MUNI UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
BIOLOGY DEPARTMNET
Plant physiology and Energy relations
Assignment 1
Name: TOLOGA EMMANUEL
Student number: 2201200309

Question
1) a) Describe the essential elements for plant growth.

A nutrient is essential only if;

i. its deficiency affects plant growth/metabolism
ii. it cannot be substituted for another element
iii. its effects can only be corrected by its application
Plant Elements from Air and Water
There are 16 elements necessary for plant growth, not all nutrients are
necessary for plant growth.
About 80 to 90 percent of the fresh weight of a living plant is water,
H2O. Thus, hydrogen and oxygen are two of the elements needed in
largest quantities. About 95 percent of the plant’s dry weight would be
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. About half of the dry
weight would be carbon, derived from carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air.
Green plants combine water and CO2 in the presence of chlorophyll and
light energy to form carbohydrates, a process known as photosynthesis.
Essential plant Nutrients classification.
The other 5 percent dry weight contains the 13 essential elements for
plant growth obtained from soil. More commonly called essential plant
nutrients, these are divided into three groups based on the relative
quantity of each nutrient plants need and the relative occurrence of
deficiencies worldwide.
 Primary macronutrients are needed in relatively large quantities,
often exceeding 100 pounds per acre per year for a vegetable crop
e.g N,P and K
 Secondary smaller nutrients are typically needed in much smaller
quantities e.g Ca,Mg and S
  Micronutrients are just as important to total plant nutrition as the
others, but a little bit goes a long way. And known as trace
elements eg Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B, Cl
An acre of crops usually takes up less than ½ pound of each
micronutrient. Soil fertility problems are more often related to primary
and secondary macronutrients or soil pH interactions. Most Alabama
soils contain adequate quantities of micronutrients.
Primary Macro Plant Nutrients
Nitrogen for Green, Leafy Growth
Nitrogen is the growth element that promotes green, leafy growth. As a
primary component of proteins, nitrogen is part of every living cell.
Therefore, this element is usually more responsible for increasing plant
growth than any other nutrient. Inside the plant, nitrogen is converted
into amino acids, the building blocks for proteins. Because all enzymes
are proteins, nitrogen is necessary for enzymatic reactions in plants. As
part of the chlorophyll molecule, nitrogen is directly involved in
photosynthesis. It helps the plant produce and use carbohydrates. It is a
part of plant DNA. The percentage concentration of nitrogen in
fertilizers is the first number listed on a fertilizer bag or box.
Deficiency
Inadequate nitrogen causes light green or yellowish foliage; slower,
stunted growth; and shedding of older leaves in some plants. The
yellowing appears first on the oldest leaves, then on younger ones as the
deficiency becomes more severe. A deficiency can be easily corrected
with nitrogen fertilizers. Overfertilizing with nitrogen can cause
excessing vegetative growth, lodging (falling over), and poor flowering
and fruit set in many plants.
Environmental Reactions
Nitrogen is very mobile in the soil, and nitrogen in the form of nitrate
has a tendency to leach away from the root zone. Nitrogen can also be
lost to the atmosphere. Certain fertilizers, particularly urea, are easily
converted to volatile forms of nitrogen if they are watered or
incorporated into the soil after application. Soil testing for nitrogen is
not reliable, because it is so mobile in the soil. Timing of nitrogen
fertilizer application should be crop-specific Excessive nitrates in
drinking water is an environmental concern—another reason to
maximize nitrogen utilization by plants and minimize excessive
applications.
Phosphorus for Energy Transfer
Phosphorus is essential in energy transformations in the plant. Without
adequate phosphorus, carbohydrates manufactured in the leaves could
not be transported to the flower or developing fruit, or stored in roots or
bulbs. Phosphorus is usually associated with flowers, fruiting, and
carbohydrate storage in roots, tubers, and bulbs.
Deficiency
Phosphorus deficiency is difficult to detect in most plants because it
results in an overall stunted plant, mimicking other health problems.
With severe deficiency, dead areas may develop on the leaves, fruit, and
stems. Older leaves will be affected before younger ones as phosphorus
moves to the growing part of the plant. A purple or reddish color may be
seen on deficient corn plants. Because phosphorus is not mobile in the
soil, correcting a deficiency once the plant is growing is often not
practical. Proper phosphorus fertilization at planting time avoids
phosphorus nutritional problems during the season.
Environmental Reactions
Unlike nitrogen, phosphorus is not very mobile in soil. This makes
phosphorus an easy nutrient to analyze in the lab. If it has built up in the
soil, don’t add any more. If it is low, add some.
High phosphorus in the landscape can cause surface water pollution
problems. Excess phosphorus in surface waters promotes excessive
growth of algae and other aquatic vegetation. As this vegetation dies,
decomposition takes oxygen out of the water, which can cause fish kills.
This process, called eutrophication, is the result of excessive phosphorus
runoff into lakes and streams, especially where soil erosion is also a
problem. This is the main reason for concern about over fertilization
with phosphorus-containing and organic fertilizers.
Potassium for General Health
Potassium is essential for photosynthesis, as regulation of cell turgidity,
respiration, and water movement in the plant. It also controls the
opening and closing of the plant’s stomata. Adequate potassium
fertilization helps plants cope with drought stress, increases disease
resistance, improves winter hardiness, and improves crop quality.
Deficiency
One of the most common potassium deficiency signs is yellowing along
the leaf margins of older leaves. Plants deficient in potassium grow
slowly and have poorly developed root systems and weak stalks.
Therefore, lodging is common in potassium-deficient plants. Usually, by
the time a deficiency is observed on annuals, potassium fertilization is of
little value for the current season. Fertilizer potassium is water-soluble,
