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CS8601-Unit 1-Notes-Completed

Mobile Computing (Anna University)

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UNIT – I: INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Mobile Computing –Applications of Mobile Computing – Generations of
Mobile Communication Technologies – Multiplexing – Spread Spectrum – MAC
Protocols – SDMA – TDMA – FDMA – CDMA.

1.1: INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE COMPUTING

1.1.1: What is mobile computing?
 It is widely described as the ability to compute remotely while on the
move. This is new and fast emerging discipline that has made it
possible for people to access information from anywhere and at any
time.
It is also called as ubiquitous computing or nomadic computing.
Mobile Computing = Mobility + Computing
 Computing: It denotes the capability to automatically carry out certain
processing related to service invocations on a remote computer.
 Mobility: It provides the capability to change location while
communicating to invoke computing services at some remote
computers.
 Main advantage: It is the tremendous flexibility it provides to the user.
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1.1.2: Advantages of Mobile Computing:

(i) Location Flexibility

(ii) User Mobility
(iii) Device Portability
(iv) Saves Time
(v) Enhanced Productivity
(vi) Entertainment

1.1.3: Disadvantages of Mobile Computing:

(i) Expensive
(ii) Power Consumption
(iii) Small Screen Display
(iv) Slow Internet Speed
(v) Risky to carry
(vi) Security Concerns
(vii) Communication depends upon network

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1.1.4: Mobile Networks Vs. Wired Networks

S.No Wired Networks Mobile Networks
Users cannot get any Users can get information at any
1. information at any place (does place (Supports Mobility)
not support mobility)
2. Bandwidth is high Bandwidth is low
3. Low bandwidth variability High bandwidth variability
4. Listen on wire Hidden Terminal problem
5. Productivity is low Productivity is high
6. High Power Machines Low Power machines
7. High Resource machines Low Resource machines
8. Need physical access Need proximity
9. Low delay Higher delay
10. Connected Operations Disconnected Operations

1.1.5: Mobile computing vs. Wireless Networking

S.No Mobile Computing Wireless Networking
It is a technology that access It is a network that uses wireless
1. data through wireless network data connections for connecting
network nodes
It denotes accessing It provides the basic
information and remote communication infrastructure
2.
computational services while necessary for mobile computing
on the move
It refers to computing devices It is a method of transferring
that are not restricted to a information between a
3. desktop. Eg: Smart Phone, computing devices such as PDA
PDA, Laptop etc., & data sources without a
physical connection
It refers to a device performing It refers to the data
computation that is not always communication without the use
4. connected to a central network of a landline. Eg. Cellular
Telephone, Two way radio,
Satellite, Wireless Connection.

Classification of Wireless Networks:

1. Extension of Wired Network
2. Adhoc Network

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1. Extension of wired networks –It uses fixed infrastructure such as base

stations to provide essentially single hop wireless communication with a
wired network as illustrated inbelow figure (Figure 2.1: Wireless network
based on fixed infrastructure)

 One popular example of a fixed infrastructure wireless network is

a wireless LAN that implements the IEEE 802.11protocol.
 An access point provides the last hop connectivity of the mobile
nodes to a wires network. All communications goes through AP?s
which perform bridging between the wireless and the wired
mediums. A station must be recognized by an AP to be able to
connect to the network. The AP may require authentication and
this in turn is uses as the basic means to keep out the
unauthorized users.
2. Adhoc network – It does not use any fixed infrastructure and is based
on multi – hop wireless communication as shown in above figure (Figure
2.2: Wireless network having no fixed infrastructure)
 In an infrastructure lessnetwork, the communication between
hosts occurs directly or via a few intermediate nodes that form the
hops. Forexample, station A in figure 2.2, can communicate with
station C using either the hops A-B, B-C or A-D, D-C.
 A recent development in this context is wireless networking of various
types of devices using the Bluetooth technology. The Bluetooth

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technology can also be used to establish direct wireless connection of cell

phones with devices such as printers, cameras, scanners, and laptop and
desk computers. Bluetooth is gradually replacing cables and infrared as
the dominant way of exchanging information between devices.
 Objective of Bluetooth technology: to enable users to easily connect to a
wide range of personal computing and telecommunication devices,
without the need to buy, carry or lay out cables. In fact , , the Bluetooth
technology enables setting up of personal are networks are known as
Piconets and adhoc networks known as scatternets. It provides
opportunities for rapid deployment of ad hoc connections, and the
possibility of automatic, transparent connections between devices. It
promises to eliminate the need to purchase additional or proprietary
cabling and configuration exercises needed to connect the individual
devices.
 Ad hoc network is known as a mobile ad hoc network (MANET).It is a
collection of mobile nodes that form a network on the fly without
requiring the support of any fixed infrastructure. Wireless networks are a
special type of wireless ad hoc networks.

1.1.7: Characteristics of Mobile Computing:

A computing environment is said to be >mobile? when either the sender
or receiver of information can be on the move while transmitting or
receiving information.
1. Ubiquity: It is meaning is present everywhere. In the context of mobile
computing, ubiquity means the ability of a user to perform
computations from anywhere and at any time. For example, a business
executive can receive business notifications and issue business
transactions as long he is in the wireless coverage area.
2. Location awareness:A hand–held device equipped with global
positioning system can transparently provide information about the
current location of a user to tracing station. For example, a person
travelling by road in a car may need to find out a car maintenance
service that may be available nearby. He can easily locate such a service
through mobile computing where an application may show the nearby
maintenance shop.
Applications include
 Traffic control: In a traffic control applications, the density of traffic
along various roads can be dynamically monitored, and traffic can be
directed appropriately to reduce congestions.

