte instruction

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– Copies the contents of the accumulator to the output port address specified in the 2nd byte.
That means accumulator to output port: P A

Addressing modes:
Instructions are command to perform a certain task in microprocessor. The instruction
consists of op-code and data called operand. The operand may be the source only,
destination only or both of them. In these instructions, the source can be a register, a
memory or an input port. Similarly, destination can be a register, a memory location, or an
output port. The various format (way) of specifying the operands are called addressing mode.
So addressing mode specifies where the operands are located rather than their nature. The
8085 has 5 addressing mode:

1. Direct addressing mode:

The instruction using this mode specifies the effective address as part of instruction. The
instruction size either 2-bytes or 3-bytes with first byte op-code followed by 1 or 2 bytes of
address of data.

2. Register Direct addressing mode:

This mode specifies the register or register pair that contains the
data. E g. MOV A, B
Here register B contains data rather than address of the data. Other examples are: ADD, XCHG
etc.

3. Register Indirect addressing mode:

In this mode the address part of the instruction specifies the memory whose contents
are the address of the operand. So in this type of addressing mode, it is the address of the
address rather than address itself. (One operand is register)

4. Immediate addressing mode:

In this mode, the operand position is the immediate data. For 8-bit data, instruction
size is 2 bytes and for 16 bit data, instruction size is 3 bytes.

5. Implied or Inherent addressing mode:

The instructions of this mode do not have operands.
E.g.
NOP: No operation

HLT: Halt

EI: Enable interrupt

DI: Disable interrupt

Arithmetic Operations:
The 8085 microprocessor performs various arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, increment and decrement. These arithmetic operations have the following
mnemonics.

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1. ADD R/M
1 byte add instruction, Adds the contents of register/memory to the contents of the accumulator
and stores the result in accumulator.– E. g. Add B; A [A] + [B]

2. ADI 8 bit data

2 byte add immediate instruction, Adds the 8 bit data with the contents of accumulator and stores
result in accumulator.– E g. ADI 9BH ; A A+9BH

3. SUB R/M
One byte subtract instruction, Subtracts the contents of specified register / m with the contents of
accumulator and stores the result in accumulator. E. g. SUB D ; A A-D

4. SUI 8 bit data

Two byte subtract immediate instruction, Subtracts the 8 bit data from the contents of accumulator
stores result in accumulator.– E. g. SUI D3H; A A-D3H

5. INR R/M, DCR R/M

One byte increment and decrement instructions, Increase and decrease the contents of
R(register) or M(memory) by 1 respectively.

Addition operation in 8085:

8085 performs addition with 8-bit binary numbers and stores the result in accumulator. If
the sum is greater than 8-bits (FFH), it sets the carry flag.

E.g. MVI A, 93H 10 1 1 0 11 1 B7

MVI C, B7H +10 0 1 0 01 1 + 93

ADD C 101 0 0 1 01 0 1 4A

CY CY

Subtraction operation in 8085:

8085 performs subtraction operation by using 2’s complement and the steps used are:
1) Converts the subtrahend (the number to be subtracted) into its 1’s complement.
2) Adds 1 to 1’s complement to obtain 2’s complement of the subtrahend.
3) Adds 2’s complement to the minuend (the contents of the accumulator).
4) Complements the carry flag.

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5)
Logic Operations:
A microprocessor is basically a programmable logic chip. It can perform all the logic
functions of the hardwired logic through its instruction set. The 8085 instruction set includes
such logic functions as AND, OR, XOR and NOT (Complement):
The following features hold true for all logic instructions:

1) The instructions implicitly assume that the accumulator is one of the operands.
2) All instructions reset (clear) carry flag except for complement where flag remain
unchanged.
3) They modify Z, P & S flags according to the data conditions of the result.
4) Place the result in the accumulator.
5) They do not affect the contents of the operand register.

The logical operations have the following instructions.