and the plant will take it up in proportion to that available in the soil.
Because potassium is taken up as a cation, excess potassium may
compete with the uptake of other cations, such as magnesium or
calcium.
Potassium is taken up as a cation and is held by the soil’s cation
exchange capacity. Soils with high clay or organic matter have a higher
cation exchange capacity and can retain more potassium. Potassium is
relatively easy to test in the lab.
Secondary Macro Plant Nutrients
Calcium
Calcium stimulates root and leaf development. It forms compounds that
are part of cell walls and strengthens plant structure. Calcium helps
reduce plant nitrates by setting in motion several enzyme systems that
neutralize organic acids in the plant. Calcium also promotes root growth,
molybdenum availability, and uptake of other nutrients. It indirectly
promotes yields by reducing the toxicity of aluminum and manganese in
the soil.
Deficiency
Poor root growth is a common sign of calcium deficiency. In severe
cases, the growing point dies. Calcium-deficient roots often turn black
and rot. (Soil nematodes, diseases, chemical damage and aluminum
toxicity can cause similar problems.) Because calcium is not
translocated in the plant like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium,
young leaves and the growing points of shoots develop characteristic
symptoms. New tissue needs calcium pectate for cell wall formation.
Generally calcium deficiency will cause gelatinous leaf tips. In peanuts,
calcium deficiency is commonly observed as “pops.”
Magnesium
Magnesium is part of the chlorophyll molecule, so it is actively involved
in photosynthesis. This secondary plant nutrient also aids in phosphate
metabolism and plant respiration and sets in motion several enzyme
systems.
Deficiency
Deficiencies generally appear first on the lower, older leaves because
magnesium is translocated within the plant. Older leaves show a
yellowish, bronze, or reddish color, while leaf veins remain green. Soils
that have been limed with dolomitic limestone (6 percent or more
magnesium) rarely have magnesium-deficient plants. Sometimes an
imbalance between calcium, potassium, and magnesium may increase a
magnesium deficiency. Excess potassium fertilization may induce a
magnesium deficiency when the soil contains borderline levels of
magnesium.
Sulfur
Sulfur, like nitrogen, is essential in protein formation because it is an
essential component of three amino acids: methionine, cysteine, and
cystine. Organic sulfur compounds are also found in some plants such as
garlic, onions, and members of the cabbage family, contributing to the
characteristic odor and taste of these vegetables.
Deficiency
Because sulfur is an essential component of proteins, deficiency
symptoms are similar to those of nitrogen. Deficient plants show a pale
green color, generally appearing first on younger leaves. Eventually, the
entire plant can take on a pale green appearance. Sulfur deficiencies
show up most frequently in sandy soils in the early spring. Reddish
colored soils and clayey soils tend to hold sulfate anions (SO42-). Sulfate
anions leach through sandier soils just like nitrate anions (NO3-). Like
nitrogen, sulfur can be mineralized from soil organic matter. In cool
soils, mineralization is slow because microorganism activity in the soil is
slow.
Sulfur deficiencies usually develop shallow-rooted crops during cool
weather, such as corn and winter legumes. It is also deposited in rainfall
from natural sources and pollution estimated at 5 to 10 pounds per acre
per year.
Micronutrients
 Micronutrients are just as essential as the primary and secondary
nutrients, but are needed in much smaller amounts. Most
micronutrients are essential in the specific enzymatic reactions in
the plants. Concentration of plant-available micronutrients is
sufficient in soils as long as soil pH is maintained, so deficiencies
are rare.
 Boron
 Boron (B) is critical for cell wall structure and function in the
plant. Deficiency symptoms can appear as deformed fruits/flowers
or thick, short petioles. Excess boron can be toxic to plants. Boron
should be applied according to soil test recommendations for
specific crops.
 Copper
 Copper (Cu) is present in several enzymes and certain plant
proteins. No copper deficiencies have been observed in mineral
soils in Alabama.
 Iron
 Iron (Fe) is necessary for the maintenance of chlorophyll in plants.
An iron deficiency results in chlorotic, yellow tissue between the
veins of new leaves. Iron deficiencies are usually induced by high
soil pH (above 7.0), poor root growth due to soil compaction or
disease, excessive phosphorus fertilization, or soil drainage.
Fertilization with iron may be only partially effective in correcting
an iron deficiency because other soil properties cause the
condition, not the iron content of the soil itself. Foliar fertilization
with iron will temporarily correct the deficiency.
  Manganese
 Manganese (Mn) activates many enzymes. Deficiencies of iron and
manganese are similar, and both are usually induced by high soil
pH (above 7.0). Manganese toxicity is more common than
deficiencies in Alabama’s acid soils. Maintaining the soil pH
between 5.5 and 6.5 will assure adequate manganese availability
and avoid toxicity.
 Molybdenum
 Molybdenum (Mo) is required for the normal assimilation of
nitrogen in plants. Visual molybdenum deficiency symptoms are
similar to nitrogen deficiencies. Molybdenum deficiency is
typically observed only in legumes in very acid soils (pH below
5.5). Liming will usually correct a molybdenum deficiency.
 Zinc
 Zinc (Zn) is also essential in selected enzymatic reactions.
Deficiencies are most common on pecans/fruit trees and on corn in
the early spring in Alabama. In corn, green and yellow broad
striping on new leaves in the whorl (an arrangement of three or
more plant parts in a circle around the same point) characterizes
zinc deficiency. It is sometimes called white bud of corn.
Deficiencies ccur primarily in sandy soils with a pH above 6.5 in
the early spring or in soils that have recently been limed. Fruit
trees and pecans have special zinc needs. However, the continued,
indiscriminate use of zinc fertilizers can result in an excessive
buildup to the point where zinc toxicity could be a problem on
legumes, which are sensitive to high soil zinc levels.
Chlorine
Chlorine (Cl) is known to be an essential nutrient, but deficiencies are
difficult to find in nature because chlorine exists in soils, most fertilizers,
rainfall, and the atmosphere.

