POL 211

NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I

SEMESTER ONE, 2015-15
COURSE HANDBOOK
AIMS

This course seeks to explore the socio-political and economic settings of pre-
colonial, colonial break-in, colonial and terminal colonial years of the Nigerian
nation. It seeks to examine the objectives and strategies of colonial administration,
politics of decolonization, colonial heritage of governance, and elites. It also helps
you to appreciate the foundation and basis of the Nigerian nation and the politics
before, during and after the colonial period. These broad aims will be achieved by:

i. Enlightening the student with the knowledge of a range of the challenges

and prospect of the colonial policies and its implications on the Nigerian
contemporary policies.
ii. Understanding the process of colonization of Nigeria, the amalgamation of
the diverse peoples and constitutional developments.
iii. Awareness of the contribution of the early nationalist leaders in the
attainment of independence.
iv. Ability to critically analyse the power game between the military and the
political class in the post-independence Nigeria.

STRUCTURE

There will one two-hour lectures each week, for a total of 12 weeks, throughout the
semester.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Having successfully completed the course, you will be able to:

i. Discuss the British colonial administration in Nigeria

ii. Explain the reasons for the introduction of Indirect Rule
iii. Explain the underpinnings of the 1914 amalgamation policy
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iv. Appreciate the strategies of the nationalist movements and their
contributions
v. Explain the origin and the nature of the concept of federalism in Nigeria
vi. Explain the causes and effects of military interventions in Nigerian politics
vii. Discuss the evolution of party politics in Nigeria

COURSE OUTLINE

1.0. Pre-Colonial System of Administration

2.0. Effect of colonial administration on Nigeria
3.0. Indirect Rule
4.0. The Rise of Nationalist Movements in Nigeria
5.0. Post-Colonial Period
6.0. Federalism
7.0. Political Parties
8.0. Military intervention in Nigeria Politics
9.0. Attainment of Independence
10.0. References/further readings

1.0 Pre-Colonial Traditional Political System in Nigeria

This historical background of Nigerian government and politics involves the pre-
colonial era and the colonial era in Nigeria. The pre-colonial era is the period
before the coming of the colonial master to Nigeria while the colonial era is the
period that colonial administration was established in the country (Nigeria)

Before the advent of the European Colonial Masters on the coast of West Africa,
there was established various system of government referred to as traditional
political system in several part of Nigeria and other parts of Africa (Ofoegbu,
1999). Nigeria, prior to the imposition of the British colonial rule had about two
hundred and fifty ethnic groups. Each of the ethnic groups maintained a different
and independent system of administration.

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But we shall limit our discussions to the three majority ethnic groups of Hausa-
Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo.

Objectives: At the end of this discussion, you should be able to:

i. Discuss the pre-colonial traditional systems of Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa-

Fulani
ii. Explain the pre-colonial traditional judicial administration of Yoruba, Igbo
and Hausa-Fulani ethnic groups in Nigeria
iii. State the functions or roles of traditional rulers of Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa-
Fulani ethnic groups in Nigeria
iv. Compare the pre-colonial traditional political system of Yoruba, Igbo and
Hausa-Fulani.

1.1 Pre-Colonial Political System in Yoruba Land

The Yorubas form a large group united move by language than culture. Yorubas
trace their origin to Oduduwa who was the founder of the Yoruba Kingdom.
Oduduwa had seven sons who later founded the first seven kingdoms of the
Yoruba land and these kingdoms were united under the central leader known as
Alaafin of Oyo. Hatred, jealousy, etc made the first seven kingdoms to split into
fourteen new kingdoms and the central leadership now changed from the Alaafin
of Oyo to Ooni of Ife who is the spiritual Head of the Yoruba. Oyo is regarded as
the political headquarters of the Yoruba and was the most developed kingdom in
the Yoruba traditional society and it administration is accepted as a model or a
representation of the Yoruba.

The King in Yoruba land is called Oba, the Yoruba kingdoms were headed by the
Oba who must be a descendant of the Oduduwa.

1.2 Political Administration

The political head of every Yoruba kingdom is Oba but that of the Oyo kingdoms
are call ‘Alaafin’ or ‘Ooni’ respectively.