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 Fleet management: In a fleet management application, the manager

of a transport company can have up –to –date information regarding
the position of its fleet of vehicles, thus enabling him to plan
accurately and provide accurate information to customers regarding
the state of their consignments.
 Emergency services:It can also make emergency service vehicles to
the site of the call.
3. Adaptation: Adaption in the context of mobile computing implies the
ability of a system to adjust to bandwidth fluctuation without
inconveniencing the user. In a mobile computing environment,
adaptation is crucial because of intermittent disconnections and
bandwidth fluctuations that can arise due to a number of factors such
as handoff, obstacles, environmental noise etc.
4. Broadcast: Due to the broadcast nature of the underlying
communication network of a mobile computing environment, efficient
delivery of data can be made simultaneously to hundreds of mobile
users. For example, all users at a specific location, such as those near a
railway station, may be sent advertising information by a taxi service
operator.
5. Personalization: Services in a mobile environment can be easily
personalized according to a user?s profile. This is required to let the
users easily avail information with their hand–held devices. For
example, a mobile user may need only a certain type of information from
specific sources. This can be easily done through personalization.

1.1.8: Structure of Mobile Computing Application:

A mobile computing application is usually structured in terms of the
functionalities implemented. The simple three-tier structure of a mobile
computing application is depicted in figure given below. The 3 tiers are
named
1. Presentation Tier Presentation (Tier -1)
2. ApplicationTier Application (Tier -2)
3. DataTier. Data tier (Tier -3)

 Presentation Tier: The topmost level of a mobile computing application

concerns the user interface. A good user interface facilitates the users to
issue requests and to present the results to them meaningful. Obviously,
the programs at this layer run on the client?s computer. This layer usually

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includes web browsers and customized client programs for dissemination

of information and for collection of data from the user.

 Application Tier: This layer has the vital responsibility of making logical
decisions and performing calculations. It also moves and processes data
between the presentation and data layers. We can consider the middle tier
to be like an <engine= of an automobile. It performs the processing of user
input, obtaining information and then makingdecisions. Thislayer is
implemented like java, .NET services, coldfusion, etc. The implementation
of this layer and functionality provided by this layer should be database
independent. This layer of functionalities is usually implemented on a fixed
server.

 Data Tier:It is responsible for providing the basic facilities of data storage,
access and manipulation. Often this layer contains a database. The
information is stored and retrieved from this database. But, when small
amounts of data need to be stored, a file system can be used. This layer is
also implemented on a fixed server.

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1.2: MOBILE COMPUTING APPLICATIONS

1) Stock Broker: Mobile computing technology makes it possible for

people to send or extract information while on the move. For example, a
stock broker travelling in a car may wish to issue stock transaction
orders from a mobile phone or to receive share price quotations.
2) Emergency services
 Early transmission of patient data to the hospital, current status,
first diagnosis
 Replacement of fixed infrastructure in case of earthquakes, fire
etc.
3) Vehicles:
 Transmission of news, road conditions, weather, music etc.
 Personal communication via GSM
 Position via GPS
 Vehicle data can be transmitted in advance for maintenance
4) For Estate Agents
5) In courts
6) In companies
7) Stock Information Collection/Control
8) Credit Card Verification
9) Taxi/Truck Dispatch
10) Electronic Mail/Paging
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1.3: GENERATIONS OF MOBILE COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
Since the introduction of first commercial mobile phone in 1983 by Motorola,
mobile technology has come a long way. Be it technology, protocols, services
offered or speed, the changes in mobile telephony have been recorded as
generation of mobile communication. The mobile communication technology
improvements can be defined into 5 generations (5G):
 1G Technology  4G Technology
 2G Technology  5G Technology
 3G Technology
1) First Generation (1G) Technology
 1G refers to the first generation of wireless mobile communication where
analog signals were used to transmit data.
 1G systems used Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) to divide
the bandwidth into specific frequencies that are assigned to individual
calls.

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 Some characteristics of 1G communication are −

 Analog Transmissions  Large phones with
 Speeds up to 2.4 kbps limited battery life
 Restricted to voice  No data security`c
communication  Limited Capacity
 Poor voice quality  Poor Handoff Reliability
2) Second Generation (2G) Technology
 2G refers to the second generation of mobile telephony which used
digital signals for the first time.
 It was launched in Finland in 1991 and used GSM technology.
 Some prominent characteristics of 2G communication are −
 Data speeds up to 64 kbps
 Text and multimedia messaging (MMS) possible
 Better quality and capacity than 1G
 Unable to handle complex data such as videos
 2.5G is a technology between 2G and 3G of mobile telephony.
 2.5G is also described as 2G cellular technology combined with GPRS.
 When GPRS technology was introduced, it enabled
 Web browsing
 e-mail services
 Speed: 64 – 144 kbps
 fast upload/download speeds
 Camera phones
3) Third Generation (3G) Technology
 Third generation (3G) of mobile telephony offered major advancement
over previous generations.
 Some of the characteristics of this generation are −
 Typically called Smart Phones
 Increased Bandwidth
 Data speeds of 144 kbps to 2 Mbps
 High speed web browsing
 Running web based applications like video conferencing,
multimedia e-mails, etc.
 Fast and easy transfer of audio and video files
 3D gaming
 Large capacities and Broadband Capabilities
 Every coin has two sides. Here are some downsides of 3G technology −
 Expensive mobile phones
 High infrastructure costs like licensing fees and mobile towers