1. ANA R/M (the contents of register/memory)
– Logically AND the contents of register/memory with the contents of accumulator, 1
byte instruction and CY flag is reset and AC is set.

2. ANI 8 bit data

– Logically AND 8 bit immediate data with the contents of accumulator, 2 byte instruction and
CY flag is reset and AC is set.

3. ORA R/M
– Logically OR the contents of register/memory with the contents of accumulator, 1 byte
instruction and CY and AC is reset and other as per result.

4. ORI 8 bit data

– Logically OR 8 bit immediate data with the contents of the accumulator,2 byte instruction
and CY and AC is reset and other as per result.

5. XRA R/M
– Logically exclusive OR the contents of register memory with the contents of accumulator, 1
byte instruction and CY and AC is reset and other as per result.

6. CMA (Complement accumulator)

One byte instruction, Complements the contents of the accumulator and No flags are
affected.

Branching Operations:
The microprocessor is a sequential machine; it executes machine codes from one
memory location to the next. The branching instructions instruct the microprocessor to go to a
different memory location and the microprocessor continues executing machine codes from
that new location.

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The branching instructions are the most powerful instructions because they allow the
microprocessor to change the sequence of a program, either unconditionally or under certain
test conditions. The branching instruction code categorized in following three groups:

 Jump instructions
 Call and return instruction
 Restart instruction

Jump Instructions:
The jump instructions specify the memory location explicitly. They are 3 byte
instructions, one byte for the operation code followed by a 16 bit (2 byte) memory address.
Jump instructions can be categorized into unconditional and conditional jump.

Unconditional Jump
8085 includes unconditional jump instruction to enable the programmer to set up
continuous loops without depending only type of conditions. E.g. JMP 16 bit address: loads
the program counter by 16 bit address and jumps to specified memory location.
E.g. JMP 4000H

Here, 40H is higher order address and 00H is lower order address. The lower order byte.

Conditional Jump
The conditional jump instructions allow the microprocessor to make decisions based on
certain conditions indicated by the flags. After logic and arithmetic operations, flags are ser or
reset to reflect the condition of data. These instructions check the flag conditions and make
decisions to change or not to change the sequence of program. The four flags namely carry,
zero, sign and parity used by the jump instruction.

Mnemonics Description

JC 16 bit Jump on carry (if CY=1)

JNC 16 bit Jump on if no carry (if CY=0)

JZ 16bit Jump on zero (if Z=1)

JNZ 16bit jump on if no zero (if Z=0)

JP 16bit jump on positive (if S=0)

JM 16bit jump on negative (if S=1)

JPE 16bit Jump on parity even (if P=1)

JPO 16bit Jump on parity odd (if P=0)

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Call and return instructions: (Subroutine)
Call and return instructions are associated with subroutine technique. A subroutine is a
group of instructions that perform a subtask. A subroutine is written as a separate unit apart
from the main program and the microprocessor transfers the program execution sequence
from main program to subroutine whenever it is called to perform a task. After the completion
of subroutine task microprocessor returns to main program. The subroutine technique
eliminates the need to write a subtask repeatedly, thus it uses memory efficiently. Before
implementing the subroutine, the stack must be defined; the stack is used to store the memory
address of the instruction in the main program that follows the subroutines call.
To implement subroutine there are two instructions CALL and RET.

1. CALL 16 bit memory

 Call subroutine unconditionally.
 byte instruction.
 Saves the contents of program counter on the stack pointer. Loads the PC by jump
address (16 bit memory) and executes the subroutine.

2. RET
 Returns from the subroutine unconditionally.
 1 byte instruction
 Inserts the contents of stack pointer to program counter.

E.g. Write an ALP to add two numbers using subroutines.

