Computer Parts or Components

Computer components are the essential building parts of developing a functional

computer system. The components that make up a computer are called computer
components. The processor (CPU), memory, and input/output devices are every
computer's three main building blocks. Initially computers were primarily used for
numerical computations because any information can be numerically encoded. The
ability of computers to interpret information for several purposes was quickly recognized.

There are 5 main computer components that are given below:

o Input Devices
o CPU
o Output Devices
o Primary Memory
o Secondary Memory

Let's look a bit further at each of them.

Input devices

A computer system's input devices are important because they allow users to enter
commands and data. Keyboards, mice, scanners, and microphones are numerous
examples of input devices.
 o The keyboard is the most commonly utilized input device for inserting text and
queries into a computer system.
o Mice are another common input tool used to move the cursor on a computer
screen.
o Scanners are used for inputting physical documents or images into a computer
system.
o Microphones are used to input audio data into a system for computing. They can
be used for various tasks, including recording audio for podcasts, participating in
video conferences, and creating voice memos for later use.

CPU

A computer machine's "brain" is its central processing unit (CPU). It executes the
calculations and commands required for functioning of the computer device. The CPU
comprises some components: the control unit, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and
registers.
o The CPU's control unit is a crucial component. It is in charge of reading and
decoding instructions from memory. The right part of the CPU receives and
executes these instructions from the control unit.
o The ALU, often known as the arithmetic logic unit, is another crucial CPU part.
The ALU operates addition, subtraction, comparison calculations, and other
logical and mathematical processes. These operations are carried out using binary
logic, which limits operations to the 0 and 1 digits.
o Registers are compact, high-speed data and instruction storage spaces within the
CPU. They are utilized to store data that is being processed by the CPU
momentarily. Registers are used to accelerate data processing because they are
much faster than other forms of memory, such as RAM.
o The CPU's clock speed is yet another crucial aspect that affects overall
performance. The clock speed, measured in GHz (gigahertz), controls what
number of commands the integral processing unit can process in a second.
Modern CPUs also have additional features like cache memory, virtualization capability,
and a couple of cores in addition to the abovementioned components. A small, quick
memory called a cache is used to store data and instructions that are utilized frequently.
A single CPU may run numerous operating systems thanks to virtualization capability.
The CPU can execute numerous tasks simultaneously thanks to multiple cores, enhancing
its performance and multitasking capabilities.

Primary Memory

The CPU has direct access to primary memory, sometimes referred to as random access
memory (RAM). The data and instructions that are currently being processed are kept in
primary memory. The data and instructions are accessed by the CPU from primary
memory when a computer programme is running. The information is removed from
primary memory once the programme is completed.

Primary memory is classified into two types: random access memory (RAM) and read-
only memory (ROM).

o RAM is the most common form of primary memory and is used to store data and
instructions that the CPU wishes to access frequently. RAM is volatile, which
means that its contents are lost when the computer is turned off. But RAM can be
effortlessly and quickly written to and read from, making it a really perfect storage
medium for temporary data and instructions.
o ROM is a form of memory this is used to store data and instructions that don't
change. ROM is non-volatile, which means that its contents aren't lost while the
 computer is turned off. ROM is used to keep firmware and the laptop's basic
input/Output machine (BIOS), that are required for the computer to boot up and
function well.

Other primary memory types, including cache memory, are sometimes used in computer
systems. High-speed memory called cache saves information and instructions, which
might be utilized often. By lowering the time, the CPU has to wait for data to be received
from RAM or secondary storage devices, it is used to speed up the processing of records.

Secondary Memory:

Secondary memory, also called auxiliary storage, is a type of computer memory that is
used to store data and programs that aren't currently being utilized by the CPU. In
contrast to primary memory, secondary memory is non-volatile, which means that its
contents are not lost when the computer is turned off.

There are several types of secondary memory devices, such as hard disk drives (HDD),
solid-state drives (SSD), optical disks (including CDs and DVDs), and USB flash drives.
These devices have varying storage capacities, read and write speeds, and different
capabilities that make them appropriate for different types of applications.

o Hard disc drives are the most typical secondary memory tool in computing devices
and laptop computers. They come in various sizes and speeds and keep data on
magnetic discs. However, solid-state drives employ flash memory to store data and
are typically quicker and more reliable despite being extra high-priced than HDDs.
 o Optical discs are a secondary memory that reads and writes data to discs using
lasers. They are frequently used for data backup, distribution of software, and
other digital information. Small, portable storage devices known as USB flash
drives are connected to a computer's USB connection.

Users can store a lot of data and programmes in secondary memory, which is useful since
it makes them accessible fast and readily when needed. Users can also protect crucial data
from loss due to system crashes or other issues by using secondary memory devices as
backups.

Output Devices:

Output devices are hardware components of a computer system that are used to show or
send data from the pc to the user or any other device. They enable customers to view and
engage with the information and applications the computer is processing. Speakers,
projectors, printers, and monitors are a few examples of output devices.

o Monitors are the most frequently used output devices used to show data on a
computer machine. They may be used to show photos, videos, and different forms
of data and exist in various sizes and resolutions.
o Printers are another form of output device this is used to print hard copies of
papers and other styles of data. They include inkjet and laser printers and are
available in various sizes and brands. While laser printers utilize toner to make
speedy, high-volume prints, inkjet printers employ liquid ink to produce high-
quality prints.
 o Speakers are used to output sound from a computer system. They can be
connected externally or incorporated into the computer system. They enable users
to interact with other forms of multimedia material, view videos, and listen to
music.
o Projectors are output device that displays huge images and videos on a screen or
wall. They are frequently utilized in presentations and other occasions that call for
a sizable display.

Operations of Computer Components

The operations of computer components are given below:

Computer components collaborate to carry out the numerous tasks necessary for a
computer system to run. The following are some of the major operations carried out by
computer components:

1. Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and information into
the computer. Keyboards, mice, and scanners are used as input devices to help
with the process. These tools are used to enter information and instructions into a
computer system. Data is transferred to the CPU for processing after inputting by
an input device.
2. Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into useful information.
This process is performed by the CPU of the computer. It takes the raw data from
storage, processes it and then sends back the processed data to storage. The CPU
performs arithmetic computations, logical operations, and data transport
processes.
3. Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary storage to store data
and instructions. It stores the data before sending it to CPU for processing and also
stores the processed data before displaying it as output. The primary memory,
sometimes called RAM, is where the CPU processes the data and instructions.
Hard disc drives and solid-state drives, which serve as secondary memory, offer
long-term storage for data and programmes that are not currently used.
4. Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data through output
devices like monitor, printer and speakers. These devices display or produce the
results of the processing performed by the CPU. The results are sent to an output
 device for display or printing after the CPU has finished processing the data and
instructions.
5. Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit that is part of CPU.
The control unit ensures that all basic operations are executed in a right manner
and sequence. The main circuit board connects all the parts of the computer. It
also regulates the data flow between them, ensuring they function properly and
connecting them all.

Input Devices

Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a computer.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input and processes it to
produce the output.

Some of the popular input devices are:

1. Keyboard

2. Mouse

3. Scanner

4. Joystick

5. Light Pen

6. Digitizer

7. Microphone

8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

9. Optical Character Reader (OCR)

10. Digital Camera

11. Paddle

12. Steering Wheel

13. Gesture recognition devices

14. Light Gun

 15. Touch Pad

16. Remote

17. Touch screen

18. VR

19. Webcam

20. Biometric Devices

1) Keyboard

The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or any
other electronic device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for letters, numbers,
characters, and functions. Keyboards are connected to a computer through USB or a
Bluetooth device for wireless communication.

Types of keyboards: There can be different types of keyboards based on the region and
language used. Some of the common types of keyboards are as follows:

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i) QWERTY Keyboard:

It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is named
after the first six letters of the top row of buttons and is even popular in countries that do
not use Latin-based alphabet. It is so popular that some people think that it is the only
type of keyboard to use with computers as an input device.

ii) AZERTY Keyboard:

It is considered the standard French keyboard. It is developed in France as an alternative
layout to the QWERTY layout and is mainly used in France and other European
countries. Some countries have manufactured their own versions of AZERTY.

Its name is derived from the first six letters that appear on the top left row of the
keyboard. The Q and W keys in AZERTY keyboard are interchanged with A and Z keys in
QWERTY keyboard. Furthermore, in AZERTY keyboard M key is located to the left of the
L key.

AZERTY keyboard differs from QWERTY keyboard not only in the placement of letters
but also in many other ways, e.g., it gives emphasis on accents, which is required for
writing European languages like French.

iii) DVORAK Keyboard:

This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by reducing the
finger movement while typing. The most frequently used letters are kept in a home row
to improve typing.

2) Mouse

The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer across the
screen. It is designed to be used on a flat surface and generally has left and right button
and a scroll wheel between them. Laptop computers come with a touchpad that works as
a mouse. It lets you control the movement of cursor or pointer by moving your finger over
the touchpad. Some mouse comes with integrated features such as extra buttons to
perform different buttons.

The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a roller ball
integrated as a movement sensor underneath the device. Modern mouse devices come
with optical technology that controls cursor movements by a visible or invisible light
beam. A mouse is connected to a computer through different ports depending on the type
of computer and type of a mouse.

Common types of the mouse:

i) Trackball Mouse:

It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or cursor on
the screen. The ball is half inserted in the device and can be easily rolled with finger,
thumb or the palm to move the pointer on the screen. The device has sensor to detect the
rotation of ball. It remains stationary; you don't need to move it on the operating surface.
So, it is an ideal device if you have limited desk space as you don't need to move it like a
mouse.

ii) Mechanical Mouse:

It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a corded type of
mouse. A mechanical mouse can be used for high performance. The drawback is that they
tend to get dust into the mechanics and thus require regular cleaning.

iii) Optical Mouse:

An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more reliable than a
mechanical mouse and also requires less maintenance. However, its performance is
affected by the surface on which it is operated. Plain non-glossy mouse mat should be
used for best results. The rough surface may cause problems for the optical recognition
system, and the glossy surface may reflect the light wrongly and thus may cause tracking
issues.

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iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:

As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless technology such as
IrDA (infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control the movement of the cursor. It is
used to improve the experience of using a mouse. It uses batteries for its power supply.

3) Scanner

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The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a
document. The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format or file
and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition
techniques to convert images into digital ones. Some of the common types of scanners are
as follows:

Types of Scanner:

i) Flatbed Scanner:
It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light illuminates the pane,
and then the image is placed on the glass pane. The light moves across the glass pane and
scans the document and thus produces its digital copy. You will need a transparency
adapter while scanning transparent slides.

ii) Handheld Scanner:

It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a flat image
that is to be scanned. The drawback in using this device is that the hand should be steady
while scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image. One of the commonly used handheld
scanners is the barcode scanner which you would have seen in shopping stores.

iii) Sheetfed Scanner:

In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the scanner. The main
components of this scanner include the sheet-feeder, scanning module, and calibration
sheet. The light does not move in this scanner. Instead, the document moves through the
scanner. It is suitable for scanning single page documents, not for thick objects like
books, magazines, etc.

iv) Drum Scanner:

Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not have a
charge-coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The photomultiplier tube is extremely
sensitive to light. The image is placed on a glass tube, and the light moves across the
image, which produces a reflection of the image which is captured by the PMT and
processed. These scanners have high resolution and are suitable for detailed scans.

v) Photo Scanner:
It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, which are
required for scanning photographs. Some photo scanners come with in-built software for
cleaning and restoring old photographs.

4) Joystick

A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick with a
spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of the stick. The
movement of stick controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.

The frist joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. A
joystick can be of different types such as displacement joysticks, finger-operated joysticks,
hand operated, isometric joystick, and more. In joystick, the cursor keeps moving in the
direction of the joystick unless it is upright, whereas, in mouse, the cursor moves only
when the mouse moves.

5) Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light pen
contains a light-sensitive detector that enables the user to point to or select objects on
the display screen. Its light sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the
corresponding signals to the CPU. It is not compatible with LCD screens, so it is not in
use today. It also helps you draw on the screen if needed. The first light pen was invented
around 1955 as a part of the Whirlwind project at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT).

6) Digitizer
Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with a
stylus. It enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus as we draw on
paper with a pencil. The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer appear on the
computer monitor or display screen. The software converts the touch inputs into lines
and can also convert handwritten text to typewritten words.

It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped papers.
Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the form of drawings and send
output to a CAD (Computer-aided design) application and software like AutoCAD. Thus,
it allows you to convert hand-drawn images into a format suitable for computer
processing.

7) Microphone
The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It receives
the sound vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a recording
medium. The audio signals are converted into digital data and stored in the computer.
The microphone also enables the user to telecommunicate with others. It is also used to
add sound to presentations and with webcams for video conferencing. A microphone can
capture audio waves in different ways; accordingly the three most common types are
described below:

i) Dynamic:

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It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It has a magnet which is
wrapped by a metal coil and a thin sheet on the front end of the magnet. The sheet
transfers vibrations from sound waves to the coil and from coil to electric wires which
transmit the sound like an electrical signal.
ii) Condenser:

It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat frequency response. It
has a front plate called diaphragm and a back plate parallel to the front plate. When
sound hits the diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and alters the distance between the
two plates. The changes in distance are transmitted as electric signals.

iii) Ribbon:

It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum, duraluminum, or
nanofilm suspended in a magnetic field. The sound waves cause vibrations in the ribbon,
which generate a voltage proportional to the velocity of the vibration. The voltage is
transmitted as an electrical signal. Early ribbon microphones had a transformer to
increase the output voltage, but modern ribbon microphones come with advanced
magnets to produce a strong signal.

8) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic ink.
MICR is a character recognition technology that makes use of special magnetized ink
which is sensitive to magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to process the cheques and
other organizations where security is a major concern. It can process three hundred
cheques in a minute with hundred-percent accuracy. The details on the bottom of the
cheque (MICR No.) are written with magnetic ink. A laser printer with MICR toner can be
used to print the magnetic ink.