b) Describe the process of mineral salt absorption in plants and

their role in plant function.
Illustrations
Mineral salt absorption in plants is a crucial process that involves the
uptake of essential nutrients from the soil, which are then utilized for
various physiological functions within the plant. This process primarily
occurs through the roots of the plant and involves several steps:
1. Root Uptake: The process begins with the roots of the plant
absorbing water from the soil through osmosis. As water enters the
roots, it carries along dissolved mineral salts present in the soil
solution.
2. Active Transport: The uptake of mineral salts from the soil into
the root cells occurs through active transport mechanisms. Active
transport requires energy in the form of ATP and involves the
movement of ions against their concentration gradient, from an
area of lower concentration in the soil to an area of higher
concentration within the root cells
 3. Selective Uptake: Plants have the ability to selectively absorb
specific mineral ions based on their physiological requirements.
This selectivity is crucial for maintaining optimal growth and
function. Some of the essential mineral ions absorbed by plants
include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn),
copper (Cu), and molybdenum (Mo).
4. Translocation: Once inside the root cells, the absorbed mineral
ions are transported to various parts of the plant through the xylem,
which is a specialized tissue responsible for the upward movement
of water and nutrients from the roots to the shoots. The
translocation of mineral salts allows for their distribution to
different plant tissues, where they are used for various metabolic
processes
Role in Plant Function: Mineral salts play vital roles in various
physiological processes essential for plant growth, development, and
overall health. These roles include:
 Structural Support: Minerals such as calcium and magnesium are
essential components of plant cell walls, providing structural
support and rigidity.
 Enzyme Activation: Many mineral ions serve as cofactors or
activators for enzymes involved in metabolic pathways. For
example, magnesium is required for the activation of enzymes
involved in photosynthesis and ATP synthesis.
 Osmotic Regulation: Potassium ions play a crucial role in
regulating osmotic pressure within plant cells, maintaining cell
turgor and water balance.
 Photosynthesis: Mineral salts such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, and magnesium are essential components of
chlorophyll molecules and are therefore necessary for
photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy
into chemical energy.
 Respiration: Minerals such as phosphorus are vital for the
synthesis of ATP, the primary energy currency of cells, during
cellular respiration.
 Nutrient Storage: Some minerals, such as potassium and nitrogen,
are stored in various plant tissues and serve as reservoirs for future
use.