2000 MVI B, 4AH 3000 MOV A, B

2002 MVI C, A0H 3001 ADD C

2004 CALL 3000H 3002 RET

2007 MOV B, A

2008 HLT PC = 2007 (i. e. sp)

SP = 2007 (i.e. PC)

PC = 3000 (i.e. 16bit)

Writing a Assembly Language Program

Steps to write a program
1 Analyze the problem
2 Develop program Logic
3 Write an Algorithm
4 Make a Flowchart
5 Write program Instructions using Assembly language of 8085

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Program 8085 in Assembly language to add two 8-bit numbers and store 8-bit result in register

C. Analyze the problem

Addition of two 8-bit numbers to be done

Program Logic
- Add two numbers
- Store result in register C

Algorithm
1. Get two numbers
2. Add them
3. Store result
4. Stop

Translation to 8085 operations

 Load 1st no. in register D
 Load 2nd no. in register E
 Copy register D to A
 Add register E to A
 Copy A to register C

MVI D, 2H
MVI E, 3H
MOV A, D
ADD E
MOV C, A
HLT

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FLOWCHART

DEBUGGING A PROGRAM
Debugging is the process of identifying and removing bug from software or program. It refers to
identification of errors in the program
logic, machine codes, and execution. It gives step by step information about the execution of
code to identify the fault in the program.
The debugging process is divided into two parts:
Static Debugging: It is similar to visual inspection of circuit board, it is done by a paper and
pencil to check the flowchart and machine codes. It is used to the understanding of code logic
and structure of program.

Dynamic Debugging: It involves observing the contents of register or output after execution of
each instruction (in single step technique) or a group of instructions (in breakpoint technique).

Common sources of error:

Selecting a wrong code
Forgetting second or third byte of instruction
Specifying wrong jump locations
Not reversing the order of high and low bytes in a Jump instruction
Writing memory addresses in decimal instead of hexadecimal.

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PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES WITH ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS
PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES: LOOPING, COUNTING AND INDEXING
The Programming Technique used to instruct the microprocessor to repeat task is called
looping. This process is accomplished by using jump instructions. A loop can be classified into
two groups:
Continuous loop- repeats a task continuously
Conditional loop-repeats a task until certain data condition are met

Continuous loop
A continuous loop is set up by using the unconditional jump Instruction shown in the flowchart.
A program with Continuous loop does not stop repeating the tasks until the system is reset.

Conditional Loop
A Conditional loop is setup by the conditional jump instructions. These instructions Check flags
(zero, carry, etc.) and repeat the specified task if the conditions are satisfied. These loops
usually include counting and indexing. Conditional loop is shown by the Flowchart as follow.

Fig: - Conditional Loop AND Continuous Loop

The Flowchart is translated into the program as follows:

1. Counter is setup by loading an appropriate count in a register.
2. Counting is performed by either incrementing or decrementing the counter.
3. Loop is set up by a conditional jump instruction.
4. End of counting is indicated by a flag.

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Additional datatransfer and 16 bit arithmetic instructions

1. 16 BIT DATA TRANSFER TO REGISTER PAIR (LXI)
LXI Reg. pair, 16-bit data.
-The instruction loads 16-bit data in the register pair designated in the operand.
Example: LXI H, 2034H or LXI H, XYZ

2. DATATRANSFER FROM MEMORY TO MICROPROCESSOR

MOV R,M
-R, M copies data byte from Memory to Register. Memory location, its location is
specified by the contents of the HL registers.
Example: MOV B, M

Load accumulator indirect

LDAX B/D Reg. pair
- The contents of the designated register pair point to a memory location. This instruction
copies the contents of that memory location into the accumulator. The contents of either
the register pair or the memory location are not altered.
Example: LDAX B

Load accumulator Direct

LDA 16-bit address
-The contents of a memory location, specified by a 16-bit address in the operand, are
copied to the accumulator.
Example: LDA 2034H

3.DATATRANSFER FROM MICROPROCESSOR TO MEMORY OR DIRECTLY INTO MEMORY

MOVM,R
-This instruction copies the contents of the source.
-The source register are not altered. As one of the operands is a memory location, its
location is specified by the contents of the HL registers.
Example: MOV M, B