The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A document printed
in magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine which magnetizes the ink, and the
magnetic information is then translated into characters.

9) Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of handwritten,
typed or printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices and libraries to convert
documents and books into electronic files.

It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After copying
the documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a two-color (black and
white), version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and dark areas, where the dark
areas are selected as characters, and the light area is identified as background. It is widely
used to convert hard copy legal or historic documents into PDFs. The converted
documents can be edited if required like we edit documents created in ms word.

10) Digital camera:

It is a digital device as it captures images and records videos digitally and then stores
them on a memory card. It is provided with an image sensor chip to capture images, as
opposed to film used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a camera that is connected to
your computer can also be called a digital camera.

It has photosensors to record light that enters the camera through the lens. When the
light strikes the photosensors, each of the sensors returns the electrical current, which is
used to create the images.

11) Paddle:

It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a wheel that is held by hand
and looks like a volume knob on a stereo that is used to increase or decrease the volume.
Paddle moves or controls cursor or any other objects in the game in a back-and-forth
motion. It is widely used as an alternative to the joystick. Besides this, the term paddle
also refers to many handheld devices designed to control a function in an electronic
device, computer, etc.

12) Steering wheel:

It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car racing games or in driving
programs as virtual simulators to steer a vehicle. It works like the real steering wheel by
allowing you to take a right or left turn. A steering wheel may be provided with
acceleration and brake pedal devices and a mechanism for shifting gears. Thus, it makes
racing games more adventurous and entertaining.

13) Gesture recognition devices:

These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such devices that respond to
gestures. For example, Kinect is one such device that observes the movement of a player's
body and interprets these movements as inputs to video games. This feature is also
available in certain tablets and smartphones where you can perform certain tasks such as
taking pictures using finger gestures such as swiping, pinching, etc.

14) Light Gun:

As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is designed to point at and shoot
the targets on the screen in a video game, or arcade, etc. The light gun was used for the
first time on the MIT Whirwind computer. When the gun is pointed at the target on the
screen and the trigger is pulled, the screen goes blank for a fraction of a second. During
this moment, the photodiode, which is present in the barrel, determines where the gun is
pointed. For example, shooting ducks in a duck hunt game.

15) Touchpad:

It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows you to move or
control the cursor on the screen using your finger. Just like a mouse, it also has two
buttons for right and left click. Using the touchpad, you can perform all the tasks that you
do with a mouse, such as selecting an object on the screen, copy, paste, delete, open a file
or folder, and more.

16) Remote:
It is a hardware device designed to control the functioning of a device, e.g., a TV remote
that can be used to change channels, increase or decrease the volume, from a distance
without leaving the seat. The first cordless TV remote was invented by Dr. Robert Adler of
Zenith in 1956. The remote sends the electromagnetic waves to communicate with the
device. These waves can be infrared rays, radio waves, etc.

17) Touch screen:

It is the display screen of a device such as a smartphone, tablet, etc., that allows users to
interact or provide inputs to the device by using their finger. Today, most of the
electronic devices come with touchscreen as an alternative to a mouse for navigating a
graphical user interface. For example, by touching, you can unlock your phone, open
emails, open files, play videos, etc. Besides this, it is used in lots of devices such as
Camera, Car GPS, Fitness machine, etc.

The concept of the touch screen was first introduced and published by E.A. Johnson in
1965. The first touch screen was developed at the beginning of the 1970s by CERN
engineers Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe.
18) VR:

VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment which is generated by

computers. A person can interact with virtual objects of this artificial environment using
some input devices such as headsets, gloves, headphones, etc. For example, he or she can
find himself or herself walking on a beach, watching a football match, walking in the sky,
etc., without actually doing all this.

19) Webcam:

Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built camera
provided on a computer can also be considered a webcam. It is an input device as it can
take pictures, and can be used to record videos if required. The pictures and videos are
stored in the computer memory and can be displayed on the screen if required. Although
it works almost the same as the digital camera, it is different from a digital camera, as it is
designed to take compact digital photos that can be uploaded easily on the webpages and
shared with others through the internet.
20) Biometric Devices:

Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified through his or her biological
features such as fingerprints, eye cornea, face structure, etc. It is done by using biometric
devices, which can be of different types based on their scanning features and abilities,
such as:

i) Face Scanner:

It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It takes the face
measurements of a person. For example, the distance between eyes, nose, and mouth,
etc., accordingly, it confirms the identity of a person. Besides this, it is smart enough to
differentiate between a person's picture and the real person.

ii) Hand Scanner:

The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity as every person has a
unique pattern of veins in the palm, just like fingerprints. This device takes advantage of
this feature; it identifies a person by scanning the palm of his hand. It uses infrared light
to scan veins' patterns and blood flowing in them. Palm is even more unique than
fingerprints.

iii) Fingerprint Scanner:

It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric authentication. This device is
developed, keeping in mind the fact that no two persons in the world can have the same
fingerprints. It is widely used in companies as a fingerprint attendance system to mark
the attendance of employees. This type of scanners captures the pattern of valleys and
ridges found on a finger and store it in the memory or database. When you press your
finger on the given space, it verifies the identity by using its pattern-matching software.
iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:

It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity. This device is more
secure than others as it is next to impossible to copy the retina or iris. It works by
mapping the retina's blood vessel patterns of the eye. The blood vessels of retina absorb
light more easily as well as can be identified with appropriate lighting.

In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina through the scanner's
eyepiece. Then, the software captures the network of blood vessels in the retina and uses
it to verify a person's identity.

v) Voice Scanner:

It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a distinctive voice print or
template. The voiceprints are stored in the database, and are used to verify the voice of a
person to confirm his or her identity. The person is required to speak in the normal or
same voice that was used to create a voice template. It is not much reliable as it can be
misused using a tape recording.

Output Devices
The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is entered in the
computer through an input device. There are a number of output devices that display
output in different ways such as text, images, hard copies, and audio or video. They
bridge the gap between digital data and human perception, letting users engage with
computer-generated information. Understanding the many forms of output devices and
their importance in computing is essential for making informed decisions while selecting
the right devices for certain applications.

Categories of Output Devices

Output devices can be categorized into four main types based on the nature of their
output.

o Visual Output Devices: These devices display processed data as text, images, or
video. Examples include monitors and projectors, which allow users to view
information on screens or project it onto larger surfaces.

o Data Output Devices: These devices provide machine-readable output for further
processing or storage. Plotters and 3D printers fall into this category, allowing
users to create physical representations of data or objects.

o Print Output Devices: Printers produce hard copies of processed data, such as
documents, images, or graphics. They allow for physical documentation and
distribution of information.

o Sound Output Devices: These devices deliver audio output for listening or
communication purposes. Speakers and headphones/earphones enable users to
hear the sound, whether Music, speech, or other audio content.

Visual Output Devices

Visual output devices are components of computing systems that enable the visual
presentation of processed data. Monitors and projectors, for example, play an important
role in displaying information to users through text, pictures, or video.

Users can view and analyze information more effectively with visual output devices. They
allow for the intelligible display of text, making reading papers, emails, and online sites
simpler. These devices also excel in picture presentation, allowing users to see
photographs, graphics, and illustrations with accuracy and detail. Video material is
additionally improved by visual output devices, resulting in a fascinating viewing
experience.
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Some of the popular visual output devices are:

1. Monitor

o CRT Monitor

o LCD Monitor

o LED Monitor

o Plasma Monitor

2. Printer

o Impact Printers

A. Character Printers

i. Dot Matrix printers

ii. Daisy Wheel printers

B. Line printers

i. Drum printers

ii. Chain printers

o Non-impact printers

A. Laser printers

B. Inkjet printers

3. Projector

1) Monitor

The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output device
that displays the processed data or information as text, images, audio or video.

The types of monitors are given below.

i) CRT Monitor
CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes which
produce images in the form of video signals. Cathode rays tube produces a beam of
electrons through electron guns that strike on the inner phosphorescent surface of the
screen to produce images on the screen. The monitor contains millions of phosphorus
dots of red, green and blue color. These dots start to glow when struck by electron beams
and this phenomenon is called cathodoluminescence.

The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly, deflection
plate assembly, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, and base.The front (outer surface) of
the screen onto which images are produced is called the face plate. It is made up of fiber
optics.

There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So, the colors
which you see on the screen are the blends of red, blue and green lights.The magnetic
field guides the beams of electrons. Although LCDs have replaced the CRT monitors, the
CRT monitors are still used by graphics professionals because of their color quality.

ii) LCD Monitor

The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as compared to
CRT monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology which is used in the screens
of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD screen comprises two layers of polarized
glass with a liquid crystal solution between them. When the light passes through the first
layer, an electric current aligns the liquids crystals. The aligned liquid crystals allow a
varying level of light to pass through the second layer to create images on the screen.

The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen.Old LCDs had
passive-matrix screens in which individual pixels are controlled by sending a charge. A
few electrical charges could be sent each second that made screens appear blurry when
the images moved quickly on the screen.

Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors (TFTs) with
capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their charge. So, they don?t make
screen blurry when images move fast on the screen as well as are more efficient than
passive-matrix displays.

iii) LED monitor

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel
display and uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors. The difference
between them lies in the source of light to backlight the display. The LED monitor has
many LED panels, and each panel has several LEDsto backlight the display, whereas the
LCD monitors use cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display.Modern
electronic devices such as mobile phones, LED TVs, laptop and computer screens, etc.,
use a LED display as it not only produces more brilliance and greater light intensity but
also consumes less power.

iv) Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display
technology. It has small tiny cells between two glass panels. These cells contain mixtures
of noble gases and a small amount of mercury. When voltage is applied, the gas in the
cells turns into a plasma and emits ultraviolet light that creates images on the screen, i.e.,
the screen is illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma, a charged gas. Plasma displays are
brighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD) and also offer a wide viewing angle than an
LCD.

Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent contrast ratios,
wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more. Thus, they offer a unique viewing
experience while watching action movies, sports games, and more.

Applications of Monitor

o Personal Computing: Monitors are commonly used in personal computers for

everyday operations such as online surfing, document editing, video viewing, and
gameplay.

o Workstations: Monitors are necessary in professional settings such as workplaces

since they serve as the primary display for employees' workstations. Users may
view and edit documents, spreadsheets, presentations, and other work-related
apps with them.

o Design and Multimedia: Graphic designers, video editors, and other multimedia
workers rely on monitors. High-resolution monitors with precise color
reproduction are utilized to develop and edit visual material.

o Gaming: Gaming monitors give immersive experiences with high refresh rates and
short reaction times. Gamers use monitors to display fast-paced action, colorful
images, and fluid gameplay.

o Education: Monitors are used in educational institutions, such as schools and

universities, to facilitate learning. They display educational content, multimedia
presentations, interactive learning materials, etc.

3) Projector
A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a large
surface such as a big screen or wall. It can be connected to a computer and similar devices
to project their output onto a screen. It uses light and lenses to produce magnified texts,
images, and videos. So, it is an ideal output device to give presentations or to teach a large
number of people.

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Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as HDMI
ports for newer equipment and VGA ports that support older devices. Some projectors are
designed to support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They can be fixed onto the ceiling,
placed on a stand, and more and are frequently used for classroom teaching, giving
presentations, home cinemas, etc.

A digital projector can be of two types:

1. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) digital projector: This type of digital projectors
are very popular as they are lightweight and provide crisp output. An LCD
projector uses transmissive technology to produce output. It allows the light
source, which is a standard lamp, to pass through the three colored liquid crystal
light panels. Some colors pass through the panels and some are blocked by the
panels and thus images are on the screen.

2. Digital Light Processing (DLP) digital projector: It has a set of tiny mirrors, a
separate mirror for each pixel of the image and thus provide high-quality images.
These projectors are mostly used in theatres as they fulfill the requirement of high-
quality video output.

Applications of projectors
 o Education: Classrooms and educational institutions make heavy use of projectors.
Teachers may use projectors to show large groups of pupils instructional materials,
presentations, movies, and interactive items.

o business Presentations: In corporate settings, projectors are vital for giving

presentations and sharing information with clients, colleagues, or stakeholders.
Presenters can use them to offer slideshows, charts, graphs, and other visual aids.

o Home Theatre: Projectors are commonly used in in-home theatre systems. They
provide a cinematic experience for customers by projecting movies, TV shows, or
streaming material onto a huge screen.

o Events and Conferences: Projectors are essential for events, conferences, and
seminars. They are used to show keynote speeches, slideshows, movies, and live
demonstrations to a big group.

o Digital Signage: Projectors are employed in digital signage applications to display

advertisements, information, or dynamic content on large screens in public spaces,
retail stores, or corporate environments.

o Art Installations: Projectors are used by artists and designers to create immersive
art installations. They project images, videos, or interactive visuals onto walls,
buildings, or other unconventional surfaces, transforming spaces and providing
unique visual experiences.

Print Output Devices

Print output devices are essential components of computing systems that enable the
generation of hard copies of processed data. These devices, commonly known as printers,
allow users to obtain physical copies of documents, images, or other types of information.

Print output devices offer several advantages. Firstly, they provide a tangible format for
information, allowing for easy reading, sharing, and archiving of documents. Hard copies
are particularly useful for legal documents, contracts, or important records that require
physical signatures or official documentation. Print output devices find applications in
various settings, including homes, offices, schools, and businesses. They are used for
printing documents, reports, presentations, photographs, labels, and more. From
everyday printing needs to specialized requirements, printers provide a reliable and
efficient means of generating physical copies of digital content.