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 Trained personnel required for infrastructure set up

 The intermediate generation, 3.5G grouped together dissimilar mobile
telephony and data technologies and paved way for the next generation
of mobile communication.
4) Fourth Generation (4G) Technology
 Keeping up the trend of a new mobile generation every decade, fourth
generation (4G) of mobile communication was introduced in 2011.
 Its major characteristics are −
 Speeds of 100 Mbps for outdoor and 1 Gbps for indoor
 Mobile web access
 More Security
 High Speed and Capacity
 High definition mobile TV
 Cloud computing
 IP telephony
 Security and Privacy
 Basic term used to describe 4G is MAGIC:
 Mobile Multimedia
 Anytime Anywhere
 Global Mobility Support
 Integrated Wireless Solution
 Customized Personal Services
 Drawbacks of 4G:
o Battery uses is more o Need complicated hardware
o Hard to implement o Expensive equipment

5) Fifth Generation (5G) Technology

 5G technology refer to complete wireless communication with almost no
limitations.
 It is highly supportable to WWWW (Wireless World Wide Web)
 Its major characteristics are −
o High Speed, High Capacity
o Providing large broadcasting of data in Gbps.
o Multimedia Newspapers, watch TV programs with the clarity as
tothat of an HD Quality.
o Faster data transmission
o Large phone memory, dialing speed, clarity in Audio/Video
o Support interactive multimedia, voice, streaming video.

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1.4: MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is a technique that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple communications over a single channel.
It describes how several users can share a medium with minimum (or) no
interference.
Multiplexing can be carried out in four
dimensions:
(1) Space
(2) Frequency
(3) Time
(4) Code
Goal of Multiplexing:
To assign space, frequency, time and code to
each communication channel with a
minimum interference and maximum
medium utilization. (i.e. Proper resource
sharing and its utilization).
Important:Guard Space is needed to avoid interference

1) Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)

 In this technique, we split a communication channel (physical resource)
into multiple different physical locations and allocate each stream of
data onto each of the location.
 In real implementation, different physical location means different
transmission or receiver antenna.
 MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) is the most common example of
SDM.
 Example: This scheme is used in FM radio stations where transmission
range is limited to a certain region – many radio stations around the
world can use the same frequency without interference.
 Advantages:
 Clear separation of channels
 Prevents interference ranges from overlapping
 High data transmission rate
 Advantages:
 Waste of space
 If two or more channels were established within in the same space,
will lead to a problem of interference.

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2) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

 FDM subdivides the entire spectrum into smaller non-overlapping
frequency bands.
 Each channel is allotted its own frequency band of the spectrum for the
full time.
 Senders can use this band completely and continuously.
 Guard space is needed to avoid frequency band overlapping (Adjacent
Channel Interference).

 Advantages:
 Simple to implement
 Does not need complex coordination between sender and receiver;
receiver only has to tune to the specific sender.
 Disadvantages:
 Assigning a separate frequency for each possible communication would
be a waste of frequency.
 Inflexible.
 Limits the number of senders.
 Not suitable for mobile communication.
 Example: Frequency Division Multiplexing can be used for radio station in
a particular region as every radio station will have their own frequency
and can work simultaneously without having any constraint of time.

3) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

 TDM is a flexible scheme for mobile communication.
 Here a channel gets the whole bandwidth for a certain amount of time.
i.e. all senders use the same frequency but at different point in time.
 Guard space is needed to represent time gaps.
 Example: ISDN (Integrated Service for Digital Network) telephonic
service.

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 Advantages:
 Only one carrier in the medium at any time.
 Throughput is high even for many users.
 Disadvantages:
 Precise synchronization is necessary
 Common clock

Time and Frequency Division Multiplexing:

 Combination of both schemes
 A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time.
Example: GSM
 Advantages:
 Better protection against tapping
 Protection against frequency selective interference
 Higher data rates compared to code multiplex
 Disadvantages:
 Precise coordination required.

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4) Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

 In Code Division Multiplexing, every channel is allotted with a unique code
so that each of these channels can use the same spectrum simultaneously
at same time.
 Advantages:
 Bandwidth Efficient
 No coordination and synchronization is necessary
 Good protection against interference and tapping
 Disadvantages:
 Lower user data rates
 More complex signal regeneration

1.5: SPREAD SPECTRUM

Problem of radio transmission: Frequency dependent fading can wipe out

narrow band signals for duration of the interference.
Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a
special code.

Definition of Spread Spectrum: Spread Spectrum is a modulation

technique which involves spreading the bandwidth needed to transmit data.

Main Advantage: Resistance to narrow band interference.

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Illustration of Spread Spectrum:

The following figure illustrates the process of spreading and despreading:

 Step (i) shows an input narrow band signal from a sender.