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The Alasfin as the political head of the Oyo kingdom is assisted by his son called
Aremo, who is not allowed to succeed him immediately he dies.

Oyemesi is the seven king makers headed by the Bashorun. The Oyemesi is
stronger than the Alasfin and can overrule any decision made by the Alaafin which
is not acceptable to it.

The other officials apart from the Aremo include:

Ilari: He is the permanent adviser to the Oba

Bashorun: He is the Chief Minister or Prime Minister of the Kingdom

Baale: He is the village Head of the administration of the villages

Kakanfo: He is the commander of the kingdom Armed Forces

The Chiefs or Obas and the bale are not appointment by the Alaafin even though
they receive his blessings.

There are certain limitations or checks and balances to the power of the Alaafin.
The limitations include:

i. If Alaafin disagrees with the Oyemesi and Ilari, the only option open to him
is t commit suicide
ii. Oyemesi could authorise the Bashorun to send empty calabash to Alaafin
symbolizing rejection by the people. Alaafin is not to commit suicide if this
happens
iii. Disloyal army commander could revolt
iv. The system of government in the traditional Yoruba society was a loose and
monarchical arrangement and highly democratic.

1.3 Judicial Administration

Alaafin was the final court. Certain offences were regarded as serious offences,
such as: murder, burglary, land case, witchcraft, profaning the deities and
homicide. The kind of offences that attract capital punishment is usually tried in
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the Oba’s palace or court. Minor offences such as family quarrels, exchange of
abusive words, owing of debt were hand from the family level to the level where
the parties involved were satisfied with the justice they have obtained. This does
not go beyond the Oba’s court.

The age grade: ...

1.4 Official Religion

The Yoruba official religion was the traditional religion. The Oba was to perform
sacrifice from time to time or as the need arises. The essence of the sacrifice is to
appease the Oduduwa the founder, ancestors and deities. He usually performs the
sacrifice through some priests. The performance of this sacrifice is very important
because it is the sources of the Oba’s power, legitimacy, respect the basis of unit,
solidarity and the progress of the Yoruba people. For instance, if the Oba fails to
fulfil these religious obligations, the deities, ancestors and the Oduduwa might be
angry and will cause pestilence, epidemics, drought, famine and calamities among
the Yoruba people (Nwankwo, 20002). Therefore, to prevent the gods from
becoming angry, the Oba usually performs these sacrifices.

1.5 Pre-Colonial Political System in Igbo Land

The Igbo are republican by nature. They maintained a decentralised and
acephalous society. Igbo society was democratic and egalitarian. The Igbos
generally unlike the Yoruba and the Hausa Fulani had a complex and complicated
system of administration in pre-colonial era. The Igbo had no king or chiefs. The
executive, legislative and judicial powers were vested in the Oha-na-eze, the
council of elders, the Ofo title holders, the family, the Ozo title holders, the age
grade, the Umuada, and the Ala, or the Earth’s goddess represented by a Chief
Priest (Dibie, 2008).

1.6 Political administration

The structural organisation of Igbo political system was based on the following:

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  Village administration: A village is seen as inhabited by a group of related
families. Each family head held the Ofo title and all of them put together
formed the council of elders.
 The age grade: These are people of the same age group, they perform the
following functions:
i. Perform the public duties such as: clearing the paths, construction of roads,
and markets etc
ii. They were involved in the administration of the villages
iii. They served as army for the defence of the villages against external enemy
iv. They acted as the police force for the maintenance of law and order
v. They help in the implementation of policies made by the council of elders.
vi. They assisted in checking abuse of powers by the paramount rulers and the
council of elders
vii. They also perform ceremonial and cultural functions during important
ceremonies in the village or communities
 The affairs of the village are discussed from time to time by family heads.
 The villagers make laws for themselves and even the age-grades can enact a law
which the elders would accept
 Succession to leadership position was not hereditary in Igbo political system
 Wealthy and influential men in the community or village are given the Ozo
title.., this title makes the holder to be recognized in the society and could then
preside over meetings about issues affecting the community with elders.