Some of the popular print output devices are:

3) Printer

o Impact Printers

o Character Printers

o Dot Matrix printers

o Daisy Wheel printers

o Line printers

o Drum printers

o Chain printers

o Non-impact printers

o Laser printers

o Inkjet printers

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A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print images,
text or any other information onto the paper. Users can pick from various printer types,
such as inkjet, laser, or dot matrix, to meet their printing demands. Printers enable the
generation of tangible copies for record-keeping, presentations, marketing materials, and
other purposes, from household to professional settings. Printers are essential for
personal and commercial use due to their simplicity and adaptability.

Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers and Non-
impact Printers.

o Impact Printers: They are of two types:

A. Character Printers

i. Dot Matrix printers

ii. Daisy Wheel printers

 B. Line printers

i. Drum printers

ii. Chain printers

o Non-impact printers: They are of two types:

A. Laser printers

B. Inkjet printers

Impact Printer

The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images onto the
paper. The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink ribbon against the paper to
print characters and images.

Impact printers are further divided into two types.

A. Character Printers

B. Line printers

A) Character Printers

Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the print
head or hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot Matrix printer and Daisy Wheel
printer are character printers. Today, these printers are not in much use due to their low
speed and because only the text can be printed. The character printers are of two types,
which are as follows:

i) Dot Matrix Printer

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Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by it are the
patterns of dots. These patterns are produced by striking the ink soaked ribbon against
the paper with a print head. The print head contains pins that produce a pattern of dots
on the paper to form the individual characters. The print head of a 24 pin dot matrix
contains more pins than a 9 pin dot matrix printer, so it produces more dots which
results in better printing of characters. To produce color output, the black ribbon can be
changed with color stripes. The speed of Dot Matrix printers is around 200-500 characters
per second.

ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

Daisy Wheel Printer was invented by David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems.It consists of a
wheel or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks like a daisy, so it is named Daisy
Wheel printer. At the end of extensions, molded metal characters are mounted. To print a
character the printer rotates the wheel, and when the desired character is on the print
location the hammer hits disk and the extension hits the ink ribbon against the paper to
create the impression. It cannot be used to print graphics and is often noisy and slow, i.e.,
the speed is very low around 25-50 characters per second. Due to these drawbacks,these
printers have become obsolete.

B) Line Printers:

Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-speed
impact printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum printer and chain
printer are examples of line printers.

i) Drum Printer:
Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print characters. The
drum has circular bands of characters on its surface. It has a separate hammer for each
band of characters. When you print, the drum rotates, and when the desired character
comes under the hammer, the hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the paper to print
characters. The drum rotates at a very high speed and characters are printed by activating
the appropriate hammers. Although all the characters are not printed at a time, they are
printed at a very high speed. Furthermore, it can print only a predefined style as it has a
specific set of characters. These printers are known to be very noisy due to the use of
hammering techniques.

ii) Chain Printer:

Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print characters. The
characters are embossed on the surface of the chain. The chain rotates horizontally
around a set of hammers, for each print location one hammer is provided, i.e., the total
number of hammers is equal to the total number of print positions.

The chain rotates at a very high speed and when the desired character comes at the print
location, the corresponding hammer strikes the page against the ribbon and character on
the chain.They can type 500 to 3000 lines per minute. They are also noisy due to the
hammering action.

Non-Impact Printer:

Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head or hammer
on the ink ribbon placed against the paper. They print characters and images without
direct physical contact between the paper and the printing machinery. These printers can
print a complete page at a time, so they are also known as page printers. The common
types of non-impact printers are Laser printer and Inkjet printer:

i) Laser Printer:
A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the characters. The
laser beam hits the drum, which is a photoreceptor and draws the image on the drum by
altering electrical charges on the drum. The drum then rolls in toner, and the charged
image on the drum picks the toner. The toner is then printed on the paper using heat and
pressure. Once the document is printed, the drum loses the electric charge,and the
remaining toner is collected. The laser printers use powdered toner for printing instead of
liquid ink and produce quality print objects with a resolution of 600 dots per inch (dpi) or
more.

ii) Inkjet Printer:

The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters by spraying
fine,ionized drops of ink. The print head has tiny nozzles to spray the ink. The printer
head moves back and forth and sprays ionized drops of ink on the paper, which is fed
through the printer. These drops pass through an electric field that guides the ink onto
the paper to print correct images and characters.
An inkjet printer has cartridges that contain ink. Modern inkjet printers are color printers
that have four cartridges containing different colors: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black. It
is capable of printing high-quality images with different colors. It can produce print
objects with a resolution of at least 300 dots per inch (dpi).

Applications of Printer

o Personal and Home Use: Printers are frequently used in homes to print papers,
pictures, and other personal stuff. Individuals can use them to make tangible
copies of vital information or photographs for personal use.

o Offices and enterprises: Printers are required in offices and enterprises. They
print commercial enterprise papers, reports, contracts, invoices, and documents.
Employees can utilize printers to create physical copies of crucial information,
which aids in communication and record-keeping.

o Education: Students and teachers utilize printers at educational institutions such

as schools and universities. They are used to print assignments, worksheets, study
materials, project reports, and educational tools.

o Printing and Publishing: Printers are critical in the publishing and printing
industries. They're used on a massive scale to print publications, including
newspapers, brochures, flyers, and other published goods.

o Advertising and Marketing: Printers are employed in the advertising and

marketing industry to create promotional materials such as posters, banners,
flyers, business cards, and product labels.

Sound Output Devices

Sound output devices, which allow users to listen to audio material, are a significant
component of computing systems. Speakers and headphones, for example, facilitate
sound reproduction and improve the whole multimedia experience. There are various
advantages to using sound output equipment. They let consumers experience high-
quality audio with increased clarity, depth, and richness. Sound output devices improve
the entire audio experience by bringing information to the existence, whether or not it is
the minute specifics in Music, the immersive sound effects in movies, or the clear voice
during a conference call.

These devices have several applications, which include use in homes, groups, amusement
venues, and academic institutions. They are used for personal enjoyment,
communication, professional audio work, and multimedia jobs. Sound output devices link
to other devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and televisions, increasing their versatility
and utility.

Some of the popular sound output devices are:

4) Speakers

Speakers are important output devices that transform electrical impulses into audible
sounds. They're essential to many modern devices, including computers, televisions,
music players, and mobile phones. The audio system improves the multimedia experience
by providing high-quality audio output, whether listening to the song, viewing films,
playing video games, or participating in virtual meetings. They help ensure that
consumers enjoy audio material with clarity and depth by contributing to clean and clear
sound reproduction.

Types of speakers

o Stereo Speakers: Also known as 2.0 speakers, stereo speakers comprise left and
right speakers. They are the most fundamental speaker, typically found in desktop
computers, laptop computers, and tiny audio installations. Stereo speakers offer a
simple yet efficient method of reproducing sounds and creating a spatial audio
experience.

o Surround Sound Speakers: Surround sound speakers provide immersive audio

commonly used in home theatre systems. For a surround sound experience, many
 speakers are carefully positioned around the room. Multiple speakers plus a
subwoofer are used in common arrangements like 5.1, 7.1, and 9.1 systems. The
number denotes the number of speakers, while ".1" denotes a specialized
subwoofer for low-frequency effects. These configurations provide realistic
soundscapes, immersing viewers in a more engaging home theatre experience.

o Subwoofers: Subwoofers are specialized speakers designed to reproduce low-

frequency sounds, also known as bass. They add depth and impact to audio by
delivering powerful and deep bass tones. Subwoofers are often used alongside
stereo or surround sound systems to enhance the audio experience, specifically in
movies, Music, and gaming.

o Soundbars: Soundbars are slim and elongated speakers that provide an all-in-one
audio solution for TVs and home entertainment systems. They consist of multiple
built-in speakers housed in a single enclosure. Soundbars offer improved audio
quality compared to built-in TV speakers and can create a simulated surround
sound effect. They are popular for those seeking a compact and convenient audio
 setup.

o Portable Speakers: portable speakers are small, lightweight, wireless devices

designed for audio enjoyment on the go. Customers may additionally listen to
songs and other audio files from anywhere. Bluetooth audio systems are available
in various styles and sizes, as well as outdoor audio systems with long battery life
and waterproof audio systems for use by the pool.

o Bookshelf speakers: Bookshelf speakers are placed on a shelf, table, or stand.

They provide a good combination of size and sound insulation, making them
excellent for small to medium-sized rooms. In surround sound or stereo systems,
they are commonly utilized as back speakers.
 o Soundbar subwoofer: Some soundbars have a separate subwoofer for higher bass
response. These subwoofers are designed to maximize sound output and offer
lower-strength enjoyment.

o Outdoor speaker: The outdoor speaker is designed to withstand outdoor

situations such as humidity, UV exposure, and temperature changes. They are
ideal for outdoor gatherings, parties, or enjoying Music in outdoor spaces like
gardens or patios. Outdoor speakers can be mounted on walls, installed on poles,
or designed to blend into the landscape.

Applications of Speakers

o Entertainment: Speakers are used in entertainment systems such as home

theatres, game consoles, and music players to playback audio. They provide
immersive sound experiences, letting users enjoy high-quality audio in movies,
Music, and gaming.

o Public Address Systems: Speakers are used in public places such as schools,
stadiums, conference centers, and airports to make announcements, deliver public
speeches, and address big audiences. They provide clear and audible
communication in various public meetings and activities.

o Multimedia Presentations: In multimedia presentations and conferences,

speakers are vital. They magnify the audio of presentations, movies, and speeches,
allowing the audience to better hear and participate in the information.

o Music Production: Speakers are crucial in music production studios and

recording environments. They are used for tracking and playback of recorded
 audio, ensuring correct sound duplication and quality manipulation during the
production technique.

o Communication Devices: Speakers are integrated into conversation devices like

smartphones, pills, and laptops. They permit customers to make telephone calls,
participate in video conferences, and listen to audio content.

5) Headphones/Earphones

Headphones and earphones are personal audio devices worn over the ears or inserted into
the ear canal, respectively. They deliver Music to the user directly, giving a private and
immersive listening experience. Earphones are tiny and fit within the ear, whereas
headphones have two speakers that cover both ears. They are regularly used with portable
music players, phones, laptop computers, and different gadgets. Users of headphones and
earbuds may listen to Music and podcasts and view films and other media without
bothering others. They offer ease, mobility, and the ability to concentrate on audio
information while maintaining privacy and clarity.

Types of Headphones/Earphones

Headphones and earphones come in various types and designs, catering to different
preferences and audio needs. Here are some common types:

o Over-Ear Headphones: Over-ear headphones feature large ear cups that fully
envelop the ears. They deliver exceptional sound quality and isolate noise, making
them ideal for immersive music listening and studio monitoring. One of their
notable advantages is their comfort, as the ear cups completely cover the ears,
evenly distributing the weight for a pleasant experience.
o On-Ear Headphones: On-ear headphones rest on the outer ear without fully
enclosing it. In comparison to over-ear headphones, they're smaller and additional
compact. On-ear headphones offer a first-rate aggregate of mobility and sound
first-rate. Even as they do not supply the same quantity of noise isolation as over-
ear headphones, they will often be extra lightweight and less hard to use for
prolonged intervals.

o In-Ear Earphones: In-ear earphones, additionally known as earbuds or

earphones, are inserted right away into the ear canal. They are compact, light, and
quite transportable. In order to ensure a secure and comfortable fit, in-ear earbuds
are equipped with silicone or foam tips in different sizes. They provide good noise
isolation and are appropriate for use during difficult tasks or while traveling. In-ear
earphones are commonly bundled with smartphones and portable music players.

o Wireless Headphones/Earphones: Wireless Headphones/Earphones: Wireless

headphones and earphones have acquired recognition because of their comfort
and freedom from tangled wires. They communicate with different gadgets thru
Bluetooth or different wireless generations. Wi-Fi headphones let you circulate
spherical freely without being confined via the use of cables. They come in loads of
fashions, together with over-ear, on-ear, and in-ear designs.

o Noise-Canceling Headphones/Earphones: Noise-canceling headphones and

earphones use advanced technology to reduce external ambient noise. They
employ microphones to capture external sounds and generate opposite sound
waves to cancel them out. Noise-canceling headphones are mainly effective in busy
locations, which include airplanes or crowded areas, since they offer extra
immersive listening enjoyment with less background noise.

o Sports/Exercise Headphones/Earphones: Designed for active individuals,

sports or exercise headphones and earphones are designed to withstand sweat,
 moisture, and vigorous movement. They often feature a secure fit and may have
additional features like water resistance or ear hooks to stay in place during
physical activities.

o Gaming Headsets: Gaming headsets are tailored for gamers, providing enhanced
audio quality and clear communication. They typically come with built-in
microphones for in-game chat and voice communication. Gaming headsets offer
immersive soundscapes, allowing gamers to pinpoint audio cues accurately.

o True Wireless Earbuds: True wireless earbuds are in-ear headphones with no
wires connecting them. Each earbud is self-contained and connects to the
smartphone through Bluetooth. True wireless earbuds provide a cable-free
listening experience, with some versions including sophisticated capabilities such
as touch controls and smart assistants.

Applications of Headphones/Earphones

o Personal Music Listening: Headphones/earphones are frequently utilized for

personal music enjoyment. Headphones/earphones allow you to listen to your
favorite Music privately and clearly, whether you're on the road or resting at home.
 o Communication: Headphones/Earphones with built-in microphones are used for
voice calls, video conferencing, and online gaming. They provide clear audio input
and output, enabling effective communication over voice and video platforms.

o Fitness and Sports: Headphones/Earphones are popular among fitness

enthusiasts and athletes. They offer the convenience of wire-free listening during
workouts, running, or other physical activities, keeping users motivated and
entertained.

o Education and Language Learning: Headphones/Earphones are used in

educational settings for language learning programs, online courses, and audio-
based learning materials. They provide a focused listening experience, helping
learners improve comprehension and pronunciation.

o Entertainment: Headphones/earphones are required to watch movies and TV

shows and play video games. They offer immersive audio experiences that allow
users to completely immerse themselves in the entertainment material without
bothering others.