 Step (ii) The sender now spreads the signal by converting the
narrowband signal into a broadband signal. The energy needed to
transmit the signal is the same, but it is now spread over a larger
frequency range. The power level of the spread signal can be much
lower than that of the original narrowband signal without losing data.
Depending on the generation and reception of the spread signal, the
power level of the user signal can even be as low as the background
noise. This makes it difficult to distinguish the user signal from the
background noise and thus hard to detect.
 Step (iii) During transmission, narrowband and broadband interference
add to the signal in step (iii)
 Step (iv) The sum of interference and user signal is received at the
receiver. The receiver knows how to despread the signal, converting
spread user signal into a narrowband signal again, while spreading the
narrowband interference and leaving the broadband interference.
 Step (v) The receiver applies bandpass filter to cutoff frequencies left
and right of the narrowband signal. Finally the receiver can reconstruct
the original data because the power level of the user signal is high
enough i.e., the signal is much stronger than the remaining
interference.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of using spread spectrum:

 Advantages:
o Privacy.
o Secure communications because signal is <hidden= like noise
o Non-interference with other signals in the same band.
o Possible to share frequency and time at same time (CDMA)
o Protection against jamming
 Disadvantages:
o Increase bandwidth (wideband circuitry, channel model for
wideband systems behaves different over frequency)
o Increase complexity
 Applications of spread spectrum:
o It is used in mobile communications.
o It is used in distance measurement.
o It is used in selective calling.
o It is used in CDMA communication.

 Two different ways to achieve spreading the spectrum:

o Direct Sequenced Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

(1) Direct Sequenced Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a spread spectrum technique
whereby each and every bit of the user data is multiplied by a secret code,
called as chipping code. This chipping code is nothing but the pseudo
random noise spreading code which is multiplied with the original message
and transmitted. The receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original
message.
Fig: Spreading with DSSS
Example:
The data to be transmitted is
1001, and the chip or
spreading code is 0010. For
each data bit, the complete
spreading code is used to
multiple the data, and in this
way, for each data bits, the
spread or expanded signal
consists of four bits.

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(i) DSSS Transmitter

The below figure shows the components of DSSS transmitter:

Fig: DSSS Transmitter

1. The first step in a DSSS transmitter is the spreading of the user data
with the chipping sequence (Digital Modulation.
2. The spread signal is then modulated with a radio carrier (Radio
Modulation)
3. The radio carrier then shifts this signal to the carrier frequency. This
signalis then transmitted.

(ii) DSSS Receiver

The receiver has to perform the inverse functions of the two transmitter
modulation steps.
Noise and multi-path propagation require additional mechanisms to
reconstruct the original data.
1. The first step is demodulating the received signal with radio carrier.
2. The next step is that, the receiver has to know the original chipping
sequence, i.e.,
a. The receiver generates the same pseudo random sequence as the
transmitter. Sequences at the sender and the receiver have to be
synchronized.

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b. Then the receiver calculates the product of a chip with the

incoming signal (XOR operation).
c. During a bit period, an integrator adds all these products.
Calculating the products of chips and signal, and adding the products
in an integrator are also called correlation, the device a correlator.
3. Finally, in each bit period a decision unit samples the sums
generated by the integrator and decides if this sum represents binary
1 or 0.
The below figure shows the components of DSSS receiver:

Fig: DSSS Receiver

Advantages of DSSS:
o Reduces frequency selective fading
o It has best discrimination against multipath signals.
o It avoids intentional interference such as jamming effectively.
o Performance of DSSS system in presence of noise is better than
FHSS system.

Disadvantages of DSSS:
o The system becomes slow due to large acquisition time.
o Precise power control is necessary.
o The pseudo noise generator should generate sequence at high
rates.

(2) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum system, the total available
bandwidth is split into many channels of smaller bandwidth plus guard
spaces between the channels. Transmitter and Receiver stay on one of these
channels for a certain time and then hop to another channel. This system
implements FDM and TDM.

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Hopping Sequence: The pattern of channel usage is called the hopping

sequence.
Dwell Time: The time spend on a channel with a certain frequency is called
the dwell time.

 Variants of FHSS:
1. Slow Hopping
2. Fast Hopping

Fig: Slow and Fast Frequency Hopping

1. Slow Hopping:
In slow hopping, the transmitter uses one frequency for several bit
periods.
The above figure shows five user bits with a bit period tb
 In slow hopping, the transmitter uses the frequency f 2 for
transmitting the first three bits during the dwell time td.
 Then the transmitter hops to the next frequency f3.
 Advantage: Cheaper and have relaxed tolerances.
 Disadvantage: Not immune to narrowband interference.
 Application: It is an option for GSM.

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2. Fast Hopping:
In fast hopping, the transmitter changes the frequency several times
during the transmission of a single bit.
The above figure shows five user bits with a bit period tb
 In fast hopping, the transmitter hops three times during a bit period.
 Advantage: Better in overcoming the effects of narrowband
interference and frequency selective fading as they stick to one
frequency for a very short time.
 Disadvantage: More complex to implement because the transmitter
and receiver have to stay synchronized within smaller tolerances to
perform hopping at same point in time.
 Application: Suitable for Bluetooth.

 FHSS Transmitter:

Fig: FHSS Transmitter

Step 1)The first step in an FHSS transmitter is the modulation of user
data according to one of the digital-to-analog modulation schemes (Eg. FSK
or BPSK) which results in narrowband signal if FSK is used with a frequency
f0 for a binary 0 and f1 for a binary 1.
Step 2) Frequency Hopping is performed, based on a hopping sequence.
The hopping sequence is fed into a frequency synthesizer generating the
carrier frequencies fi. A second modulation uses the modulated narrowband
signal and the carrier frequency to generate a new spread signal with
frequency of fi+f0 for 0 and fi+f1 for 1.

 FHSS Receiver:
The receiver has to know the hopping sequence and must stay
synchronized. It then performs the inverse operations of the modulation to
reconstruct user data. Several filters are also needed.