STA 16-bit address

-The contents of the accumulator are copied into the memory location
specified by theoperand.
-This is a 3-byte instruction, the second byte specifies the low-order address and
the third byte specifies the high-order address.
Example: STA 4350H

Store accumulator indirect

STAX Reg. pair
-The contents of the accumulator are copied into the memory location specified by the
contents of the operand (register pair). The contents of the accumulator are not altered.
Example: STAX B

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Increment / Decrement register pair by 1
INX R
-The contents of the designated register pair are incremented by 1 and the result is stored
in the same place.
Example: INX H

DCX R
-The contents of the designated register pair are decremented by 1 and the result is stored
in the same place.
Example: DCX H

Arithmetic operations related to memory

Add memory
 ADD M: The contents of the operand (memory) are added to the contents of the
accumulator and the result is stored in the accumulator.
 The operand is a memory location, its location isspecified by the contents of the HL
registers.
 All flags are modified to reflect the result of the addition.

Subtract memory
 SUB M: The contents of the operand (memory) are subtracted to the contents of
the accumulator and the result is stored in the accumulator.
 The operand is a memory location, its location is specified by the contents of the
HL registers.
 All flags are modified to reflect the result of the Subtraction.

Increment memory by 1/Decrement memory by 1

 INR M/DCR M: The contents of the memory are incremented by 1 using INR and
decremented by 1 using DCR and the result is stored in the same place.
 The operand is a memory location, its location is specified by the contents of the
HL registers.

Logic operations: Rotate

ROTATE is a logical operation of 8085 microprocessor. It is a 1 byte instruction. This
instruction does not require any operand after the opcode. It operates the content of
accumulator and the result is also stored in the accumulator. The Rotate instruction is used to
rotating the bits of accumulator.

Types of ROTATE Instruction:

There are 4 categories of the ROTATE instruction: Rotate accumulator left (RLC), Rotate
accumulator left through carry (RAL), Rotate accumulator right (RRC), Rotate accumulator right
through carry (RAR). Among these four instructions; two are for rotating left and two are for
rotating right. All of them are explain briefly in the following sections:

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1. Rotate accumulator left (RLC) –
In this instruction, each bit is shifted to the adjacent left position. Bit D7 becomes D0. Carry flag
CY is modified according to the bit D7.

2. Rotate accumulator left through carry (RAL) –

In this instruction, each bit is shifted to the adjacent left position. Bit D7 becomes the carry bit
and the carry bit is shifted into D0. Carry flag CY is modified according to the bit D7.

3. Rotate accumulator right (RRC) –

In this instruction, each bit is shifted to the adjacent right position. Bit D7 becomes D0. Carry
flag CY is modified according to the bit D0.

4. Rotate accumulator right through carry (RAR) –

In this instruction, each bit is shifted to the adjacent right position. Bit D0 becomes the carry bit
and the carry bit is shifted into D7. Carry flag CY is modified according to the bit D0.

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Applications of ROTATE Instructions:

The ROTATE instructions are primarily used in arithmetic multiply and divide operations
and for serial data transfer. For example: If A is 0000 1000 = 08H

 By rotating 08H right: A = 0000 0100 = 04H

This is equivalent to dividing by 2.
 By rotating 08H left : A = 0001 0000 = 10H
This is equivalent to multiplying by 2.

However, these procedures are invalid when logic 1 is rotated left from D7 to D0 or vice versa.
For example, if 80H is rotated left it becomes 01H.

DYNAMIC DEBUGGING
Checking for logical and syntax errors in the program is called as debugging.

TYPES:
1.STATIC
2.DYNAMIC

STATIC DEBUGGING:
Checking for errors in the program manually using paper and pencil is known as static
debugging.

DYNAMIC DEBUGGING:
Checking for errors in the program by observing the execution of instructions is called as
DynAMIC DEBUGGING.