Data Output Devices

Data output devices are essential components of computer systems that allow users to
receive and analyze processed data intelligibly. These gadgets are critical in displaying
data meaningfully, making it accessible and valuable for further analysis or decision-
making.

Data output devices are required for data processing, visualization, and transmission.
They facilitate understanding complex information by presenting it in a visually
accessible format. Using data output devices, users can interpret and make sense of data
more effectively, leading to informed decision-making, improved communication, and
enhanced productivity in various fields and industries.

Some of the popular Data output devices are:

6) Plotter

A plotter is a specialized output device used to generate high-quality, accurate, and

detailed graphics. It's popular in fields like engineering, architecture, and graphic design.
Unlike printers, which use ink or toner to create pictures or text on paper, plotters utilize
a pen or marker to draw continuous lines on diverse media such as paper, vinyl, or film.
Plotters are capable of creating intricate and accurate drawings, maps, blueprints, and
technical diagrams. They are valued for their ability to handle large-format prints and
deliver precise output, making them essential tools in industries that require precise
graphical representation.

Types of Plotters

Plotters come in different types, each with its own unique features and applications. Here
are some common types of plotters:

o Pen Plotters: Pen plotters are the most classic sort of plotter, drawing continuous
lines on paper or other media using a pen or marker. They create precise and
elaborate designs by sliding the pen horizontally and vertically over the page. Pen
plotters are known for their high accuracy and can produce detailed line art,
technical diagrams, architectural blueprints, and engineering designs. They are
commonly used in industries that require precise and professional-looking
graphical outputs.

o Electrostatic Plotters: Electrostatic plotters use an electrostatic charge to attract

toner or ink onto paper. They operate by selectively charging areas of the paper
and then applying toner or ink to those charged areas, resulting in the formation
of graphical output. Electrostatic plotters can print high-resolution images with
smooth gradients and solid fills. They are frequently used in industries requiring
accurate color reproduction, including graphic design, advertising, and
photography.

o Inkjet Plotters: Inkjet plotters work similarly to inkjet printers but are designed
for large-format printing. They generate the desired picture or pattern by spraying
small droplets of ink onto the paper. High-quality printouts with brilliant colors
and precise details may be produced using inkjet plotters. They are frequently used
in industries that need large-scale printing, such as architecture, engineering, and
 signage.

o Cutting Plotters: Cutting plotters, also known as vinyl cutters, are specialized
plotters used to cut out shapes and designs on various materials such as vinyl,
paper, or fabric. They operate by cutting along the outlines of the desired pattern
using a sharp blade. Cutting plotters are commonly used in sign making, vehicle
graphics, apparel design, and other industries that require precise cutting of
materials for signage, decals, or stencils.

o Laser Plotters: Laser plotters use a laser beam to create high-resolution prints on
various media. They work by directing the laser beam across the surface of the
media, selectively exposing it to heat, which creates the desired image or design.
Laser plotters are known for their high precision and can produce detailed and
intricate graphics. They are used in industries such as prototyping, architectural
modeling, and graphic arts, where precise and complex designs are required.

Applications of Plotter
 o Engineering and Architecture: Plotters are extensively used in engineering and
architecture for creating detailed technical drawings, blueprints, and floor plans.
They can produce accurate and scaled drawings on large sheets of paper or other
materials.

o Fine Art & Graphic Design: Plotters are used by artists and graphic designers to
generate large-scale artwork, posters, and drawings. They can reproduce fine
details and beautiful colors, letting artists communicate their ideas on a larger
scale.

o Textile and Fashion Design: Plotters are used to create patterns, templates, and
stencils in the textile and fashion sectors. They can produce intricate designs and
precise measurements on fabrics, enabling efficient production and customization.

o Signage and Advertising: Plotters are utilized in the production of signs,

banners, and promotional materials. They can cut vinyl or other materials into
desired shapes and sizes, allowing for the creation of visually appealing signage
and advertisements.

Wireless Output Devices

Wireless output devices have grown in popularity and have become essential components
of modern computing systems. These gadgets link and interact with computers or other
devices via wireless technology, eliminating the need for physical wires or connections.
They provide ease, flexibility, and mobility by letting users engage with their devices from
a distance while removing the constraints imposed by wired connections. Here are a few
examples of wireless output devices and their applications:

o Wireless Monitors: Wireless monitors are display units that can connect to a
computer or other devices using wireless technology, such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.
They provide the ease of cable-free communication, letting users position their
displays wherever they are within wireless range. Wireless monitors are especially
beneficial when wire management is difficult or when users need to move or adjust
the display often.
o Wireless Printers: Wireless printers have changed the way people print by
removing the requirement for direct physical connections. These printers usWi-
Fifi or Bluetooth to connect to devices such as PCs, laptops, or smartphones,
allowing wireless printing from anywhere within the network range. Wireless
printers provide increased flexibility, convenience, and decreased cable clutter.
Users may print papers, images, and other items without having to deal with wires
and cords. Wireless printers are very handy in shared office environments or
households with many devices since they may be accessed by several people at the
same time.

o Wireless Projectors: They can wirelessly receive video and audio signals, letting
users project material from a distance onto a screen or wall. They can wirelessly
receive video and audio signals, letting users project material from a distance onto
a screen or wall. Wireless projectors are often utilized in classrooms, boardrooms,
and home theatre setups because they provide flexibility and convenience of usage
during presentations, movie evenings, and gaming sessions.

o Wireless Speakers: wireless speakers make use of wireless technologies like

Bluetooth or Wi-Fi to connect and flow audio from devices which include
smartphones, tablets, or computer systems. They provide a clean method to listen
to Music, podcasts, or other audio records without having to deal with cords. Wi-
Fi audio systems are available in an expansion of sizes and styles, ranging from
 small portable devices for on-the-go use to larger devices for home enjoyment
systems.

o Wireless Headphones/Earphones: wireless headphones and earbuds have

grown in recognition because of their portability and lack of cables. Wireless
headphones and earbuds connect to gadgets via Bluetooth, giving a hassle-free
music experience without tangled cords. They're available in an expansion of
designs to accommodate an extensive variety of tastes and usage conditions. These
gadgets' wireless connection allows users to roam around freely while listening to
audio material. Wireless headphones and earbuds have become popular
alternatives for their seamless and portable audio experiences, whether for
workouts, commuting, or simply untethered listening.

o Wireless Presenters: Wireless presenters are handheld devices that enable users
to control presentations remotely. They connect to computers or other devices
using wireless technology, allowing presenters to navigate slides, highlight points,
or control multimedia elements from a distance. Wireless presenters provide
flexibility and enhance the presenter's mobility and engagement during meetings,
 conferences, or lectures.

Applications of Wireless Output Devices

o Home and Office Environments: Wireless output devices find widespread use in
both home and office settings. Wireless printers allow multiple users to print
documents or photos from their devices, eliminating the need for everyone to be
physically connected to the printer. Wireless speakers provide flexible audio
solutions for entertainment or productivity purposes.

o Education: Wireless output devices are particularly valuable in educational

environments. Wireless projectors enable teachers to display content from their
devices onto a larger screen, facilitating effective visual learning for students.
Wireless headphones can be used by students to listen to educational audio
materials without disrupting others.

o Presentations and Conferences: Wireless output devices are commonly used in

business presentations, conferences, and meetings. Wireless projectors and
presenters allow for seamless presentations without the need for cable
connections. Wireless speakers provide clear audio for conference calls or
multimedia presentations.

o Entertainment: Wireless output devices, such as headphones/earphones and

speakers, improve entertainment experiences by allowing for more mobility and
high-quality audio for Music, movies, and other media.

o Mobile Devices: Wireless output devices are compatible with mobile devices such
as smartphones and tablets. Users can wirelessly connect to wireless speakers,
 projectors, or headphones/earphones to enhance their mobile entertainment or
productivity experiences.

Advantages of Wireless Output Devices

o Convenience and Flexibility: Wireless output devices offer the convenience of

cable-free connectivity. Users can connect and interact with their devices from a
distance, eliminating the limitations imposed by physical cables. This flexibility
allows for easier device setup, repositioning, and mobility.

o Reduced Clutter: Without the need for physical cables, wireless output devices
contribute to a cleaner and more organized workspace. Users can avoid the tangle
of cables and the hassle of managing and untangling wires, leading to a more
aesthetically pleasing and efficient working environment.

o Enhanced Mobility: Wireless output devices provide greater freedom of

movement. Users can freely move around within the wireless range without being
tethered to a specific location. This is particularly advantageous in scenarios such
as presentations, where the presenter can move around the room while
maintaining control over the output device.

o Ease of Sharing: Wireless output devices make it easier to share resources among
multiple users. For example, wireless printers can be accessed by multiple devices
within a wireless network, allowing users to conveniently print from different
locations without the need for physical connections or transferring files.

o Increased Accessibility: Wireless output devices improve accessibility for users

with mobility challenges or disabilities. They enable users to interact with devices
from a comfortable position or distance, providing a more inclusive computing
experience.

Conclusion

Output devices are essential components of computing systems, offering a range of

functions and applications. From visual devices like monitors and projectors to printers
and sound devices like speakers, each category serves a specific purpose in presenting,
printing, and reproducing processed data. By understanding the types and applications of
these devices, users can choose the most suitable output device to meet their needs. As
technology evolves, output devices continue to advance, providing improved visual and
auditory experiences and opening new possibilities for multimedia interactions. With the
right output device, users can enhance their computing experience, effectively share
information, and communicate seamlessly.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central processor, or microprocessor.

It carries out all the important functions of a computer. It receives instructions from both
the hardware and active software and produces output accordingly. It then performs
calculations, manipulates data, and produces output based on those instructions. It stores
all important programs like operating systems that manage the computer's resources and
allows you to interact with it and application software that you use to perform tasks like
word processing, web browsing, and gaming. Your computer couldn't execute these
essential programs without the CPU.

CPU also helps Input and output devices to communicate with each other. The CPU
translates these inputs when you click, move the mouse, or click on a key on the
keyboard, and it works with the relevant software program to produce the intended
result. The CPU ensures that the input and output devices communicate without any
troubles, whether it means printing a paper, playing music through the audio system, or
showing text on the display screen. Owing to these features of CPU, it is often referred to
as the brain of the computer.

CPU is installed or inserted into a CPU socket located on the motherboard. Furthermore,
it is provided with a heat sink to absorb and dissipate heat to keep the CPU cool and
functioning smoothly.

Central Processing Unit's - History and Evolution

Computers have become a part of our everyday lives, but the first computer was
developed in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania!

Backward Skip 10sPlay VideoForward Skip 10s

o Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer or ENIAC was the processo

o Alan Turing and John von Neumann presented the reprogramming feature that is
so widely utilised nowadays. A modern computer's architecture is based on von
Neumann's design.

o Microprocessors have come a long way since Intel's 4004 - the first microprocessor
ever developed.

o We'll take a look at what's happened so far.

 o In the early 1970s, Ted Hoff and others at Intel came up with the idea for the first
Processor, which was then produced by the company.

o Intel's 4004 processor was the company's first processor.

1971 - Intel 4004

o Designed by Intel's Federico Faggin and Ted Hoff and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima,
it went on sale on November 15, 1971. "

o 2300 transistors with pMOS technology were used in the device.

o There were a total of 46 instructions.

o The intended clock speed was 1 MHz, but it was only achieved at 740 kHz.

o As the world's first microprocessor, it powered the Busicom 141-PF calculator,

which is still in use today.

1972 - Intel 8008

o Introduced in August 1972, it is also known as MCS-8.

o CTC's Victor Poor and Harry Pyle worked on it, as did Intel's Ted Hoff, Faggin,
Stanley Mazor, and Hal Feeney.

o There were 3500 transistors in it.

o But it was slower than the 4004.

o This computer had a clock speed of 0.5 MHz and a total number of 48 instructions.

o Micral and SCELBI were the first personal computers to use it.
1974 - Intel 8080

o Intel 8080 was introduced in 1974.

o Faggin, Mazor, and Masatoshi Shima created it in April 1974.

o The clock speed was increased to 2 MHz, and it used 6000 transistors and nMOS
technology. »

o Most notable was the separation of the address (16 bit) and data (8 bit) buses,
which was a major advancement.

o It also had 256 input/output ports.

o The MITS Altair 8800 and IMSAI 8080 both used it.

o Similarly, the main processor in Space Invaders (an arcade video game) was the
8080 microprocessor.

1974 - Motorola 6800

o The Motorola processor had no I/O ports.

o I/Os were memory-mapped.

o In addition, the instruction set contained 72 instructions at a clock speed of just 2

MHz

o HCF (Halt and Catch Fire) opcode was used for the first time, preventing the
processor from responding to any interrupts until it was reset.

o Motorola introduced HCF, a self-testing feature, for the first time.

1977 - Intel 8085

The processor was also used as a microcontroller, operating on a +5V supply, unlike the
other processors formed so far.

o Von Neumann architecture was used for the first time.

o "It was constructed with nMOS technology and 6500 transistors."

o There were 256 instructions in the instruction set.

o In NASA and ESA space explorations, the radiation-hardened version was

employed.
1978 - Intel 8086

o The clock speed was designed to be 10MHz.

o Bruce Ravenel was part of the architecture development team, which included
Stephen P. Morse.

o Jim McKevitt, John Bayliss, and William Pohlman designed Logic, with William
Pohlman serving as the project manager.

o Mycron 2000 was the first microcomputer to use it.

1979 - Intel 8088

o HMOS-based 8088 was launched on July 1st.

o PLCC (plastic leaded chip carrier) package was available as well as a 40-pin DIP
package. »

o There was only 8-bits of data in the path, however.

o 10 MHz was the intended frequency.

o 8088 was the basis for the original IBM PC.