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Fig: FHSS Receiver

Advantages of FHSS:
o Frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
o Simple implementation
o Uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
o Needs shorter time for acquisition
o Very large bandwidth

Disadvantages of FHSS:
o Not as robust as DSSS
o Needs complex frequency synthesizers
o Requires error correction

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FHSS AND DSSS

FHSS DSSS

Uses a radio carrier that hops from DS systems use a carrier that remains
frequency to frequency in a pattern fixed to a specific frequency band.
known to both transmitter and receiver

Available bandwidth is divided into many The data signal is spread onto a much
possible broadcast frequencies. larger range of frequencies (at a much
lower power level) using a specific
encoding scheme.

System generates wideband signals System generates wideband signals

controlled by the carrier frequency controlled by the code

Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used

Hard to find the user?s frequency at any User frequency, once allotted is always
instant of time the same

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Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not allowed

Sender has to wait if the spectrum is

Sender need not wait
busy

Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the signal is low

Resistance to noise Less resistant to noise

Stronger and penetrates through the

It is weaker compared to FHSS
obstacles

It is never affected by interference It can be affected by interference

It is cheaper It is expensive

Limited throughput Much higher throughput than FH

1.6: MAC PROTOCOLS

INTRODUCTION:
In a wireless network, multiple nodes may contend to transmit on the
same shared channel at the same time. In this situation, the transmitted
data would get garbled unless a suitable medium access arbitration scheme
is deployed. Usually, it is the responsibility of the medium access control to
perform this task.

DEFINITION: MAC Protocol

MAC protocol is an access control protocol which is responsible for
regulating access to the shared channel when multiple nodes compete to
access that channel.
The MAC protocol is sub layer of the data link layer protocol and it
directly invokes the physical layer protocol.

Objectives of MAC Protocol:

 Maximization of the utilization of the channel
 Minimization of average latency of transmission.

Properties required of MAC Protocols

 It should implement some rules that help to enforce discipline when multiple
nodes contend for a shared channel.
 It should help maximize the utilization of the channel.
 Channel allocation needs to be fair. No node should be discriminated against
at any time and made to wait for an unduly long time for transmission.
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 It should be capable of supporting several types of traffic having different

maximum and average bit rates.
 It should be robust in the face of equipment failures and changing network
conditions.

1.6.1: Wireless MAC Protocols Issues:

A MAC protocol in a wireless medium is much more complex than its wired
counterpart.
 First, a collision detection scheme is difficult to implement in a wireless
environment, since collisions are hard to be detected by the transmitting
nodes.
 Also, in infrastructure–less networks, the issue of hidden and exposed
terminals make a MAC protocol extremely inefficient unless special care is
taken to overcome these problems.

The hidden and Exposed terminal problems in an infrastructure– less

network:

(i) Hidden Terminal Problem:

Hidden Terminal or Node: A hidden node is a node that does not hear the
transmission that another node within its range is receiving and due to the
fear of collision it does not attempting to gain access.
The Hidden Terminal Problem arises when at least three nodes (A, B and C)
communicating.
In this figure,
B is in the radio range of A, and B is also with the radio range of C. The
nodes A and C are not in the radio range of
each other.
1) If A sends data to B, C cannot hear this
transmission.
2) C wants to send to B. C senses a <free=
medium (Carrier Sense fails) and starts
transmitting.
3) Now both A and C start transmit to B at the
same time. Collision at B occurs and the
data received at B would get garbled. A

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cannot detect this collision (Collision Detection fails) and continues with its
transmission to B.
4) This situation arises because A and C are <hidden= from each other, because
they are outside each other?s transmission range.
Note:- Hidden Terminal causes Collisions.

(ii) Exposed Terminal Problem:

Exposed Node: An exposed node is a node that hears multiple disjoint

sections of a network and never gets an opportunity to compete for
transmission since it is always deferring to someone.
Exposed Terminal Problem arises when all the three nodes are in the radio
range of all nodes.

 Now B is transmitting to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)

outside the range.
 C senses the carrier and detects that the carrier is busy, so C postpones the
transmission until it detects the medium is free.
 But A is outside the radio range of C. This problem arises because <C is
exposed to B=.
Note:- Exposed Terminal leads to inefficient spectrum usage and
unnecessary transmission delays.

(iii) Near and Far Terminal Problem:

Consider the situation shown below.
 A and B are both sending with the same transmission power.
 As the signal strength decreases proportionally to the square of the
distance, B?s signal drowns out A?s signal. As a result, C cannot
receive A?s transmission.

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 Now C is an arbiter for sending rights(e.g. C acts as a base station

coordinating media access);
 In this case terminal B would already drown out A?s signal on the physical
layer making C unable to hear A and have no chance of applying a fair
scheme as it would only hear B.

1.6.2: MAC Mechanisms:

1) Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
2) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
3) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
3.1) Fixed TDMA
3.2) Classical Aloha
3.3) Slotted Aloha
3.4) Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
3.5) Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA)
3.6) Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA)
3.7) Reservation TDMA
3.8) Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)
3.9) Polling
3.10) Inhibit Sense Multiple Access (ISMA)
4) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

1) Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

 SDMA is used for allocating a separated space to users in wireless
networks.
 A typical application involves assigning an optimal base station to a
mobile phone user.
 The mobile phone may receive several base stations with different
quality.
 A MAC algorithm could now decide which base station is best,
taking into account with frequencies (FDM), time slots (TDM), or
code (CDM).

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 SDMA is never used in isolation but always in combination with one

or more other schemes.

2) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 In FDMA, the available bandwidth (frequency range) is divided into

many narrower frequency bands called channels.
 Each user is allocated a unique frequency band or channel.
 Figure shows a division of the existing bandwidth into many channels
(ch1, ch2….).
 For full duplex communication to take place, each user is allocated a
forward link (uplink) for communicating from it (mobile handset) to the
base station, and a reverse channel (down link) for communicating from
the BS to it.
 Thus, each user making a call is allocated 2 unique frequency bands,
one for transmitting and the other for receiving signals during the call.
 When a call is underway, no other user would be allocated the same
frequency band to make a call.

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 Advantages:
1. Channel bandwidth is narrow.
2. Simple to implement.
3. Efficient when the number of stations is small & the traffic is
uniformly constant.

 Disadvantages:
1. Unused transmission time in the frequency band that occurs when
the allocated caller pauses between transmissions
2. When no user is allocated a band, goes idle and is wasted.
3. FDMA does not achieve high channel utilization.

3) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

3.1) Fixed TDMA:
 TDMA system divides the radio spectrum into time slots.
 It is an access method in which multiple nodes are allotted different
time slots to access the same physical channel.
 That is, the timeline is divided into fixed- sized time slots and these are
divided among multiple nodes who can transmit.
 Therefore, in TDMA, all sources use the same channel, but take turns
in transmitting.

Figure shows the situation where time slots are allocated to users in a round
robin manner, with each user being assigned one time slot per frame.
Obviously, unused time slots go idle, leading to low channel utilization.
 In TDMA, each user of the channel owns the channel for exclusive use
for one time slot at a time in a round robin fashion.

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 Advantages:
1. It carries data rates of 64 kbps to 120 Mbps.
2. It provides the user with extended battery life and talk time.
3. Cost effective for upgrading analog system to digital system.
4. Efficiently carries multiple calls at the same time.
5. Shares carrier frequency with multiple users.
 Disadvantages:
1. Unused time slots go idle.
2. Low channel utilization.

3.2) Classical Aloha

 It is a simple communication scheme that was developed at the
University of Hawaii.
 The basic scheme (ALOHA), is a simple protocol:
 If a node has data to send, it begins to transmit. It does not check
whether the channel is busy before transmitting.
 If the frame successfully reaches the destination (receiver), the next
frame is sent. If the frame fails to be received at the destination, it is
sent again.
 Advantages:
1. Simple to implement.
2. Works acceptably when the chances of contention are small.
3. Works fine for light load.

 Disadvantages:
1. Does not coordinate medium access.
2. Collision can become high if the number of contenders for
transmission is high.

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3.3) Slotted Aloha

 An improvement over the pure ALOHA scheme is the slotted ALOHA.
 In the slotted ALOHA scheme, the chances of collisions are attempted to
be reduced by enforcing the following restrictions:
 The time is divided into equal-sized slots in which a packet can be
sent. Thus the size of the packet is restricted.
 A node wanting to send a packet can start only at the beginning of a
slot.
 The slotted ALOHA system employs beacon signals that are sent at
precise intervals that mark the beginning of a slot, at which point
the nodes having data to send can start to transmit.
 Advantages:
1. Time-slots doubles the throughput.
2. Coordinates medium access better than ALOHA.
3. Attempts to reduce number of collisions.
 Disadvantages:
1) Size of the packet is restricted.
2) Does not worry and work well if the number of stations contending
to send data is high.

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3.4) Carrier Sense Multiple Access

 A popular MAC arbitration technique is the Carrier Sense Multiple
Access.
 In this technique, a node senses the medium before starting to
transmit.
 If the channel is sensed idle, the node transmits entire frame.
 If it senses that some transmission is already underway, it defers
its transmission.
 2 popular extensions of the basic CSMA technique are the
o Collision Detection (CD) and
o Collision Avoidance (CA)

a. CSMA / CD: CSMA with Collision Detection:

Basic Operation:
 When a host wants to transmit a packet, it checks the medium before
transmitting:
 If the medium is idle, transmits the packet.
 If the medium is busy, wait until it becomes idle and then
transmit the packet.
 But, even if it senses the channel to be free, there can be a collision
during transmission.
 In a wired network, the implementation of a collision detection scheme
is simple.
 In a wireless network,
 It is very difficult for a transmitting node to detect a collision,
since any received signal from other nodes would be too feeble
compared to its own signal and can easily be masked by noise.
 As a result, a transmitting node would continue to transmit the
frame, and only the destination node would notice the corrupted
frame after it computes the checksum.
 This leads to retransmissions and severe wastage of channel
utilization.
 In contrast, in a wired network when a node detects a collision, it
immediately stops transmitting, thereby minimizing channel wastage.

b. CSMA / CA: CSMA with Collision Avoidance:

 In a wireless network, a collision avoidance scheme works much better
compared to collision detection – base scheme.

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 Basic Idea: Prevent collisions at the moment they are most likely to
occur, that is, when the bus is released after a packet transmission.
 Problem:
 During the time a node is transmitting on the channel, several nodes
might want to transmit. These nodes would be monitoring the
channel and waiting for it to become free.
 The moment the transmitting node completes its transmission, these
waiting nodes would sense the channel to be free, and would all start
transmitting at the same time and collision occurs.
 To overcome, such collisions, in the collision avoidance scheme, all
nodes are forced to wait for a random time and then sense the
medium again, before starting their transmission.
 If the medium is sensed to be busy, a node waiting to transmit
waits for a further random amount of time and so on. Thus,
the chance of two nodes starting to transmit at the same time
and so on.
 If the medium is free, start transmitting the frame.