1.7 Judicial administration

Minor disputes were settled by the family while major disputes were handled by
the council of elders or ‘Amala’. The final adjudication of cases was done b the
deities. The age-grades settled cases that are minor among themselves. The Earth
goddess (Ala) plays a great role in judicial functions, for example, offences such as
homicide, murder and birth of abnormal children are crimes against Ala.

1.8 Official religion

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The official religion practiced in pre-colonial Igbo land was the traditional religion.
They had chief priests who performed sacrifice from time to time to appease the
gods. The Igbo have great respect for the deities and the departed ancestors. The
Igbos believes in re-incarnation. Profaning of deities was a very serious offence
among the Igbos. The religious lives of the Igbos were surrounded by mysticisms
and superstitions.

1.9 Pre-colonial political system in Hausa-Fulani Land

The Hausa land, before 1804, was made up of fourteen towns grouped into two.
The first group of seven was called Hausa Bakwai while the other group of seven
was called BanzaBakwai.

The Fulani took over the political leadership of the Hausa states in the early 19th
century. The Jihad that preceded this occupation was seen as religious as well as
political.

Othman Dan Fodio led the Fulani Jihad and took over the political leadership of
the Hausa/Habe and established the Sokoto caliphate with outstanding centralised
political system of government. He introduced a new system of selecting,
appointing rulers described as Emirs to rule the caliphate. Each of the Emirs owed
allegiance to Dan Fodio and his two representatives at Sokoto and Gwandu
(Ajakaye, 1999).

1.10 Political administration

The Fulani introduced centralised system of government after conquering the

Hausa land. This gave rise to the Hausa-Fulani traditional or pre-colonial system
being known as a centralised government.

The caliphate was divided into emirates and each emirate was headed by an Emir.
He had the responsibility of making laws, enforcing them and maintaining peace
and order in his emirate. He was expected to administer the emirate in accordance

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with the provisions of the Islamic and Sharia laws. He was believed to have the
divine right to rule.

However, each emir was assisted in the administration of the emirate by a number
of advisers. These include:

Sarkin: The Prime Minister of the Emirate

Waziri: The Administrator of the capital city

Galadima: The commander and Head of the Emirate Army

Magaji: Government Treasurer in-charge of the government treasury

Sarkin Dan Doka: Inspector General of Police Force called Dan Doka

SarkinRuwa: Minister in-charge of Water Resources

SarkinPawa: Head of Chairman of Butches at the Abattoirs

Yari: Chief Superintendent of Prisons in the Emirate

Judicial administration

The judicial administration of Hausa-Fulani was based on the Islamic legal system
called Sharia. Sharia courts were established throughout the Emirates and each
was headed a trained Sharia Court Judge called Alkali. The Emir, despite the
provision, remained the head who had the final say in deciding critical judgments.

The chief justice of the Sharia courts was called Grand Khadi. Village heads
settled minor disputes in their villages but more serious and criminal cases were
referred to the Emir for final and adequate settlement.

1.11 Official religion

The Emir is the religious leader of this people, whose duty is to ensure that the
commandments of Allah are obeyed in his territory. This accounts for the great

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 authority which was wielded by the Emirs and which made them such suitable
rulers even under the British protectorate.

The official religion was Islam and Koran was used as the holy book where all the
teachings of religion were contained. Mohammed was seen as the founder of the
religion. Some teachings that were contained in the Koran before the coming of
the colonial administration include:

i. A good Moslem must fight a Jihad at least once in his life time. Is such a
person dies in the process he would go to paradise
ii. It is mandatory for all Moslems to perform hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca the
holy land at least once in the person’s life time.
iii. A good Moslem must not marry more than four wives
iv. A good Moslem must abstain from drinking alcohol
v. A good Moslem must fast during Ramadan period.