1987 - SPARC

o It's a Sun Microsystems processor.

o It had a 40 MHz clock speed.

o 8 million transistors and 256 I/O pins were used to build it.

o According to the TOP500 list, Fujitsu's K Computer is ranked number one among
the world's 500 fastest supercomputers.

o It was based on the SPARC architecture.

1991 - Am386

o There was a striking similarity between this AMD (Advanced Micro Devices)
processor and Intel x86 processors.

o In terms of clock speed, the processor was a competitor to Intel's.

 o Many manufacturers chose AMD's floating-point unit because of its excellent
performance.

1993 - Pentium Processor

o P5 was the first Pentium processor.

o Two models were available: 510-pin version and 567-pin

o 1 million transistors were used in its construction.

o At the time, this 32-bit processor was the most advanced processor available.

o There were two instructions that could be executed at the same time in this
superscalar x86 microarchitecture, speeding up computation.

1995 - Pentium Pro

o Pentium II was the first Pentium processor.

o It was packaged in a ceramic multi-chip module (MCM) with 387 pins, which was a
first for the industry.

o In addition to its dual processor configuration, it has a 200 MHz clock speed.

o In order to build this processor, approximately 5.5 million transistors were used.
 o MMX instructions were not included.

o This processor was utilised in ASCI Red, which had teraFLOP (one trillion floating-
point operations per second) performance or results.

1997- Pentium II

o The Pentium II processor family was introduced on May 7 and offered a wide range
of processors.

o With each new model, the clock speed was steadily increased to 450 MHz.

o A slot or socket module was used instead of the traditional processor.

o Because of this, computer manufacturers were able to fit it into a small space.

o Under this umbrella, a number of processors were introduced: Some of these were
Klamath;

o Deschutes; Pentium II overdrive; Tonga, etc.

o It had a heatsink/fan combination that could be removed, which helped with heat
dissipation.

1999-Pentium III

o It was introduced on February 26th.

o The SSE instruction was added to the previous model to speed up floating-point
calculations.

o Like Pentium II, this processor was released in two versions: Celeron (low-end
version) and Xeon (high-end version) (High-end version).

o The following processors are included in this family: Katmai; Coppermine;

Coppermine T and Tualatin.

o PSN (Processor Serial Number) was introduced in the production process that
formed the processor's unique identity.

1999 - Athlon

o Athlon was announced by AMD on June 23.

o A clock speed of 800 MHz was achieved by using 37 million transistors.

 o It came in a 453-pin PGA (Pin Grid Array) package.

o It was faster than Intel's Pentium III, which made Athlon a legitimate competitor.
»

o That made it the first processor to reach the 1 gigahertz speed mark in history.

o Enhanced 3DNow! was first launched, which sped up by 2-4 times.

2000-Pentium IV

o Pentium IV was Intel's new single-core processor, with clock speeds ranging from
1.3 GHz to 3.08 GHz.

o When it came to packaging, the 423-pin processor was available in both OLGA and
PPGA (Plastic Pin Grid Array) formats.

o The processors that fall under this category include; Willamette; Northwood;
Pentium 4-M; Mobile Pentium etc

o Processors in this family were the first to use the NetBurst architecture.

2003-Pentium -M

o This was an Intel single-core mobile processor.

o It was designed with a clock speed is 2.26 GHz.

o There are two processors in this family: Banias; Dothan.

o TDP of 24.5 watts and clock speed of 1.7GHz for Banias

o DOTHAN: Die of 90 nanometers and 2.16 gigahertz, with 21-watt TDP.

o It was used for the first time in the Intel Carmel notebook, Centrino-brand.

2006-Core 2

o E6320 is another name for Intel Core 2 brand, which was launched on July 27,
2006. It had clock speed of upto 3.5 GHz .

o Single-core, dual-core, and quad-core processors were introduced under this

family.

o The processor is no longer available for purchase.

 o The desktop processors under this brand include:

o The Conroe XE; Allendale; Wolfdale

o We have Allendale XE, Wolfdale XE, and more.

o This brand's laptop processors include:

o Merom XE; Penryn; Merom

o As well as Merom-L and Penryn XE

o Using a slower clock speed, the processor was able to conserve battery power.

Latest Technology- CPU

Since the launch of the 4004 microprocessor, the technology has advanced significantly.

A smaller chip, faster clocks, and larger caches have all resulted in a smaller chip and
faster clocks.

Products based on Intel's microarchitecture were introduced in 2011.

It has been able to produce dies with a 32-nanometer thickness.

Included is Intel Quick sync, which is a hardware-based video encoding and decoding
solution from Intel.

Interconnecting the different parts of the processor is also made easier with an improved
256-bit/cycle ring bus connect.

o This processor has a transistor count of 2,27 billion.

o The designed clock speed is 3.6 GHz.

o Cougar Point Chipset motherboards in the 67-series were recalled by Intel due to a
hardware issue.

o The following series are part of this family:Intel Pentium: Celeron: Core i3: Core i5:
Core i7: Core i7 Extreme: It has the vPro feature that has the ability to delete data
from a hard drive via 3G signals or Ethernet or Internet.

Ivy Bridge

o It was announced in 2011 that Intel would be releasing a 22-nanometer die

processor called Ivy Bridge, but it was only released on April 29, 2012.

o The use of 3D (tri-gate) transistors allows for a smaller die.

o In comparison to 2D transistors, 3D transistors reduce power consumption by

nearly 50%.

o PCI Express is also supported, as is DirectX 11, which improves the graphics.

o 80 GHz is the clock speed of the processor.

o According to reports, they have a temperature 20oC higher than Sandy Bridge.

o Under this family, there are the following desktop models:

 o i3, i5, and i7 Processors

o Mobile that fall under this category include: i3, i5, and i7 Core Processors

o It is one of the tick version of sandy bridge.

Latest - Fifth Generation CPU or Central Processing Units

o The fifth generation Central Processing Unit is based on Artificial Intelligence.

o A still-under-development Central Processing Unit.

o The use of voice recognition is an example of a current application.

o By the way, it's still being worked on right now.

o AI aims to create an intelligent device that can respond to natural language input
and can learn on its own.

Components of CPU

Generally, a CPU has three components:

o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

o Control Unit
 o Memory or Storage Unit

Control Unit:

The Control Unit (CU) is a vital part of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and is
accountable for the overall performance of a computer system. It is the circuitry in the
control unit, which makes use of electrical signals to instruct the computer system for
executing already stored instructions. It takes instructions from memory and then
decodes and executes these instructions. So, it controls and coordinates the functioning
of all parts of the computer.

The Control Unit's main task is to maintain and regulate the flow of information across
the processor. It serves as a traffic controller, ensuring that information and instructions
are efficiently transferred among the various elements of the computer system. It
manages the order in which instructions are executed and synchronizes the activities of
various units within the CPU. It does not take part in processing and storing data.
Instead, it serves as an overseer, coordinating the actions of other CPU parts to guarantee
that instructions are carried out accurately and in the right order.

The Control Unit achieves coordination within the CPU through a series of steps:
o Fetch: The Control Unit retrieves an instruction from the computer's memory. It
accomplishes this by accessing the memory location provided by the program
counter (PC), which contains the address of the next instruction to be executed.

o Decode: Once the instruction is fetched, the Control Unit decodes it. It breaks
down the instruction into its constituent elements, which include the operation
code (opcode) and any associated operands. The operands supply the data or
memory locations on which the operation will be completed, while the opcode
suggests the kind of operation to be done.

o Execute: After the instruction is decoded, the Control Unit initiates the execution
phase. It coordinates the necessary actions within the CPU's functional units, such
as the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), to perform the specific operation indicated by
the instruction. This may involve calculations, data manipulations, or control
operations.

o Store: Once the instruction is executed, the Control Unit updates the necessary
registers and flags to reflect the operation results. This could involve storing the
result in a register, updating the program counter to indicate the address of the
next instruction, or modifying status flags that provide information about the
outcome of the operation (e.g., zero flags, carry flags).
 o Repeat: After updating the necessary components, the Control Unit repeats the
process by fetching the next instruction from memory. It increments the program
counter to point to the next instruction's address, and the cycle continues.

This fetch-decode-execute cycle is repeated for each instruction in the program, allowing
the Control Unit to coordinate the sequential execution of instructions and ensure that
the computer system performs the required tasks.

The Control Unit ensures the correct information flow and guides the CPU's actions
during this process. It eventually aids in the general operation of the computer system by
allowing the CPU to carry out the required operations and computations through the
fetching, decoding, and execution of instructions.

ALU:

It is the arithmetic logic unit, which carries out arithmetic and logical operations.
Included in the list of arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and comparisons. Data selection, comparison, and merging are the primary
logical operations. More than one ALU may be present in a CPU. ALUs can also be used
to keep track of timers that assist in running the computer.

The ALU consists of two main subsections: the Arithmetic Section and the Logic Section.

o The ALU's Arithmetic Section conducts mathematical operations. It performs

fundamental mathematical operations including addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. For mathematical computations in several
applications and programmes, these processes are necessary. Other operations,
such as bitwise operations and incrementing or decreasing values, can also be
handled by the Arithmetic Section.
 o The ALU's Logic Section is in charge of performing logical operations. Data
manipulation based on logical conditions is referred to as logical operations. These
operations include choosing or removing certain data elements or fields,
comparing values to identify connections (such as equal, greater than, or less
than), and merging or combining data in accordance with logical principles.
Decision-making, data filtering, and data processing tasks frequently employ
logical operations.

The ALU's arithmetic and logical functions are crucial for the execution of instructions
within the CPU. The ALU is responsible for carrying out the necessary arithmetic or
logical operation specified by the instruction when retrieved and decoded by the Control
Unit. For instance, the Arithmetic Section of the ALU will perform the addition operation
and output the result if an instruction calls for adding two integers.

Sometimes, a CPU may contain multiple ALUs to enhance its processing capabilities.
Multiple ALUs can work simultaneously, allowing for parallel execution of operations and
speeding up computation tasks. This is especially beneficial in CPUs with multiple cores
or processors designed for high-performance computing.

Memory or Storage Unit

A computer system's memory or storage unit maintains instructions, data, and

intermediate outcomes. It acts as a database that other computer components may access
and save data in as needed. This device has numerous names because of its numerous
functions, including internal storage unit, main memory, primary storage, or Random-
access reminiscence (RAM).
The memory unit's capability directly affects the computer's speed, power, and normal
performance. A memory unit with a larger ability allows for storing more data and
instructions, resulting in an improved machine capacity to handle complicated tasks
efficiently.

A computer system commonly has two types of memory: primary and secondary.

o Primary memory, often called RAM, is the main memory of a computer. It closely
collaborates with the CPU to quickly store and retrieve data. RAM allows the
computer to access information randomly, which means it can retrieve any piece
of data without going through everything in order. RAM acts as a momentary
workspace where the computer stores the information and applications it is now
utilizing. RAM is a volatile memory, so anything saved inside is lost when the
machine is switched off. How many programs can run simultaneously and how
much data can be processed simultaneously depends on the RAM capacity.

o Secondary memory includes hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs),
and external storage devices. Computer systems are designed to store data for
extended periods, even if powered off. Secondary memory, unlike RAM, is non-
volatile and maintains records even in the absence of power. It is the storage
location for operating systems, software applications, documents, and user data.
Secondary memory has a larger capability in comparison to RAM. While accessing
 data from secondary memory takes longer than primary memory, it gives the
advantage of long-term data retention.

Some functions of the Memory unit

o Storage: The memory unit stores instructions, data, and intermediate results for
the computer to perform tasks.

o Retrieval: The computer can access stored information quickly and efficiently,
enabling the processor to retrieve data and instructions during program execution.

o Temporary Storage: The memory unit provides temporary storage (RAM) for
actively running programs, allowing the CPU to access and manipulate data
quickly.

o Data Transfer: It facilitates the transfer of data between the CPU and other
components of the computer system, ensuring smooth communication and
efficient processing.

o Fast Access: The memory unit offers fast access to data and instructions, reducing
delays in program execution and enhancing overall system performance.

o Random Access: It enables the CPU to retrieve data from any location in the
memory unit without searching sequentially, allowing for quick and random
access to information.

What is CPU Clock Speed?

The clock speed of a processor, often known as the CPU clock rate, is an important
component. The clock speed of a CPU or a processor refers to the number of instructions
it can process in a second. It is measured in gigahertz. For example, a CPU with a clock
speed of 4.0 GHz means it can process 4 billion instructions in a second.

The number of instructions a CPU can execute in a specific time is determined by the
CPU's clock speed. Each instruction represents a fundamental CPU activity, such as
transferring data or doing mathematical calculations. The clock speed determines how
quickly these instructions are executed. A higher clock speed allows the CPU to process
more instructions per second, enhancing overall performance.

Consider an example with a factory production line to understand better how clock speed
affects CPU performance. The clock speed represents the speed at which the conveyor
belt moves, bringing workpieces to different stations. The faster the conveyor belt moves;
the more workpieces can be processed in a given time.

Note: The entire performance of a CPU is not determined by the clock speed alone. The
processor's architecture and design are also quite important. The effectiveness of different
CPU architectures in carrying out instructions can vary. Therefore, CPUs with lower clock
rates but superior architecture may perform better than CPUs with greater clock speeds
but inefficient designs.

Modern CPUs also frequently use techniques like multi-core architectures and instruction
pipelining to boost speed. To increase processing power overall, multi-core CPUs include
numerous independent processing units (cores) that may carry out instructions
concurrently. The CPU may execute many instructions simultaneously using instruction
pipelining, significantly enhancing efficiency.

Because of advances in semiconductor technology, CPU clock rates have been rising
continuously over time. Early CPUs operated at clock speeds measured in megahertz
(MHz), but with technological progress, GHz speeds became the norm. Some high-end
CPUs even surpassed the 5 GHz mark.