Difference between CSMA / CD and CSMA / CA

S.No CSMA/CD CSMA/CA

1. It takes effect after a It takes effect before a
collision collision
2. It will not take steps to It will take actions not to
prevent transmission take place any collision
collision until it has taken
place.
3. Only minimizes the It reduces the possibility of
recovery time collisions
4. Typically used in wired Typically used in wireless
networks networks & WLANs
5. Standardized in IEEE 802.3 Standardized in IEEE 802.11

3.5) Demand Assigned Multiple Access

 It is a reservation scheme which typically has a reservation period
followed by a transmission period.
 During the reservation period, stations can reserve future slots in the
transmission period.

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 While depending on the scheme, collisions may occur during the

reservation period, the transmission period can then be accessed
without collision.

 As shown in the above figure, DAMA, also called reservation Aloha,

has two modes:
o Aloha mode for reservation: contention phase where all stations
try to reserve future slots. (Collision possible)
o Reserved mode for data transmission within successful reserved
slots. (No collision possible)
 To maintain the fixed TDM pattern of reservation and transmission, the
stations have to be synchronized from time to time.
 DAMA is an explicit reservation scheme. Each transmission has to be
reserved explicitly.

3.6) Packet Reservation Multiple Access

 PRMA is an Implicit Reservation scheme.
 Here slots can be reserved implicitly according to the following scheme:
o A certain number of slots forms a frame.
o The frame is repeated in time.
o A base station, now broadcasts the status of each slot to all
mobile stations. (As shown in the figure below)

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o All stations receiving this vector will know which slot is occupied
and which slot is currently free.
o In the example, a successful transmission of data is indicated by
the station?s name (A to F).
o The base station broadcasts the reservations status >ACDABA-F?
to all stations.
o All stations wishing to transmit can now compete for the seventh
slot in Aloha fashion. Since more than one station wants to
access this slot, collision occurs.
o The base station returns the reservation status >ACDABA-F?
indicating that the reservation of slot seven is failed.
o Again stations can compete for this sot.
o Additionally, station D has stopped sending in slot 3 and station F
in slot 8.
o This is noticed by the base station after the second frame.
o Before the 3rd starts, the base station indicates that slots 3 and 8
are now idle.
o Station F has succeeded in reserving slot 7. As soon as a station
has succeeded with a reservation, all future slots are implicitly
reserved for this station.

3.7) Reservation TDMA

 In this scheme, every frame consists of N mini-slots followed by N.k
data-slots.
 Each station is allotted its own mini-slot and can use it to reserve up to
k data-slots. This guarantees each station a certain bandwidth and a
fixed delay.
 Other stations can now send data in unused data-slots.
 Using these free slots can be based on simple round-robin scheme or
can be uncoordinated using an Aloha scheme.

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 This scheme allows for the combination of, isochronous traffic with
fixed bit-rates and best-effort traffic without any guarantees.

3.8) Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

 It is called as connection-oriented packet switched scheme.
 In this scheme, nodes make explicit channel reservation for an entire call
before transmitting.
 Advantage: Handle calls with widely varying traffic characteristics.
 A basic form of the reservation scheme is the RTS/CTS scheme:
RTS = Ready To Send
CTS = Clear To Send
Working:
Step 1: In an RTS/CTS scheme, a sender transmits a Ready ToSend (RTS)
packet to
thereceiver before the actual data transmission.
Step 2: On receiving this, the receiver sends a Clear To Send (CTS) packet to
ensure
that the medium is free.
Step 3; Actual data transfer commences only after that.
Step 4: Receiver sends an acknowledgement of receiving.

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 To avoid collision: When the other nodes sharing the medium sense the
CTS packet, they refrain from transmitting until the transmission from the
sending node is complete.
 MACA solves the hidden/exposed terminal problems by regulating the
transmitter power.
1. A node running MACA requests to use the medium by sending an RTS
to the receiver.
2. Since radio signals propagate Omni-directionally, every terminal within
the sender>s radio range will hear this and them refrain from
transmitting.
3. As soon as the receiver is ready to receive data, it responds with CTS.

Figure schematically shows how MACA avoids the hidden terminal problem.
Assume that A has data to transfer to node B:
1. Before the start of its transmission, node A sends a RTS.
2. B receives the RTS that contains the sender’s name and the receiver’s
name, as well as the length of the future transmission. In response
to the RTS, an acknowledgment from B is triggered indicating CTS.
3. The CTS contains the names of the sender and receiver, and the
length of the planned transmission.
4. This CTS is heard by C and the medium is reserved for use by A for the
duration of the transmission.
5. On receipt of CTS from, B, C refrains from transmitting anything for the
time indicated in the CTS.

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Thus, a collision cannot occur at B during data transmission, and the hidden
terminal problem is solved. Though this is a collision avoidance protocol, a
collision can occur during the sending of an RTS. Both A and C could send
an RTS at same time .But an RTS occurs over a very small duration
compared to the duration of data transmission. Thus the probability of
collision remains much less. B resolves this contention problem by
acknowledging only one station in the CTS. No transmission occurs without
an appropriate CTS.

Figure schematically shows how the exposed terminal problem is solved in

MACA. Assume that B needs to transmit to A.
1. B has to transmit an RTS first shown in the figure. The RTS would
contain the names of the receiver (A) and the sender (B).
2. C does not act in response to this message as it is not the receiver, but
A responds with a CTS.
3. C does not receive this CTS and concludes that A is outside the
detection range.
4. Thus C can start its transmission assuming that no collision would
occur at A.