c) Describe the nitrogen cycle and its fixation in plants and in

relation to environmental regulation.
The nitrogen cycle is a bio-geochemical cycle that describes the
movement and transformation of nitrogen in various forms within
ecosystems. It involves several key processes, including nitrogen
fixation, nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, and denitrification.
These processes are crucial for maintaining the availability of nitrogen,
which is an essential nutrient for all living organisms.
1. Nitrogen Fixation: Nitrogen fixation is the process by which
atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) is converted into ammonia (NH3)
 or nitrate (NO3-) ions, which can be utilized by plants. This
process is primarily carried out by nitrogen-fixing bacteria, either
free-living in the soil or symbiotically associated with certain plant
species, such as legumes (e.g., soybeans, clover). Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria possess the enzyme nitrogenase, which catalyzes the
conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. Some
cyanobacteria also have the ability to fix nitrogen through
photosynthesis.
2. Nitrification: Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia
(NH3) to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-) by nitrifying
bacteria. The primary nitrifying bacteria involved are
Nitrosomonas, which oxidize ammonia to nitrite, and Nitrobacter,
which further oxidize nitrite to nitrate. Nitrate is the primary form
of nitrogen that plants can readily uptake and assimilate.
3. Assimilation: Plants uptake nitrate (NO3-) and ammonia (NH3)
from the soil through their roots. These nitrogen compounds are
assimilated into organic molecules such as amino acids,
nucleotides, and chlorophyll within the plant cells. Nitrogen
assimilation is essential for plant growth and development, as
nitrogen is a key component of proteins, nucleic acids, and other
essential biomolecules.
4. Ammonification: Ammonification is the process by which organic
nitrogen compounds, such as proteins and nucleic acids from dead
plant and animal matter, are broken down into ammonia (NH3) by
decomposer organisms such as bacteria and fungi. Ammonia can
then be further converted into ammonium ions (NH4+) in soil.
5. Denitrification: Denitrification is the process by which nitrate
(NO3-) and nitrite (NO2-) are converted back into atmospheric
nitrogen gas (N2) by denitrifying bacteria under anaerobic
conditions. Denitrification completes the nitrogen cycle by
returning nitrogen gas to the atmosphere, thus replenishing the
atmospheric nitrogen pool.
 Environmental regulation relies heavily on the nitrogen cycle’s
importance in ecosystem functioning, which can be altered by
human actions like agriculture, industry, and burning fossil fuels.
Overuse of nitrogen fertilizers in farming can result in nitrogen
runoff into water sources, leading to eutrophication and
detrimental algal blooms.
 Moreover, the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from combustion
can worsen air pollution, smog formation, and acid rain to regulate
nitrogen cycling and mitigate its environmental impacts include:
 Implementing sustainable agricultural practices, such as precision
farming, crop rotation, and the use of cover crops, to minimize
nitrogen runoff and optimize nitrogen use efficiency.
 Managing wastewater treatment to reduce nitrogen pollution in
water bodies.
 Implementing policies and regulations to reduce emissions of
nitrogen oxides from industrial sources and vehicles.
 Promoting the restoration of natural habitats, such as wetlands and
riparian zones, which can act as buffers and filters for nitrogen
cycling processes.

References
1. Sutcliffe. J.F., 1962: Mineral salt absorption in plants.
Pergamon Press, Inc: New York
2. Stiles, W., 1998: trace elements in plants. Cambridge
University Press, London. 1:247.
3. Robinson, W.O., and W. Edgington, 1945. Minor elements in
plants and some accumulator plants, Soil science, 60: 15-28
4. D.J.F., 1966: Active transport of ions across sunflower
roots. Planta, 69:377-82