Types of CPU:

CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD, each of which manufactures its own
types of CPUs. In modern times, there are lots of CPU types in the market. Some of the
basic types of CPUs are described below:

o Single-Core CPUs

o Dual-Core CPUs

o Quad-Core CPUs

o Hexa-Core CPUs

o Octa-Core CPUs

o Multi-Core CPUs

Single Core CPU

Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU, which was used in the 1970s. It has only
one core to process different operations. It can start only one operation at a time; the
CPU switches back and forth between different sets of data streams when more than one
program runs. So, it is not suitable for multitasking as the performance will be reduced if
more than one application runs. The performance of these CPUs is mainly dependent on
the clock speed. It is still used in various devices, such as smartphones.
But as technology developed, multi-core CPUs proliferated and now provide better
multitasking skills. These CPUs can execute several instructions simultaneously due to
their numerous processing cores. Single-core CPUs are less popular in desktop and laptop
computers, although they are still used in embedded systems and mobile phones.
Smartphones often use single-core or dual-core CPUs that are particularly made for
power efficiency to balance performance and battery life.

Dual Core CPU

As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two cores in a single Integrated Circuit
(IC). Although each core has its own controller and cache, they are linked together to
work as a single unit and thus can perform faster than the single-core processors and can
handle multitasking more efficiently than Single Core processors.

A dual-core CPU's two cores enable the execution of many tasks in parallel. Each core can
independently execute instructions, enabling parallel processing. This capability
significantly improves multitasking performance compared to single-core processors.
With dual-core CPUs, users can run multiple applications simultaneously without
experiencing significant performance slowdowns.

Dual-core CPUs offer benefits beyond multitasking. They can also enhance performance
for single-threaded applications. Since each core can handle instructions independently,
tasks that cannot be parallelized can still benefit from the dual-core architecture. One
core can focus on running the main application, while the other handles background
processes or system tasks. This division of work ensures a smoother user experience and
improves overall system responsiveness.

Quad Core CPU

This type of CPU comes with two dual-core processors in one integrated circuit (IC) or
chip. So, a quad-core processor is a chip that contains four independent units called
cores. These cores read and execute instructions of CPU. The cores can run multiple
instructions simultaneously, thereby increases the overall speed for programs that are
compatible with parallel processing.

Quad Core CPU uses a technology that allows four independent processing units (cores)
to run in parallel on a single chip. Thus, by integrating multiple cores in a single CPU,
higher performance can be generated without boosting the clock speed. However, the
performance increases only when the computer's software supports multiprocessing. The
software which supports multiprocessing divides the processing load between multiple
processors instead of using one processor at a time.

Thanks to Quad-core processors' ability to divide the processing burden among several
cores, multiple processors can operate simultaneously instead of one at a time. Certain
software supports this multiprocessing capacity, which improves productivity and speeds
up processing times, especially for jobs that can be broken down into smaller subtasks
and carried out concurrently.

Quad-core CPUs, in particular, provide advantages in terms of increased efficiency and

quicker processing for multitasking and computationally heavy jobs. With four cores, the
CPU can divide the workload more equally, enabling quicker reaction times and more
fluid multitasking. In jobs like video editing, 3D graphics, and gaming, where
simultaneous execution of numerous tasks is essential, quad-core CPUs excel in parallel
processing.

Hexa-Core CPUs

Hexa-core CPUs are computer processors that include six separate cores on a single
integrated circuit (IC) or chip. Each core functions as a separate processing unit that can
perform computations and commands. With six cores, processing power may be boosted,
and performance can be enhanced.

Regarding multitasking and managing resource-intensive tasks, Hexa-core CPUs provide

substantial benefits. The CPU can perform numerous tasks simultaneously with six cores
by distributing the burden among them for more effective processing. Users may operate
many programs simultaneously without noticeably encountering performance slowdowns
or delays, such as web browsers, video editing programs, and gaming programs.

Hexa-core CPUs also excel in applications that demand significant computational power,
such as video editing, 3D rendering, scientific simulations, and virtualization. These tasks
can be distributed across multiple cores, resulting in faster processing and reduced
waiting times.

Octa-Core CPUs
Octa-core CPUs are computer processors with eight separate cores on a single integrated
circuit (IC) or chip. Each core performs as a separate processing unit that can perform
calculations and commands. An octa-core CPU's eight cores considerably boost
processing power and overall performance.

Octa-core CPUs excel at performing demanding workloads and have impressive

multitasking capabilities. With eight cores, the CPU can effectively manage multiple
simultaneous tasks. The workload is distributed across the cores, allowing for efficient
processing and faster completion of tasks. This means users can run numerous
applications simultaneously without experiencing significant performance slowdowns or
system lag.

The key advantage of octa-core CPUs is their ability to execute instructions in parallel.
Each core can independently work on different tasks, allowing for concurrent processing.
This parallel processing capacity enhances system performance overall and speeds up
operations. It is especially beneficial for undertakings that may be divided into smaller
tasks and finished simultaneously.

Octa-core CPUs are best suited for computationally intensive software that requires many
resources. High-definition video editing, 3D rendering, intricate scientific simulations,
and virtualization are among the examples. These workloads may be effectively divided
across several cores, resulting in quicker processing and shorter wait times.

Multi-Core CPUs

Multi-core CPUs, also known as multi-core processors, are kinds of computer processors
that combine several independent cores onto a single chip or integrated circuit. Multi-
core CPUs use two or extra cores that work collectively to execute instructions and do
computations, in contrast to single-core processors, which rely upon a single core to
complete all activities.

The primary advantage of multi-core CPUs is their capability to deal with numerous tasks
simultaneously, improving overall performance and efficiency. The CPU's cores perform
as separate processing units that can operate independently. Due to the CPU's ability to
distribute work across its cores through parallel processing, jobs may be completed more
quickly and concurrently.

Users may run numerous programs simultaneously on multi-core CPUs without suffering
severe slowdowns or performance bottlenecks. For instance, each job may be given to a
different core for effective processing, allowing you to browse the web, stream movies,
and work on paper simultaneously. This multitasking feature makes the system more
responsive overall and provides a more convenient user experience.

Multi-core CPUs excel at performing computationally demanding activities in addition to

multitasking. These processors can handle complicated activities like video editing, 3D
rendering, scientific simulations, and gaming more effectively by distributing the burden
among numerous cores. The ability to distribute the workload across cores results in
faster processing times and reduced waiting periods.

What is Computer Hardware?

Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a computer

system, including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a computer or use
software without using hardware. The screen on which you are reading this information is
also a hardware.

What is a hardware upgrade?

A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one, or
additional hardware developed to improve the performance of the existing hardware. A
common example of a hardware upgrade is a RAM upgrade that increases the computer's
total memory, and video card upgrade, where the old video card is removed and replaced
with the new one.

Computer Hardware Parts

Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:

1. Motherboard

2. Monitor

3. Keyboard

4. Mouse

1) Motherboard:

The motherboard is generally a thin circuit board that holds together almost all parts of a
computer except input and output devices. All crucial hardware like CPU, memory, hard
drive, and ports for input and output devices are located on the motherboard. It is the
biggest circuit board in a computer chassis.

It allocates power to all hardware located on it and enables them to communicate with
each other. It is meant to hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let other
components connect to it. Each component that runs the computer or improves its
performance is a part of the motherboard or connected to it through a slot or port.

There can be different types of motherboards based on the type and size of the
computers. So, a specific motherboard can work only with specific types of processors and
memory.

Components of a Motherboard:

CPU Slot: It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor and a
motherboard. It facilitates the use of CPU and prevents the damage when it is installed or
removed. Furthermore, it is provided with a lock to prevent CPU movement and a heat
sink to dissipate the extra heat.

RAM Slot: It is a memory slot or socket provided in the motherboard to insert or install
the RAM (Random Access Memory). There can be two or more memory slots in a
computer.

Expansion Slot: It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection or port
on the motherboard, which provides an installation point to connect a hardware
expansion card, for example, you can purchase a video expansion card and install it into
the expansion slot and then can install a new video card in the computer. Some of the
common expansion slots in a computer are AGP, AMR, CNR, PCI, etc.
Capacitor: It is made of two conductive plates, and a thin insulator sandwiched between
them. These parts are wrapped in a plastic container.

Inductor (Coil): It is an electromagnetic coil made of a conducting wire wrapped around

an iron core. It acts as an inductor or electromagnet to store magnetic energy.

Northbridge: It is an integrated circuit that allows communications between the CPU

interface, AGP, and memory. Furthermore, it also allows the southbridge chip to
communicate with the RAM, CPU, and graphics controller.

USB Port: It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse, keyboard to your
computer.

PCI Slot: It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to connect
the PCI devices like modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.

AGP Slot: It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect graphics
cards.

Heat Sink: It absorbs and disperses the heat generated in the computer processor.

Power Connector: It is designed to supply power to the motherboard.

CMOS battery: It stands for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor. It is a memory

that stores the BIOS settings such as time, date, and hardware settings.

2) Monitor:

A monitor is the display unit of a computer on which the processed data, such as text,
images, etc., is displayed. It comprises a screen circuity and the case which encloses this
circuity. The monitor is also known as a visual display unit (VDU).

Types of Monitors:

1. CRT Monitor: It has cathode ray tubes which produce images in the form of video
signals. Its main components are electron gun assembly, deflection plate assembly,
glass envelope, fluorescent screen, and base.

2. LCD Monitor: It is a flat panel screen. It uses liquid crystal display technology to
produce images on the screen. Advanced LEDs have thin-film transistors with
capacitors and use active-matrix technology, which allows pixels to retain their
charge.
 3. LED Monitor: It is an advanced version of an LCD monitor. Unlike an LCD
monitor, which uses cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display, it has
LED panels, each of which has lots of LEDs to display the backlight.

4. Plasma Monitor: It uses plasma display technology that allows it to produce high
resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate,
outstanding contrast ration, and more.

3) Keyboard:

It is the most important input device of a computer. It is designed to allow you input text,
characters, and other commands into a computer, desktop, tablet, etc. It comes with
different sets of keys to enter numbers, characters, and perform various other functions
like copy, paste, delete, enter, etc.

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A keyboards is an input device through which users can input text, numbers, and special
characters. It is an input device with a typical QWERTY keyset. It is an external hardware
device that is connected to the computer. It serves as the user's most fundamental
interface with a system. It has numerous buttons that can be used to generate letters,
numbers, and symbols as well as unique keys like the Windows and Alt keys that can also
accomplish other tasks.

Types of Keyboards:
 1. QWERTY Keyboards

2. AZERTY Keyboards

3. DVORAK Keyboards

4) Mouse:

It is a small handheld device designed to control or move the pointer (computer screen's
cursor) in a GUI (graphical user interface). It allows you to point to or select objects on a
computer's display screen. It is generally placed on a flat surface as we need to move it
smoothly to control the pointer. Types of Mouse: Trackball mouse, Mechanical Mouse,
Optical Mouse, Wireless Mouse, etc.

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A mouse can be wireless or wired. It is a portable pointing device that is used to interact
with objects on computer screens with the help of moving the cursor around the screen.
On the display screen, the cursor moves in the same direction as the users' mouse
movements. The term "mouse" refers to a compact, wired, elliptical-shaped gadget that
somewhat resembles a mouse.

Main functions of a mouse:

o Move the cursor: It is the main function of the mouse; to move the cursor on the
screen.
 o Open or execute a program: It allows you to open a folder or document and
execute a program. You are required to take the cursor on the folder and double
click it to open it.

o Select: It allows you to select text, file, or any other object.

o Hovering: Hovering is an act of moving the mouse cursor over a clickable object.
During hovering over an object, it displays information about the object without
pressing any button of the mouse.

o Scroll: It allows you to scroll up or down while viewing a long webpage or

document.

Parts of a mouse:

o Two buttons: A mouse is provided with two buttons for right click and left click.

o Scroll Wheel: A wheel located between the right and left buttons, which is used to
scroll up and down and Zoom in and Zoom out in some applications like
AutoCAD.

o Battery: A battery is required in a wireless mouse.

o Motion Detection Assembly: A mouse can have a trackball or an optical sensor

to provide signals to the computer about the motion and location of the mouse.

What are external hardware components?

The items that are frequently attached to the computer from outside in order to control
input or output functions are known as external hardware components, sometimes
known as peripheral components. These hardware components either serve as input
devices for the software or output devices for the output of the software's operations
(output).

The following are examples of common input hardware components:

o Microphone: A microphone is an input device that converts sound waves into

electrical impulses in order to allow computer-based audio communications. It
was developed by Emile Berliner in 1877. It is used to enter audio into computers
or transform sound waves into electric waves. It captures audio with the help of
converting sound waves into an electrical signal that could be a digital or analog
signal. This process can be implemented by a computer as well as other digital
 audio devices.

o Camera: Visual pictures are captured by a camera, which then transmits them to a
computer or a network device. A camera is a piece of equipment that takes
photographs with the help of using photosensitive film or a plate inside of a light-
proof housing. The photosensitive film is exposed to light via the camera's shutter,
which opens and closes as the image is imprinted onto the film.
o Touchpad: A touchpad is an input device that is also known as a glide pad, glide
point, pressure-sensitive tablet, or trackpad. It enables finger cursor movement for
the user. It can take the place of a regular mouse. To control the pointer on a
display screen, a touchpad can be either external or incorporated into a laptop.
Usually, it serves as a substitute for an external mouse.

o USB flash drive: A USB flash drive is a type of storage device for data that
connects to a computer via a USB port and uses flash memory. It is an external,
removable storage device that has a built-in Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface.
Many USB flash drives can be removed and written to. They have a compact,
reliable, and small physical design. They often operate more quickly the more
storage space they have. Because there are no moving parts, USB flash drives are
extremely mechanically durable.

o Memory card: A memory card is a kind of portable external storage device; video,
photo, and other data files can be stored on it. A form of storage medium, which is
additionally known as a flash memory. Also, it provides a volatile and non-volatile
medium. It is frequently found in gadgets, including phones, laptops, digital
 cameras, camcorders, gaming consoles, MP3 players, printers, and more.