1.12 Comparison of the pre-colonial political system of Yoruba, Igbo and

Hausa-Fulani

HAUSA-FULANI AND YORUBA IGBO

i. Maintained centralised administration i. Maintained decentralised
ii. Emirs and Oba’s were in-charge of administration
the administration of the kingdoms ii. Different institutions were involved in
iii. Legislative work was done b the Emir the administration of Igbo
and Oba communities
iv. Local police was use to enforce iii. Legislative work was done by
obedience to laws in the communities difference traditional institutions e.g.
v. Minor chiefs were appointed to help village assembly, council of elders, etc
in the administration iv. Masquerades and age-grades etc were
vi. There was the existence of a well built used to enforce laws in the
army to defend the kingdoms communities
Emirs and Obas dominated the judiciary v. Younger Age-Grade were used in the

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 defence of the communities
vi. Special traditional institutions were
used. There were no minor chiefs
vii. Kings did to exist in most areas of
Igbo land. Village assembly, council
of elders, etc settled disputes
(Adigwe, 1985)

11.0. EFFECT OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION ON NIGERIA

2.1 Colonialism

Rodney, (1982) asserts that ‘colonialism is the overall and direct control or
domination of one country by another on the foundations of state power being in
the hands of a foreign power’ (e.g. the domination of Nigeria by Britain between
the years 1900-1960).

Objectives of colonialism

i. The first purpose of colonialism is political domination

ii. To make possible the exploitation of the colonized country

Colonialism in Africa is an event or phenomenon which took place between 1800-

1960s. It is a phenomenon which is part and parcel of another event known as
imperialism. Thus, it is often said that ‘all colonialism is imperialism, but not all
imperialism is colonialism’.

Colonialism emerged as a result of changes in the mode of production in Europe

(e.g. the emergence of industrial revolution) (Cohen &Dnil, 1981). The industrial
revolution ushered in a new process of production in place of the earlier slave-
based economy. The quest for the investment of the accumulated capital and the
need for raw materials led to the colonisation of Africa. The progress in the

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industry went faster than the progress in agriculture. Furthermore, as a result of the
decline in agricultural production, there was the problem of how to produce
enough or adequate food to feed the fast growing urban population. In other words,
the rural areas in Britain for instance, were finding it increasingly difficult to
produce enough food to feed the increasing urban population. In addition, the low
wages paid to workers, there was accumulation of profits by the industrialists at a
faster rate than they could invest back.

2.2 The strategies used by the colonialist to have direct colonization of

Africa

Ake, (1980) identified the following as the strategies used by the colonialist to
exploit our West African countries.

Use of conquest/force: There was political, economic, social and social

enslavement. The use of ammunitions led to the deposing of our traditional rulers
and installing new ones.

Forced labour: For people to ensure the survival of their family members,
Africans were forced to work in their plantations and industries.

Taxation: in order to pay tax, Africans were compelled to work for the
colonialists. Sometimes, if you cannot pay your tax with money, your labour force
is offered to the colonialists.

Monetization of the economy: In order to integrate into the world market and
international trade, the economy was monetized. Thus, the British currency was
used; the prices of raw materials were made cheap, while manufactured goods
were high for their profit.

Payment of low wages: As a result of the low wages, people were unable to meet
the demands of the family, thus, Africans had no choice than to work for the
colonialists.

2.3 The impact of colonialism in Africa

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The major impact of colonialism in Africa is that:

i. It brought about the under-development of African territories in diverse

ways.
ii. It is argued that colonialism brought western education and hence western
civilisation to the shores of Africa which by implication is a positive
contribution towards African development.
iii. Though colonial education was not rooted in African culture (it was
essentially literary) and therefore could not foster any meaningful
development within the African environment.
iv. The poor technological base of most of the present day African states, which
has been responsible for their underdevelopment stems from their poor
foundation of education laid by the colonialists. Colonial education
essentially aimed at training clerks, interpreters, produce inspectors, artisans
etc.
v. Before fully embracing colonial education, Africans were good
technologists, advancing at their own rates with the resources within their
environment. For instance, Africans were good sculptors, carvers, cloth
weavers, miners, blacksmiths etc.
vi. Another important impact of colonialism in Africa is the disarticulation of
their economy. Colonialism distorted African pattern of economic
development in many different ways. There was disarticulation in
production of goods, markets, traders, transport, provision of social
amenities and pattern of urbanization etc.
vii. Disarticulation in the type of goods produced by Africans. The colonialists
compelled Africans to concentrate in the production of goods meant for
export.
viii. Colonialism disarticulated African market: markets were based on African
needs.
ix. The integrated African trade prematurely into the world market and
international trade: the economy was hijacked by the more advanced ones;
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 the raw materials produced by Africans were not used by industries located
in Africa but abroad.
x. The colonialists distorted the development of a comprehensive transport
system in Africa. The transport network developed was to link different
towns and rural areas for purpose of effective communication and
development.
xi. Transport routes were built to evacuate raw materials from their sources to
the destination point where they could be effectively exported.
xii. The transport network developed was essentially rails and seaports.
xiii. Disarticulation in the provision of social amenities: most of the little social
amenities provided during the colonial period were concentrated in a place.
This made most people to migrate from the rural areas where these amenities
were virtually non-extent to colonial urban centres where they could be
found. As a result there was ‘rural urban migration, overcrowding, filthy and
slump environment, poor hygienic condition, spread of epidemic disease,
social vices, tribal and ethnic problems (Ake, 1981).

The severe impoverishment of most Africans by their petty bourgeois leaders and
marginalisation as well as oppression of the masses by those who have access to
state power are offshoot of colonialism or colonial hang-over among African states
(Stephen & Basis, 2012). For instance, Britain used the system of indirect rule.
Indirect rule policy concerns with the ruling of the people through their own people
or traditional institutions with a close supervision from the British government.

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3.0 INDIRECT RULE

In our earlier discussion, we focus on the historical trajectory of the Nigerian state
vis-a-vis colonialism in Africa. In this perspective of our discussion, we will
examine the main features of indirect rule and colonialism, the activities of
European adventurers in Nigeria and the impact of indirect rule system on public
administration. In order to have more insight, the majority ethnic groups (Yoruba,
Igbo and Hausa-Fulanis) will be considered.

Objectives

At the end of this discussion, you should be able to:

i. Define colonialism, indirect rule and state the main features of indirect rule.
ii. State the reasons for the adaption of the indirect rule system
iii. Explain why indirect rule system was adopted in Nigeria
iv. State the advantages and disadvantages of indirect rule system in Nigeria
v. The historical analysis of the Nigerian state: Colonial era (Indirect rule
system in Western, Eastern and Northern Nigeria

3.1 Colonial administration/indirect rule system in Western Africa

Anyaele, (2003) notes that ‘the term ‘colonialism’ means an imposition of a more
developed culture over a less developed one, backed up by expansionist and
economic adventurism’. Before the 1880s, Europe had gone ahead of the rest of
the world in science and technology. Europe of 19th century because the
workshop of the world with growing desire for raw materials for their industries;
Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy etc. were all involved in this race.

So, the competitive search for markets and sources of raw materials for the
industrial consumption of the western world motivated the scramble for and
partition of Africa among some European powers. By the late 19th century, the
concern about sourcing raw materials and markets had become a serious issue in
most European countries. The scramble for Africa, by these European powers led

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to the partitioning of Africa after the Berlin Conference of 1884-85. Britain
colonized Nigeria, Ghana, Gambia and Sierra-Leone in West Africa.

As from 1898, the British government sought to establish and maintain a colonial
state in Nigeria. To achieve this, a number of measures were to be taken,
for instance, removal of all visible opposition to the imposition of
colonial rule, expansion and consolidation of British authority over the territory
later known as Nigeria. In 1906, the first step was taken towards
unifying the distinct entities which constituted Nigeria at the down of the
twentieth century.

In January 1914, Lord Lugard the then Governor – General amalgamated

Lagos colony and Southern protectorate with Northern protectorate to form a
single colony called protectorate of Nigeria. Britain, therefore, governed Nigeria
by means of a system popularly referred to as “Indirect Rule”. Indirect rule is a
system of administration in which the British colonial government adopted as its
colonial policy in dealing with the people by using the traditional rulers, the
traditional political institutions/administrative, cultural and judicial structures, as
intermediaries while the British officials mainly advised and where necessary,
enforced colonial regulations (Ofoegbu, 1999).