TOOLS FOR DYNAMIC DEBUGGING:

1. SINGLE STEP
2. REGISTER EXAMINE
3.BREAK POINT

SINGLE STEP:
 Allows you to execute one instruction at a time and observe the results of each
instruction.

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 A Single step facility is built with a hard wired logic circuit.
 By pressing Single-step key in the microprocessor, able to observe addresses and codes
as they are executed.
 Single-step technique will be able to spot
incorrect address
incorrect jump locations for loops
incorrect data or missing codes.
 To effectively use this technique reduce the number of loops and delay counts to
minimum number.
 Better to use this technique for short programs.
 This technique helps to infer the flag status by observing the execution of jump instructions.

REGISTER EXAMINE:
 Register Examine Key in the microprocessor allows to examine the contents of the
microprocessor register.
 By pressing appropriate keys, the monitor program displays the contents of the
registers.
 This technique is used in conjunction with either the single step or break point facilities.
 After executing a block of instructions, we can examine the register contents of the
program at a critical juncture and compare the contents with the expected outcomes.

BREAK POINT:

 Breakpoint facility is a software routine that allows to execute a program in sections.

 The break point in a program can be set in a program using RST instructions.
 When we push the EXECUTE key, program will be executed until the breakpoint, using
monitor we can check the registers for expected results.
 If the segment of the program found satisfactory, a second breakpoint can be set at a
subsequent memory address to debug the next segment of the program.
 With Breakpoint facility we can isolate the segment of the program with errors.
 Then that segment of the program can be debugged with the single step facility.
 The break point technique can be used to check out the timing loop, I/O section and
Interrupts.

Common Source of Errors:

1. Failure to clear the Accumulator when its used to add numbers.
2. Failure to clear the carry registers or keep track of a carry.
3. Failure to update a memory pointer or a counter.
4. Failure to set a flag before using a conditional jump instruction.
5. Use of an improper combination of Rotate instructions
6. Specification of a wrong memory address for a jump instruction.
7. without the knowledge of clearing the flag before using a jump instruction

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UNIT IV
COUNTERS AND TIME DELAYS

Counter and time delays

A counter is designed simply by loading appropriate number into one of the registers and
using INR or DNR instructions. Loop is established to update the count. Each count is
checked to determine whether it has reached final number; if not, the loop is repeated.

TIME DELAY
Procedure used to design a specific delay. A register is loaded with a number,
depending on the time delay required and then the register is decremented until it
reaches zero by setting up a loop with conditional jump instruction.

LABEL OPCODE OPERAND COMMENTS T STATES

MVI C,FFH Load register C 7

LOOP: DCR C Decrement C 4

JNZ LOOP Jump back to 10/7

Clock frequency of the system = 2 MHz Clock period=
1/T= 0.5 μs
Time to execute MVI = 7 T states * 0.5= 3.5 μs
Time Delay in Loop TL= T*Loop T states * N10

= 0.5 * 14* 255= 1785 μs = 1.8 ms

N10 = Equivalent decimal number of hexadecimal count loaded in the delay register

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TLA= Time to execute loop instruction=TL –(3T states* clock period)=1785-1.5=1783.5 μs

TIME DELAY USING A REGISTER PAIR

LXI B,2384H Load BC with 16-bit count 10

LOOP: DCX B Decrement BC by 1 6

MOV A,C Place contents of C in A 4

ORA B OR B with C to set Zero flag 4
JNZ LOOP if result not equal to 0 , 10/7
jump back to loop

Time Delay in Loop TL= T*Loop T states * N10

= 0.5 * 24* 9092
= 109 ms

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Flowchart for time delay with two loops

Flowchart of a counter with time delay

Illustrative program: hexadecimal counter

Write a Program to count continuously from FFH to 00H using register C with delay
count 8CH between each count and display the number at one of the output ports.