Joysticks, styluses, and scanners are examples of additional input hardware

components.

The following are a few examples of output hardware components:

o Printer: A printer is a hardware output device used to produce hard copies of

documents or print them. It converts computer-generated electronic data into
printed form. Text files, pictures, or a combination of the two can all be considered
documents. It receives input commands from users so that computers or other
devices may print the sheets. You must create a soft copy of your report and print
it using a printer, for example, if your institution needs you to submit a project
report.

o Speaker: One of the most popular output devices is a speaker that connects to a
computer to generate a sound output. While some speakers can only be connected
 to computers, others can be used with any type of sound system.

o Headphones, earphones, earbuds: These are also output devices much like
speakers, which offer audio that can only be heard by one listener.

Hardware vs. software

Hardware describes the physical parts of the computer or its delivery mechanisms that
hold and execute the software's written instructions. The intangible component of the
system software enables the user to communicate with the hardware and give commands
to perform specific tasks. Computer software includes:

o OS and associated tools;

o Applications that regulate particular computer operations

o Programs that generally operate on data provided by the user

Virtual keyboards are not physical keyboards; therefore, they are also considered software
on mobile devices and laptop computers.

The software must be developed to function properly with the hardware because they
both are necessary for a computer to create usable output. Also, they depend on each
other.

If any system has malware or malicious software, such as worms, spyware, viruses, and
Trojan horses, they can have a significant impact on software and the operating system of
a system. Malware, however, has no effect on hardware.
On the other hand, malware can impact the system in additional ways. For example, it
can use up a lot of memory of the system or even reproduce itself to take up the entire
hard drive. This can stop reliable programs from working and causes the computer to run
slowly. Furthermore, users may not be able to access the files stored on the computer's
hardware due to malware.

What is hardware virtualization?

The abstraction of physical computing resources from the software that utilizes those
resources is known as hardware virtualization. Put on another way; hardware
virtualization is the process of creating virtual representations of hardware by using
software rather than physical, tangible hardware components for various computing
functions.

A particular hardware platform by host software is used to execute hardware

virtualization, and it is sometimes referred to as platform or server virtualization. It needs
a hypervisor, a virtual machine manager that turns internal hardware into virtual forms.
As a result, among OSes and applications, the hardware resources of one physical
machine can be shared easily and used more efficiently.

In cloud computing, infrastructure as a service (IaaS), a delivery model that offers

hardware resources over high-speed internet, is frequently associated with hardware
virtualization. All of the hardware elements that are typically found in an on-premises
data center, including servers, storage, and networking hardware, as well as the software
that enables virtualization, are hosted by a cloud service provider (CSP), such as Amazon
Web Services or Microsoft Azure.

IaaS and CSPs differ from hardware as a service (HaaS) providers in that they don't host
software but only host hardware. A typical IaaS provider also offers a variety of services to
go along with infrastructure parts, like the following:

o billing

o clustering

o log access

o monitoring

o security

o load balancing
Other storage resilience services are also provided by some CSPs, including disaster
recovery, automated backup, and replication.

What is hardware as a service?

While buying computer hardware and occasionally replacing or upgrading it is common

for individuals or businesses. People and businesses can also rent physical and virtual
hardware from a service provider. The maintenance of the hardware, including all of its
numerous physical parts and the software that runs on them, becomes the responsibility
of the service provider. It is also called the HaaS model.

The most significant advantage of HaaS is it decreases the price of purchasing and
maintaining hardware, allowing businesses to switch from a capital expenditure budget to
a typically cheaper operational expense budget. Additionally, the majority of HaaS
options are based on a pay-as-you-go model, which makes it simpler for businesses in
order to manage expenditures while still having access to the hardware they require for
their operational and business continuity.

HaaS involves installing physical parts that belong to a managed service provider (MSP)
at a client's location. The responsibilities of both parties are defined by an SLA (service-
level agreement).

For using the MSP's hardware, the customer may either pay a monthly cost or have it
included in the MSP's fee schedule for setting up, maintaining, and monitoring the
hardware. In either case, the MSP is in charge of fixing or replacing the hardware if it
breaks down or becomes outdated.

Decommissioning hardware may involve physically destroying hard drives, deleting

confidential data, and verifying that used equipment has been recycled legally on the
basis of the SLA's requirements.

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monitor configuration changes.

FAQs on Computer Hardware

1. What is the Hardware of a Computer?

All of a computer's tangible and physical parts are referred to as its hardware, which is
abbreviated as HW. This implies that hardware can refer to any component that can be
viewed or touched. Hardware is required to build a computer and run the software. This
information is displayed on a screen, which is hardware.

2. What are the Five Types of Hardware?

Below is a list of the five different types of hardware.

o Keyboard

o Motherboard

o Mouse

o CPU (Central Processing Unit)

o Monitor
3. How is computer hardware dependent on software?

Consider the hardware of a computer as a human body that contains numerous visible
and touchable body parts. But the body cannot move or carry out its role if there is no
soul inside of it. And it would be seen as having expired or will be considered dead.

Similar to this, a structure is provided by the computer hardware; it includes input and
output devices, such as a keyboard, mouse, monitor, etc. But software is also very
necessary for the system because it will not work if it has not had the necessary software
to carry out its intended tasks. Consequently, they are both dependent on one another.

4. Why do we need to study computer hardware?

Hardware topics for the computer are covered as early as classes 5 and 7. Students
gradually start studying more in-depth information about the subject as they go to higher
standards. The primary objective of learning this material is to teach students the
fundamentals of building, maintaining, and repairing computer systems. They ought to
be able to recognize and differentiate between hardware and software.

5. Is RAM a part of a computer hardware system?

You will learn about RAM or random-access memory when you study the inside parts of
computer hardware, which is a memory socket fitted into the computer's motherboard.
These slots for memory are external; in order to store additional data, we can even place
two memory slots. As a result, RAM is now a physical component of computer hardware.

6. How is RAM different from ROM?

In a computer system, memory slots for both RAM and ROM are present. Random access
memory, or RAM, is a type of volatile memory that is used to store data momentarily. On
the other hand, ROM is non-volatile memory storage and a form of permanent, which
stands for real only memory.

Read the complete article on the Javatpoint website for a thorough explanation
of RAM and ROM from the subject matter specialists.

7. Is the topic of computer hardware difficult to remember?

If you study with more attention and clarity, no subject is challenging to learn. When you
start reading about computer hardware, you can easily learn the subject of computer
hardware because it is quite straightforward and simple to learn. The subject matter
specialists at Javatpoint break down complex concepts into manageable chunks, which
makes it straightforward for students to understand even when they are going to learn it
for the first time. The main objective we have in common at Javatpoint is that studying
should not be a burden and learning should be enjoyable. Therefore, learn any subject
with us that you find challenging and see how simple it becomes after learning.

Software

Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a set of programs that enables the

hardware to perform a specific task. All the programs that run the computer are software.
The software can be of three types: system software, application software, and
programming software.

1) System Software

The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn on the
computer, it activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their functioning. The
application programs are also controlled by system software. An operating system is an
example of system software.

i) Operating System:

An operating system is the system software that works as an interface to enable the user
to communicate with the computer. It manages and coordinates the functioning of
hardware and software of the computer. The commonly used operating systems are
Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Apple Mac OS X.

Some other examples of system software include:

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o BIOS: It stands for basic input output system. It is a type of system software,
which is stored in Read Only Memory (ROM) located on the motherboard.
However, in advanced computer systems, it is stored in flash memory. BIOS is the
first software that gets activated when you turn on your computer system. It loads
the drivers of the hard disk into memory as well as assists the operating system to
load itself into the memory.

o Boot Program: Boot refers to starting up a computer. When you switch on the
computer, the commands in the ROM are executed automatically to load the boot
program into memory and execute its instructions. The BIOS program has a basic
set of commands that enables the computer to perform the basic input/output
instructions to start the computer.
 o An assembler: It plays the role of a converter as it receives basic computer
instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits. The processor uses these bits
to perform basic operations.

o A device driver: This system software controls hardware devices connected to a

computer. It enables the computer to use the hardware by providing an
appropriate interface. The kernel of a Computer's CPU communicates with
different hardware through this software. Operating systems generally come with
most of the device drivers. If the operating system does not have a device driver for
hardware, you have to install the device driver before using that hardware device.

2) Application Software:

Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does not
control the working of a computer as it is designed for end-users. A computer can run
without application software. Application software can be easily installed or uninstalled
as required. It can be a single program or a collection of small programs. Microsoft Office
Suite, Adobe Photoshop, and any other software like payroll software or income tax
software are application software. As we know, they are designed to perform specific
tasks. Accordingly, they can be of different types such as:

o Word Processing Software: This software allows users to create, edit, format, and
manipulate the text and more. It offers lots of options for writing documents,
creating images, and more. For example, MS Word, WordPad, Notepad, etc.

o Spreadsheet Software: It is designed to perform calculations, store data, create

charts, etc. It has rows and columns, and the data is entered in the cell, which is an
intersection of a row and column, e.g., Microsoft Excel.

o Multimedia Software: These software are developed to perform editing of video,

audio, and text. It allows you to combine texts, videos, audio, and images. Thus,
you can improve a text document by adding photos, animations, graphics, and
charts through multimedia software. For example, VLC player, Window Media
Player, etc.

o Enterprise Software: These software are developed for business operational

functions. It is used in large organizations where the quantum of business is too
large. It can be used for accounting, billing, order processing and more. For
example, CRM (Customer Relationship Management), BI (Business Intelligence),
ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), SCM (Supply Chain Management), customer
support system, and more.
3) Programming Software:

It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or programs.
It assists them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or programs or
applications. We can say that these are facilitator software that helps translate
programming language such as Java, C++, Python, etc., into machine language code. So, it
is not used by end-users. For example, compilers, linkers, debuggers, interpreters, text
editors, etc. This software is also called a programming tool or software development tool.

Some examples of programming software include:

o Eclipse: It is a java language editor.

o Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.

o Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for windows.

o Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and Windows.

Operating System Tutorial

Operating System Tutorial provides the basic and advanced concepts of operating
system . Our Operating system tutorial is designed for beginners, professionals and GATE
aspirants. We have designed this tutorial after the completion of a deep research about
every concept.

The content is described in detailed manner and has the ability to answer most of your
queries. The tutorial also contains the numerical examples based on previous year GATE
questions which will help you to address the problems in a practical manner.

Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and the hardware. It
provides an environment to the user so that, the user can perform its task in convenient
and efficient way.
The Operating System Tutorial is divided into various parts based on its functions such as
Process Management, Process Synchronization, Deadlocks and File Management.

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Operating System Definition and Function

In the Computer System (comprises of Hardware and software), Hardware can only
understand machine code (in the form of 0 and 1) which doesn't make any sense to a
naive user.

We need a system which can act as an intermediary and manage all the processes and
resources present in the system.

An Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and hardware. It is

responsible for the execution of all the processes, Resource Allocation, CPU management,
File Management and many other tasks.

The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user can

execute programs in convenient and efficient manner.

Structure of a Computer System

A Computer System consists of:

o Users (people who are using the computer)

o Application Programs (Compilers, Databases, Games, Video player, Browsers, etc.)

o System Programs (Shells, Editors, Compilers, etc.)

 o Operating System ( A special program which acts as an interface between user and
hardware )

o Hardware ( CPU, Disks, Memory, etc)

What does an Operating system do?

1. Process Management

2. Process Synchronization

3. Memory Management

4. CPU Scheduling

5. File Management

6. Security

Types of Operating Systems (OS)

An operating system is a well-organized collection of programs that manages the

computer hardware. It is a type of system software that is responsible for the smooth
functioning of the computer system.
Batch Operating System

In the 1970s, Batch processing was very popular. In this technique, similar types of jobs
were batched together and executed in time. People were used to having a single
computer which was called a mainframe.

In Batch operating system, access is given to more than one person; they submit their
respective jobs to the system for the execution.

The system put all of the jobs in a queue on the basis of first come first serve and then
executes the jobs one by one. The users collect their respective output when all the jobs
get executed.

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The purpose of this operating system was mainly to transfer control from one job to
another as soon as the job was completed. It contained a small set of programs called the
resident monitor that always resided in one part of the main memory. The remaining part
is used for servicing jobs.
Advantages of Batch OS

o The use of a resident monitor improves computer efficiency as it eliminates CPU

time between two jobs.

Disadvantages of Batch OS

1. Starvation

Batch processing suffers from starvation.

For Example:
There are five jobs J1, J2, J3, J4, and J5, present in the batch. If the execution time of J1 is
very high, then the other four jobs will never be executed, or they will have to wait for a
very long time. Hence the other processes get starved.

2. Not Interactive

Batch Processing is not suitable for jobs that are dependent on the user's input. If a job
requires the input of two numbers from the console, then it will never get it in the batch
processing scenario since the user is not present at the time of execution.

Multiprogramming Operating System

Multiprogramming is an extension to batch processing where the CPU is always kept

busy. Each process needs two types of system time: CPU time and IO time.

In a multiprogramming environment, when a process does its I/O, The CPU can start the
execution of other processes. Therefore, multiprogramming improves the efficiency of the
system.
Advantages of Multiprogramming OS

o Throughout the system, it increased as the CPU always had one program to
execute.

o Response time can also be reduced.

Disadvantages of Multiprogramming OS

o Multiprogramming systems provide an environment in which various systems

resources are used efficiently, but they do not provide any user interaction with
the computer system.