Britain claimed that the system involved not governing the people
directly, but throughtheir local traditional rulers and chiefs. It was alleged that
the wife of Lord Lugard formed the name ‘Nigeria’ after the amalgamation.
Lugard later became the first Governor-General of Nigeria. He was referred to as
the Father of IndirectRule System.

3.2 Features of Indirect Rule

i. Traditional rulers and chiefs were used in governing the people

ii. The traditional political system of government in place was utilized
iii. The customs and traditions of the people played a significant role in the
administration
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 iv. The cultural values of the people were respected by the British officials
v. The British officials were to guide and where need be, enforce colonial
regulation. For instance, resident and district officers
vi. The traditionalrulers were respected and given exalted positions inthe
administration which made it easy for the colonialist to operate and rule
vii. The cost of administration was not high because those involved were paid
peanuts. The traditional rulers and chiefs were poorly remunerated
viii. The whites made use of natural agricultural produce in the collectionof taxes
ix. Native courts were used for administration of justice
x. Native police and prisons were utilized in the system
xi. Officers or chiefs were appointed where there were no traditional chiefs or
rulers and;
xii. The system did not disrupt the existing traditional system of administration
and political order.

3.3 Reasons for the adoption of Indirect Rule System

Lack of Personnel: Lack of Britishpersonnel was one of the reasons that forced
Lord Lugard to introduce or adopt the indirect rule system in Nigeria.

Its success in other Countries: Lord Lugard thought it wise to use the system
because of the significant success the system recorded in countries like India,
Uganda, etc, where it was first introduced

Lack of Fund: Lack of adequate fund was one of the reasons that forced
Lugard to adopt the indirect rule system

To Preserve Traditions and Customs:The indirect rule system was

established by Lugard in order to preserve the traditions and customs of the people
of Nigeria. In the opinion of Lord Lugard, the British system of Indirect
rule in Nigeria, was to maintain her cultural status quo

To Involve Traditional Rulers: The indirect rule system was

established because Lord Lugard wanted to bring the traditional rulers into
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the art of governance. He thought it wise that any system of government that
isolates the people being governed will not succeed

It’s Cheapness: The indirect rule system was adopted in Nigeria because
economically, it was not expensive

Favourable Political Atmosphere: The political atmosphere in

Northern Nigeria at that period was favourable for the introduction of the system.
The method of traditional administration at that time was very difficult for British
to displace the Emirs from their position so abruptly. The Emirs were
respected by their people and the British did not want to attract the hatred of the
people of Northern Nigeria by destroying the premier position occupied by the
Emirs

Language difficulties: The indirect rule systemwas adopted in Nigeria by Lord

Lugard in order to reduce the problems posed by language. Lugard was aware that
the people of Nigeria at that time did not speak nor understand English Language
and therefore going through traditional rulers and chiefs to govern them would
reduce the language problems

Vast areas involved: The largeareas of Nigeria especially theNorthern

Nigeria where the system was first introduced, contributed to the adoption of the
system of indirect rule.

Poor Transport and Communication System: Lack of roads, airports, postal

systems, etc prevented Britain from adopting direct rule system; instead they opted
for indirect rule system

Poor Climate: Poor climatic condition also aggravated the situation. Many
British citizens refused coming down to Africa to be involved in the
administration due to poor climate and the presents of mosquitoes. Africa was
nicknamed “the white man’s grave”, as a result of these factors

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To satisfy their economic needs: The colonialists wanted to create markets for
their goods and to encourage West Africans to produce those raw materials
(Nwankwo, 2002).

3.4 Reasons for involving African traditional rulers in the Colonial

administration of West Africa

The Status of the Traditional Rulers: The British encounter with the chiefs
during the period of occupation proved to them that the chiefs were powerful and
were also highly respected by their people

Maintenance of Law and Order: As the custodian of the people’s culture the
traditional rulers were found useful in the maintenance of law and order inthe
colonies

Collection of Taxes: The traditional rulers were found useful in the collection of
taxes and rates

Political Stability: The British felt that, the presence of the local chiefs in the
administration would bring about political stability

They were easily Manipulated: The chiefs were used as tools insteadof the
educated elites because they were easily manipulated.