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3.9) Polling
 Where one station is to be heard by all others (e.g., the base station of a
mobile phone network or any other dedicated station0, polling schemes
can be applied.
 Polling is a strictly centralized scheme with one master station and several
slave stations.
 The master can poll the slaves according to many schemes:
o Round Robin: only efficient if traffic patterns are similar over all
stations
o Randomly Addressed Polling:
 Terminals ready to send can now transmit a random
number.
 The base station now chooses one address for polling from
the list of all random numbers.
 The base station acknowledges correct packets and
continues polling the next terminal.
 This cycle starts again after polling all terminals of the list.

3.10) Inhibit Sense Multiple Access

 This scheme is used for the packet data transmission service Cellular
Digital Packet Data (CDPD) in the AMPS mobile phone system.
 It is also known as Digital Sense Multiple Access (DSMA).
 Here, the base station only signals a busy medium via a busy tone (called
BUSY/IDLE indicator) on the downlink.
 After the busy tone stops, terminals can access the medium. Accessing the
uplink is not coordinated any further.
 The base station acknowledges successful transmissions, a mobile station
detects a collision only via the missing positive acknowledgement.
 in case of collisions, additional back-off and retransmission mechanisms
are implemented.

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4) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

 In CDMA, multiple users are allotted different codes that consist of
sequences of 0 and 1 to access the same channel.
 CDMA separates calls by code. Multiple users use the same frequency
at the same time and no time scheduling is applied. All the senders
send signals simultaneously through a common medium.
As shown in figure, a special coding scheme is used that allows signals from
multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. As shown
in the figure, 3 different users who have been assigned separate codes are
multiplexed on the same physical channel.

 The bandwidth of this medium is much larger than the space that
would be allocated to each packet transmission during FDMA and the
signals can be distinguished from each other by means of a special
coding scheme that is used.
Coding Scheme used in CDMA:
Coding is done with the help of a frequency spreading code known as the m-
bit pseudo –noise code sequence. Using, m bits, 2m-1 different codes can be
obtained. From these codes, each user will use only one code.
Example:
Assume all nodes transmit on the same frequency at the same time using
entire bandwidth of the transmission channel.
 Each sender has a unique random number key.
 The receiver can tune to the original signal if it knows the Pseudo-Noise
(PN) sequence.

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Transmitter: A, B Receiver: C
Sender: A Sender: B
Data, Ad = 1 Data, Bd = 0
Key, Ak = (010011) Key, Bk = (110101)
Autocorrelation Matrix: Autocorrelation Matrix:
Ad = (+1) Bd = (-1)
Ak = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1) Bk = (+1, +1, -1, +1, -1, +1)
As: Signal at A: Bs: Signal at B:
As = Ad * Ak Bs = Bd * Bk
= (+1) * (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1) = (-1) * (+1, +1, -1, +1, -1, +1)
As = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1) Bs = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
Signal received by receiver C is As + Bs
As + Bs = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1) + (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
= (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)
Decoding data of A: Decoding data of B:
In order to receive the data sent by A, In order to receive the data sent by B,
extract using Ak: C * Ak extract using Bk: C * Bk
= (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) * (-1, +1, -1, -1, = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) * (+1, +1, -1, +1,
+1, +1) -1, +1)
= (2+0+0+2+2+0) = 6 > 0 (Positive) = (-2+0+0-2-2+0) = -6 > 0 (Negative)
That is the original bit was 1 and it is That is the original bit was 0 and it is
the data sent by A the data sent by B

Fig: Coding and Spreading of data from Sender A

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Fig: Coding and Spreading of data from Sender B

Fig: Reconstruction of A’s Data

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Fig: Reconstruction of B’s Data

4.1) Spread Aloha Multiple Access

 Aloha has only a very low efficiency, CDMA needs complex receivers to be
able to receive different senders with individual codes at the same time.
 Idea: Use spread spectrum with only one single code (chipping sequence)
for spreading for all senders accessing according to aloha.

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Comparison of SDMA, FDMA, TDMA and CDMA

Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA

Segment space into Segment sending time Segment the frequency Spread the spectrum
cells/sectors into disjoint time-slots, band into disjoint sub- using orthogonal
Idea
demand driven or fixed bands codes.
patterns
Only one terminal can All terminals are active Every terminal has its All terminals can be
be active in one for short periods of time own frequency, active at the same
Terminals cell/one sector on the same frequency Uninterrupted place at the same
moment,
Uninterrupted
Signal Cell structure directed Synchronization in the Filtering in the Code plus special
Separation antennas time domain frequency domain receivers
Very Simple, Increases Established, fully digital, Simple, Established, Flexible, Less planning
Advantages
capacity per km2 very flexible Robust needed, Soft handover
Inflexible, Antennas Guard space needed Inflexible, Frequencies Complex receivers,
Disadvanta typically fixed (multi-path propagation), are a scarce resource Needs more
ges Synchronization difficult complicated power
control for senders.
Only in combination Standard in fixed Typically combined Used in many 3G
with TDMA,FDMA or networks, together with with TDMA (Frequency systems, Higher
Comment CDMA useful FDMA/SDMA used in hopping patterns) and complexity, Integrated
many mobile networks SDMA (Frequency with TDMA/FDMA
Reuse)

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CS8601 – Mobile Computing UNIT – 1 VI Sem CSE

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