Multiprocessing Operating System

In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. There are more than one processors
present in the system which can execute more than one process at the same time. This
will increase the throughput of the system.
In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. More than one processor present in
the system can execute more than one process simultaneously, which will increase the
throughput of the system.

Advantages of Multiprocessing operating system:

o Increased reliability: Due to the multiprocessing system, processing tasks can be

distributed among several processors. This increases reliability as if one processor
fails, the task can be given to another processor for completion.

o Increased throughout: As several processors increase, more work can be done in

less.
Disadvantages of Multiprocessing operating System

o Multiprocessing operating system is more complex and sophisticated as it takes

care of multiple CPUs simultaneously.

Multitasking Operating System

The multitasking operating system is a logical extension of a multiprogramming system

that enables multiple programs simultaneously. It allows a user to perform more than
one computer task at the same time.
Advantages of Multitasking operating system

o This operating system is more suited to supporting multiple users simultaneously.

o The multitasking operating systems have well-defined memory management.

Disadvantages of Multitasking operating system

o The multiple processors are busier at the same time to complete any task in a
multitasking environment, so the CPU generates more heat.

Network Operating System

An Operating system, which includes software and associated protocols to communicate

with other computers via a network conveniently and cost-effectively, is called Network
Operating System.
Advantages of Network Operating System

o In this type of operating system, network traffic reduces due to the division
between clients and the server.

o This type of system is less expensive to set up and maintain.

Disadvantages of Network Operating System

o In this type of operating system, the failure of any node in a system affects the
whole system.

o Security and performance are important issues. So trained network administrators

are required for network administration.

Real Time Operating System

In Real-Time Systems, each job carries a certain deadline within which the job is
supposed to be completed, otherwise, the huge loss will be there, or even if the result is
produced, it will be completely useless.
The Application of a Real-Time system exists in the case of military applications, if you
want to drop a missile, then the missile is supposed to be dropped with a certain
precision.

Advantages of Real-time operating system:

o Easy to layout, develop and execute real-time applications under the real-time
operating system.
 o In a Real-time operating system, the maximum utilization of devices and systems.

Disadvantages of Real-time operating system:

o Real-time operating systems are very costly to develop.

o Real-time operating systems are very complex and can consume critical CPU
cycles.

Time-Sharing Operating System

In the Time Sharing operating system, computer resources are allocated in a time-
dependent fashion to several programs simultaneously. Thus it helps to provide a large
number of user's direct access to the main computer. It is a logical extension of
multiprogramming. In time-sharing, the CPU is switched among multiple programs given
by different users on a scheduled basis.

A time-sharing operating system allows many users to be served simultaneously, so

sophisticated CPU scheduling schemes and Input/output management are required.

Time-sharing operating systems are very difficult and expensive to build.

Advantages of Time Sharing Operating System

 o The time-sharing operating system provides effective utilization and sharing of
resources.

o This system reduces CPU idle and response time.

Disadvantages of Time Sharing Operating System

o Data transmission rates are very high in comparison to other methods.

o Security and integrity of user programs loaded in memory and data need to be
maintained as many users access the system at the same time.

Distributed Operating System

The Distributed Operating system is not installed on a single machine, it is divided into
parts, and these parts are loaded on different machines. A part of the distributed
Operating system is installed on each machine to make their communication possible.
Distributed Operating systems are much more complex, large, and sophisticated than
Network operating systems because they also have to take care of varying networking
protocols.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System

o The distributed operating system provides sharing of resources.

o This type of system is fault-tolerant.

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System

o Protocol overhead can dominate computation cost.

Process Management in OS

A Program does nothing unless its instructions are executed by a CPU. A program in
execution is called a process. In order to accomplish its task, process needs the computer
resources.

There may exist more than one process in the system which may require the same
resource at the same time. Therefore, the operating system has to manage all the
processes and the resources in a convenient and efficient way.

Some resources may need to be executed by one process at one time to maintain the
consistency otherwise the system can become inconsistent and deadlock may occur.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with Process
Management

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1. Scheduling processes and threads on the CPUs.

2. Creating and deleting both user and system processes.

3. Suspending and resuming processes.

4. Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.

5. Providing mechanisms for process communication.

. Attributes of a process

The Attributes of the process are used by the Operating System to create the process
control block (PCB) for each of them. This is also called context of the process. Attributes
which are stored in the PCB are described below.

1. Process ID

When a process is created, a unique id is assigned to the process which is used for unique
identification of the process in the system.

2. Program counter
A program counter stores the address of the last instruction of the process on which the
process was suspended. The CPU uses this address when the execution of this process is
resumed.

3. Process State

The Process, from its creation to the completion, goes through various states which are
new, ready, running and waiting. We will discuss about them later in detail.

4. Priority

Every process has its own priority. The process with the highest priority among the
processes gets the CPU first. This is also stored on the process control block.

5. General Purpose Registers

Every process has its own set of registers which are used to hold the data which is
generated during the execution of the process.

6. List of open files

During the Execution, Every process uses some files which need to be present in the main
memory. OS also maintains a list of open files in the PCB.

7. List of open devices

OS also maintain the list of all open devices which are used during the execution of the
process.
Process States

State Diagram
The process, from its creation to completion, passes through various states. The
minimum number of states is five.

The names of the states are not standardized although the process may be in one of the
following states during execution.

1. New

A program which is going to be picked up by the OS into the main memory is called a
new process.

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2. Ready
Whenever a process is created, it directly enters in the ready state, in which, it waits for
the CPU to be assigned. The OS picks the new processes from the secondary memory and
put all of them in the main memory.

The processes which are ready for the execution and reside in the main memory are
called ready state processes. There can be many processes present in the ready state.

3. Running

One of the processes from the ready state will be chosen by the OS depending upon the
scheduling algorithm. Hence, if we have only one CPU in our system, the number of
running processes for a particular time will always be one. If we have n processors in the
system then we can have n processes running simultaneously.

4. Block or wait

From the Running state, a process can make the transition to the block or wait state
depending upon the scheduling algorithm or the intrinsic behavior of the process.

When a process waits for a certain resource to be assigned or for the input from the user
then the OS move this process to the block or wait state and assigns the CPU to the other
processes.

5. Completion or termination

When a process finishes its execution, it comes in the termination state. All the context of
the process (Process Control Block) will also be deleted the process will be terminated by
the Operating system.

6. Suspend ready

A process in the ready state, which is moved to secondary memory from the main
memory due to lack of the resources (mainly primary memory) is called in the suspend
ready state.

If the main memory is full and a higher priority process comes for the execution then the
OS have to make the room for the process in the main memory by throwing the lower
priority process out into the secondary memory. The suspend ready processes remain in
the secondary memory until the main memory gets available.

7. Suspend wait
Instead of removing the process from the ready queue, it's better to remove the blocked
process which is waiting for some resources in the main memory. Since it is already
waiting for some resource to get available hence it is better if it waits in the secondary
memory and make room for the higher priority process. These processes complete their
execution once the main memory gets available and their wait is finished.

Operations on the Process

1. Creation

Once the process is created, it will be ready and come into the ready queue (main
memory) and will be ready for the execution.

2. Scheduling

Out of the many processes present in the ready queue, the Operating system chooses one
process and start executing it. Selecting the process which is to be executed next, is
known as scheduling.

3. Execution

Once the process is scheduled for the execution, the processor starts executing it. Process
may come to the blocked or wait state during the execution then in that case the
processor starts executing the other processes.

4. Deletion/killing

Once the purpose of the process gets over then the OS will kill the process. The Context
of the process (PCB) will be deleted and the process gets terminated by the Operating
system.

Process Scheduling in OS (Operating System)

Operating system uses various schedulers for the process scheduling described below.

1. Long term scheduler

Long term scheduler is also known as job scheduler. It chooses the processes from the
pool (secondary memory) and keeps them in the ready queue maintained in the primary
memory.
Long Term scheduler mainly controls the degree of Multiprogramming. The purpose of
long term scheduler is to choose a perfect mix of IO bound and CPU bound processes
among the jobs present in the pool.

If the job scheduler chooses more IO bound processes then all of the jobs may reside in
the blocked state all the time and the CPU will remain idle most of the time. This will
reduce the degree of Multiprogramming. Therefore, the Job of long term scheduler is very
critical and may affect the system for a very long time.

2. Short term scheduler

Short term scheduler is also known as CPU scheduler. It selects one of the Jobs from the
ready queue and dispatch to the CPU for the execution.

A scheduling algorithm is used to select which job is going to be dispatched for the
execution. The Job of the short term scheduler can be very critical in the sense that if it
selects job whose CPU burst time is very high then all the jobs after that, will have to wait
in the ready queue for a very long time.

This problem is called starvation which may arise if the short term scheduler makes some
mistakes while selecting the job.

3. Medium term scheduler

Medium term scheduler takes care of the swapped out processes.If the running state
processes needs some IO time for the completion then there is a need to change its state
from running to waiting.

Medium term scheduler is used for this purpose. It removes the process from the running
state to make room for the other processes. Such processes are the swapped out processes
and this procedure is called swapping. The medium term scheduler is responsible for
suspending and resuming the processes.

It reduces the degree of multiprogramming. The swapping is necessary to have a perfect

mix of processes in the ready queue.

Process Queues

The Operating system manages various types of queues for each of the process states. The
PCB related to the process is also stored in the queue of the same state. If the Process is
moved from one state to another state then its PCB is also unlinked from the
corresponding queue and added to the other state queue in which the transition is made.
There are the following queues maintained by the Operating system.

1. Job Queue

In starting, all the processes get stored in the job queue. It is maintained in the secondary
memory. The long term scheduler (Job scheduler) picks some of the jobs and put them in
the primary memory.

2. Ready Queue

Ready queue is maintained in primary memory. The short term scheduler picks the job
from the ready queue and dispatch to the CPU for the execution.

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3. Waiting Queue

When the process needs some IO operation in order to complete its execution, OS
changes the state of the process from running to waiting. The context (PCB) associated
with the process gets stored on the waiting queue which will be used by the Processor
when the process finishes the IO.

Various Times related to the Process

1. Arrival Time

The time at which the process enters into the ready queue is called the arrival time.

2. Burst Time

The total amount of time required by the CPU to execute the whole process is called the
Burst Time. This does not include the waiting time. It is confusing to calculate the
execution time for a process even before executing it hence the scheduling problems
based on the burst time cannot be implemented in reality.

3. Completion Time

The Time at which the process enters into the completion state or the time at which the
process completes its execution, is called completion time.

4. Turnaround time

The total amount of time spent by the process from its arrival to its completion, is called
Turnaround time.

5. Waiting Time

The Total amount of time for which the process waits for the CPU to be assigned is called
waiting time.

6. Response Time

The difference between the arrival time and the time at which the process first gets the
CPU is called Response Time.

CPU Scheduling

In the uniprogrammming systems like MS DOS, when a process waits for any I/O
operation to be done, the CPU remains idol. This is an overhead since it wastes the time
and causes the problem of starvation. However, In Multiprogramming systems, the CPU
doesn't remain idle during the waiting time of the Process and it starts executing other
processes. Operating System has to define which process the CPU will be given.

In Multiprogramming systems, the Operating system schedules the processes on the

CPU to have the maximum utilization of it and this procedure is called CPU scheduling.
The Operating System uses various scheduling algorithm to schedule the processes.
This is a task of the short term scheduler to schedule the CPU for the number of
processes present in the Job Pool. Whenever the running process requests some IO
operation then the short term scheduler saves the current context of the process (also
called PCB) and changes its state from running to waiting. During the time, process is in
waiting state; the Short term scheduler picks another process from the ready queue and
assigns the CPU to this process. This procedure is called context switching.

What is saved in the Process Control Block?

The Operating system maintains a process control block during the lifetime of the
process. The Process control block is deleted when the process is terminated or killed.
There is the following information which is saved in the process control block and is
changing with the state of the process.

Why do we need Scheduling?

In Multiprogramming, if the long term scheduler picks more I/O bound processes then
most of the time, the CPU remains idol. The task of Operating system is to optimize the
utilization of resources.

If most of the running processes change their state from running to waiting then there
may always be a possibility of deadlock in the system. Hence to reduce this overhead, the
OS needs to schedule the jobs to get the optimal utilization of CPU and to avoid the
possibility to deadlock.

Scheduling Algorithms in OS (Operating System)

There are various algorithms which are used by the Operating System to schedule the
processes on the processor in an efficient way.

The Purpose of a Scheduling algorithm

1. Maximum CPU utilization

2. Fare allocation of CPU

3. Maximum throughput

4. Minimum turnaround time

5. Minimum waiting time

6. Minimum response time

There are the following algorithms which can be used to schedule the jobs.

1. First Come First Serve

It is the simplest algorithm to implement. The process with the minimal arrival time will
get the CPU first. The lesser the arrival time, the sooner will the process gets the CPU. It
is the non-preemptive type of scheduling.

2. Round Robin

In the Round Robin scheduling algorithm, the OS defines a time quantum (slice). All the
processes will get executed in the cyclic way. Each of the process will get the CPU for a
small amount of time (called time quantum) and then get back to the ready queue to wait
for its next turn. It is a preemptive type of scheduling.

3. Shortest Job First

The job with the shortest burst time will get the CPU first. The lesser the burst time, the
sooner will the process get the CPU. It is the non-preemptive type of scheduling.

4. Shortest remaining time first

It is the preemptive form of SJF. In this algorithm, the OS schedules the Job according to
the remaining time of the execution.

5. Priority based scheduling

In this algorithm, the priority will be assigned to each of the processes. The higher the
priority, the sooner will the process get the CPU. If the priority of the two processes is
same then they will be scheduled according to their arrival time.

6. Highest Response Ratio Next

In this scheduling Algorithm, the process with highest response ratio will be scheduled
next. This reduces the starvation in the system.