3.5. Indirect Rule System in Northern Nigeria

One of the reasons for the adoption of indirect rule was for the purpose of
local government, along traditional lines. The system rested upon Native
Courts and authority ordinances. The protectorate of Northern Nigeria was
divided into six provinces and each province was under British official
known as Residents. Each province was then sub- divided into districts and placed
under District Commissioners.

The functions of the Residents and the District Commissioners include the
following:

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 i. They have the authority to retainand use native treasuries in the
emirates
ii. They also retained both the traditional executive official of the emirates and
the law courts of the Muslim parts of Nigeria
iii. They were to advise and guide the emirs and their officials, educating them
to their duties and functions under the new British system, to propel
them gradually towards new and better ways of government and
administration
iv. To enforce through them all the laws of the High Commissioner of the
protectorate of Northern Nigeria. These laws involve the supervision of
courts, assessment of taxes, native authority expenditure and the
maintenance of law and order
v. To ensure that tax revenue was shared between the colonial
government and the province
vi. They should provide intelligence, political, military or civil reports on which
the colonial government could act in making policies (Dibie, 2008).

3.6 Reasons for the Success of Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria

The factors that led to the success of indirect rule in Northern Nigeria include:

i. Because of the already existing basic traditional administrative system

which Lugard admired (i.e. the centralized system)
ii. Because most of the traditional powers of the emirs were not removed
hence, they had no cause to oppose the system
iii. Because the Hausa-Fulani’s had already been used to the system of
hierarchy of official, so, the system caused them no embarrassment
iv. Because of the submissive nature of the Northerners to the emirs
v. Because of the preservation and respect for the culture of the northern
people by the British.

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3.7 Indirect Rule in Western Nigeria

 Unlike the North, there was no absolute centralized authority and systematic
taxation in Yoruba land.
 The Oba had no absolute authority over his subjects because he was
responsible to his senior chiefs in administering his kingdom. If he tried to
wield too much power to rule at the expense of the wishes and interest of his
senior chiefs, he would be made to commit suicide.
 The position of Oba as a leader without absolute power over his subjects
coupled with the virtue of his position as spiritual head which could
not allow him to appear publicly always made it difficult for him
to be a successful head of the native administration.

3.8 Reasons for the Partial Failure of Indirect Rule in Western Nigeria

Indirect Rule was a partial failure in the Western part of Nigeria because of
the following reasons:

i. The limited powers of Obas and their subjects were not submissive to them
ii. The level of education in the Western region made the people to
detest colonial rule
iii. Restoring Authority in the Alaafin of Oyo: It is believed that the attempt
made by Lugard to restore authority in Yoruba land to Alaafin of Oyo
instead of Ooni of Ife contributed to the partial failure of the indirect rule in
the west
iv. Absence of highly centralized administration contributed to the partial
success of the system of indirect rule in the west
v. The absence of well organized system of taxation made it difficult to
raise money for the administration to thrive well since British government
was not ready to involve heavily in financial responsibilities in its colonies
vi. Christianity was the dominant religion in the west and it is more democratic
than the Islamic religion. People detest authoritarianism

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vii. Lugard’s mistake of trying to make Ibadan which had been recognized as a
Yoruba state in the 1890s a subordinate to Oyo contributed to the failure of
the system of indirect rule in the western region, etc.

3.9 Indirect Rule in Eastern Nigeria

While the system of indirect rule succeeded inthe Northern region, met
partial success in the West, and it failed completely in the Eastern Nigeria. The
Igbos had no centralized traditional system of administration like the Hausa-Fulani
emirate system

When indirect rule system was introduced in the Eastern region, there were no real
people of local influence and authority like the emirs and Obas in the Northern and
Western regions. In a bid to solve this problem of single ruler Lugard and his
British cohorts without consideration for the customs of the peoplemade the
mistakeof appointing traditional rulers called “Warrant Chiefs”. These
people that were appointed as chiefs by the British without due regard for their
status and the families they came from were violently rejected.