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Illustrative program: generating pulse waveforms

Generates a continuous square wave with the period of 500 Micro Sec. Assume the system
clock period is 325ns, and use bit D0 output the square wave

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Debugging counter and time delay programs

It is designed to count from 100(base 10) to 0 in Hex continuously with a 1 second
delay between each count. The delay is set up using two loops. The inner loop is executed
to provide approximately 100ms delay and is repeated 10 times, using outer loop to
provide a total delay of 1 second. The clock period of system is 330ns.

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Stack and Subroutines:

Stack
The stack is defined as a set of memory location in R/W memory, specified by a
programmer in a main memory. These memory locations are used to store binary information
temporarily during the execution of a program.

The beginning of the stack is defined in the program by using the instruction LXI SP, 16
bit address. Once the stack location is defined, it loads 16 bit address in the stack pointer
register. Storing of data bytes for this operation takes place at the memory location that is one
less than the address e.g. LXI SP, 2099H

Here the storing of data bytes begins at 2098H and continuous in reverse order i.e
2097H. Therefore, the stack is initialized at the highest available memory location to prevent
the program from being destroyed by the stack information. The stack instructions are:
PUSH Rp/PSW (Store register pair on stack)

One byte instruction. Copies the contents of specified register pair or program
status word (accumulator and flag) on the stack. Stack pointer is decremented and content of
high order register is copied. Then it is again decremented and content of low order register is
copied.

POP Rp/PSW (retrieve register pair from stack)

One byte instruction. Copies the contents of the top two memory locations of the stack into
specified register pair or program status word. A content of memory location indicated by SP is
copied into low order register and SP is incremented by 1. Then the content of next memory
location is copied into high order register and SP is incremented by 1.

XTHL – exchanges top of stack (TOS) with HL

SPHL – move HL to SP
PCHL – move HL to PC

DI – disable interrupt

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EI – Enable interrupt
SIM – set interrupt mask

RIM – read interrupt mask

E.g.

LXI SP, 1FFFH

LXI H, 9320H

LXI B, 4732H

LXI D, ABCDH

MVI A, 34H

PUSH H

PUSH B

PUSH D

PUSH PSW

POP H

POP B

POP D

POP PSW

HLT

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Subroutines

 A subroutine is a group of instructions that will be used repeatedly in different locations

of the program.

– Rather than repeat the same instructions several times, they can be grouped into a
subroutine that is called from the different locations.

 In Assembly language, a subroutine can exist anywhere in the code.

– However, it is customary to place subroutines separately from the main program.

 The 8085 has two instructions for dealing with subroutines.

– The CALL instruction is used to redirect program execution to the subroutine.

– The RET insutruction is used to return the execution to the calling routine.

The CALL Instruction

 CALL 4000H (3 byte instruction)

– When CALL instruction is fetched, the MP knows that the next two Memory
location contains 16bit subroutine address in the memory.
The RET Instruction

 RET (1 byte instruction)

– Retrieve the return address from the top of the stack

– Load the program counter with the return address.

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The CALL instruction places the return address at the two memory locations immediately
before where the Stack Pointer is pointing.

Set the SP correctly BEFORE using the CALL instruction. The RET instruction takes the contents
of the two memory locations at the top of the stack and uses these as the return address. Do
not modify the stack pointer in a subroutine.

Number of PUSH and POP instruction used in the subroutine must be same, otherwise, RET
instruction will pick wrong value of the return address from the stack and program will fail.

Passing Data to a Subroutine

– Data is passed to a subroutine through registers.

– Call by Reference:
 The data is stored in one of the registers by the calling program and the subroutine uses the
value from the register. The register values get modified within the subroutine. Then these
modifications will be transferred back to the calling program upon returning from a
subroutine

– Call by Value:
 The data is stored in one of the registers, but the subroutine first PUSHES register values in
the stack and after using the registers, it POPS the previous values of the registers from the
stack while exiting the subroutine.
i.e. the original values are restored before execution returns to the calling program.

The other possibility is to use agreed upon memory locations.

– The calling program stores the data in the memory location and the subroutine retrieves
the data from the location and uses it.

PUSH and POP should be used in opposite order.

 There has to be as many POP’s as there are PUSH’s.

– If not, the RET statement will pick up the wrong information from the top of the stack
and the program will fail.

 It is not advisable to place PUSH or POP inside a loop.

Conditional CALL and RTE Instructions

 The 8085 supports conditional CALL and conditional RTE
instructions.

– The same conditions used with conditional JUMP instructions can be used

– CC, call subroutine if Carry flag is set.

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– CNC, call subroutine if Carry flag is not set

– RC, return from subroutine if Carry flag is set

– RNC, return from subroutine if Carry flag is not set

 According to Software Engineering practices, a proper subroutine:

– Is only entered with a CALL and exited with an RTE

– Has a single entry point

 Do not use a CALL statement to jump into different points of the same subroutine.

– Has a single exit point

 There should be one return statement from any subroutine.

Write a Program that will display FF and 11 repeatedly on the seven

segment display. Write a ‘delay’ subroutine and Call it as necessary.

C000: LXISP FFFF

C003: MVIA FF

C005: OUT 00

C007: CALL 14 20

C00A: MVIA 11

C00C: OUT 00

C00E: CALL 14 20

C011: JMP 03 C0

DELAY: C014: MVIB FF

C016: MVIC FF

C018: DCR C

C019: JNZ 18 C0

C01C: DCR B

C01D: JNZ 16 C0

C020: RET

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UNIT V
CONVERSIONS

BCD to Binary Conversion

The conversion of a BCD number into its binary equivalent employs the principle of positional
weighting in a given number.

Problem – Write an assembly language program for converting a 2 digit BCD number to its
binary equivalent using 8085 microprocessor.
Examples:
Input: 72H (0111 0010)2
Output: 48H (in hexadecimal) (0011 0000)2
((4x16) + (8x1)) =72

Algorithm:
Load the BCD number in the accumulator
Unpack the 2 digit BCD number into two separate digits. Let the left digit be BCD 1 and the right
one BCD2
Multiply BCD1 by 10 and add BCD2 to it
If the 2 digit BCD number is 72, then its binary equivalent will be 7 x OAH + 2 = 46H + 2 = 48H

Steps:

 Load the BCD number from the memory location (201FH, arbitrary choice) into the
accumulator.
 Temporarily store the accumulator’s value in B.
 Obtain BCD2 by ANDing the accumulator with 0FH and store it in C.
 Restore the original value of the accumulator by moving the value in B to A. AND the
accumulator with F0H.

 If the value in the accumulator equals 0, then BCD2 is the final answer and store it in the
memory location, 2020H (arbitrary).
 Else, shift the accumulator to right 4 times to obtain BCD1. Next step is to multiply BCD1 by
0A.
 Multiplication: Move BCD1 to D and initialise E with 0AH as the counter. Clear the
accumulator to 0 and add D to it E number of times.
 Finally, add C to the accumulator and store the result in 2020H

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ADDRESS LABEL MNEMONIC

2000H LDA 201FH

2001H

2002H

2003H MOV B, A

2004H ANI 0FH

2005H

2006H MOV C, A

2007H MOV A, B

2008H ANI F0H

2009H

200AH JZ SKIPMULTIPLY

200BH

200CH

200DH RRC

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200EH RRC

200FH RRC

2010H RRC

2011H MOV D, A

2012H XRA A

2013H MVI E, 0AH

2014H

2015H SUM ADD D

2016H DCR E

2017H JNZ SUM

2018H

2019H

201AH SKIPMULTIPLY ADD C

201BH STA 2020H

201CH

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201DH

201EH HLT

Binary-to-BCD conversion
The microprocessor processes data in binary form but data that is displayed is in BCD form.
Hence, we require to convert the binary data to BCD.

Problem Statement
A binary number is store dat location 800H. Convert the number into its BCD equivalent
and store it to the memory location 8050H.

Discussion
Here we are taking a number from the memory, and initializing it as a counter. Now in
each step of this counter we are incrementing the number by 1, and adjust the decimal value.
By this process we are finding the BCD value of binary number or hexadecimal number. We can
use INR instruction to increment the counter in this case but this instruction will not affect carry
flag, so for that reason we have used ADI 10H.

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Program

Address HEX Codes Labels Mnemonics Comments

F000 21, 00, 80 LXI H,8000H Initialize memory pointer

F003 16, 00 MVI D,00H Clear D- reg for Most significant Byte

F005 AF XRA A Clear Accumulator

F006 4E MOV C, M Get HEX data

F007 C6, 01 LOOP ADI 01H Count the number one by one

F009 27 DAA Adjust for BCD count

F00A D2, 0E, F0 JNC SKIP Jump to SKIP

F00D 14 INR D Increase D

F00E 0D SKIP DCR C Decrease C register

F00F C2, 07, F0 JNZ LOOP Jump to LOOP

F012 6F MOV L, A Load the Least Significant Byte

F013 62 MOV H, D Load the Most Significant Byte

F014 22, 50, 80 SHLD 8050H Store the BCD

F017 76 HLT Terminate the program

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BCD-TO-SEVEN-SEGMENT-LED CODE CONVERSION

BCD ADDITION

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BCD SUBTRACTION

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MULTIPLICATION

Problem – Multiply two 8 bit numbers stored at address 2050 and 2051. Result is stored at
address 3050 and 3051. Starting address of program is taken as 2000.

Example –

Algorithm –

1. We are taking adding the number 43 seven(7) times in this example.

2. As the multiplication of two 8 bit numbers can be maximum of 16 bits so we need
register pair to store the result.

Program –

MEMORY ADDRESS MNEMONICS COMMENT

2000 LHLD 2050 H←2051, L←2050

2003 XCHG H↔D, L↔E

2004 MOV C, D C←D

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MEMORY ADDRESS MNEMONICS COMMENT

2005 MVI D 00 D←00

2007 LXI H 0000 H←00, L←00

200A DAD D HL←HL+DE

200B DCR C C←C-1

200C JNZ 200A If Zero Flag=0, goto 200A

200F SHLD 3050 H→3051, L→3050

2012 HLT

Subtraction with carry

Write an assembly language program in 8085 microprocessor to subtract two 16 bit numbers.

Assumption –Starting address of program: 2000

Input memory location: 2050, 2051, 2052, 2053

Output memory location: 2054, 2055

Example –

INPUT: (2050H) = 19H

(2051H) = 6AH
(2052H) = 15H
(2053H) = 5CH

OUTPUT:
(2054H) = 04H
(2055H) = OEH

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Algorithm –

 Get the LSB in L register and MSB in H register of 16 Bit number.

 Exchange the content of HL register with DE register.
 Again Get the LSB in L register and MSB in H register of 16 Bit number.
 Subtract the content of L register from the content of E register.
 Subtract the content of H register from the content of D register and borrow from
 previous step.
 Store the result in memory location.

Program –

MEMORY
ADDRESS MNEMONICS COMMENTS

2000 LHLD 2050 Load H-L pair with address 2050

EXCHANGE H-L PAIR WITH D-E

2003 XCHG PAIR

2004 LHLD 2052 Load H-L pair with address 2052

2007 MVI C, 00 C<-00H

2009 MOV A, E A<-E

200A SUB L A<-A-L

200B STA 2054 2054<-A

200E MOV A, D A<-D

200F SBB H SUBTRACT WITH BORROW

2010 STA 2055 2055<-A

2013 HLT TERMINATES THE PROGRAM

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