The use of these unpopular chiefs and the system of taxation that was introduced in
an effort to raise fund for the prosecution of indirect rule led to
among other disturbances, the famous Aba women riots of 1929.

3.10. Reasons why Indirect Rule Failed in Eastern or Nigeria

The indirect rule failed among the Igbo and in the East because of the following
reasons:

i. The Igbo had no centralized system of government

ii. The creation of warrant chiefs to perform the functions of the paramount
chiefs and emirs as found in the West and North, created confusion and
instability in the Igbo land

21
 iii. The system of taxation was not known in the East and when the warrant
chiefs tried to impose taxes, it thus resulted in riots, e.g. Aba women riot of
1929
iv. The early education which the Christian churches brought to the East
helped to give the Igbo educated ones, the weapons to fight against the
indirect rule and the British colonial politics

3.11. Advantages and Disadvantages of Indirect Rule System

The advantages of the indirect rule are:

i. Respect for the people’s traditions and culture

ii. The use of the traditional rulers and chiefs in the administration made it less
costly
iii. Indirect rule administration was a fertile ground for the training of
traditional rulers and chiefs especially, in the area of local administration
iv. Indirect rule system was more accommodating than the French
direct administration in West Africa. The former allowed the formation of
political parties but the latter did not
v. The indirect rule system helped to put a stop to some evil practices in some
parts of the country, e.g. in the Eastern Nigeria, giving birth to twins were
seen as an abomination. Also, human sacrifices were stopped
vi. Traditional institutions, native courts, etc were developed, making it
more effective and durable
vii. It helped in introducing a new method of collecting taxes
viii. The political system was stable especially in the north, where the traditional
rulers had the over-whelming support of the people (Ajayi, 2000)

3.12. Disadvantages or Demerits of Indirect Rule

i. The greatest defect of the system was that it had little or no place for
the educated elements who were not chiefs in the system

22
 ii. The experiment of appointing artificial rulers where none
traditionally existed, failed because it ran counter to the peoples’ customs. It
also resulted in terrible abuses of power by such artificial chiefs
iii. The native rulers were deprived of effective power to defend the interests of
their people against the British overlord
iv. Indirect rule was a system imposed on the people. Therefore the system was
an imposition
v. The democratic rights of the people were abused. People were denied of
their rights
vi. Most of the traditional rulers were involved in evil practices and the system
could not prosecute them
vii. Progress and development were relatively very low especially in northern
Nigeria, thus, development was retarded
viii. The system had no universal application because it could not be applied to
all environments
ix. The system encouraged tribalism and sectionalism at the expense of national
consciousness. That was why other parts of Nigeria did not
want independence while others were clamouring for it
x. Above all, the system failed to prepare the people for modern representative
government or to develop in them a new sense of national
identity as Nigerians, Ghanaians, etc.

4.0. THE RISE OF NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS IN NIGERIA

Nationalism is the agitation by indigenous people for more involvement in, and
control of their affairs. It was a consequence of colonialism in Africa because it
was colonialism that created the nations in the first place (Onah, 2010). And as
such, it can be differentiated from earlier native agitations against European
expansion into Africa or those against colonization of the continent.

Chukwu, (2000) defines nationalism as the consciousness of belonging to same

community and sharing the same political destiny. It comprises feeling and
23
political identity; it can be displayed by people who shared geographical territory
or language. Agitations for more involvement consisted in demands for:

i. Constitutional reviews and reforms

ii. Increase in black/native personnel in government and;
iii. Increasing levels of native administration-level of self-government
iv. Demand for independence

There are different types of nationalism. Some of them include: Civic Nationalism,
Ethnic Nationalism, Left-wing Nationalism (occasionally known as socialist
nationalism), Proto-nationalism, Ultra-nationalism, Diaspora Nationalism, and
Anti-colonial Nationalism, etc.

Civic nationalism: is the form of nationalism in which the state derives political
legitimacy from the active participation of its citizenry from the degree to which it
represents the will of the people. It is a kind of non-xenophobic nationalism
compatible with liberal values of freedom, tolerance, equality, and individual rights
(Nash, 2001).

Ethnic nationalism: is the type of nationalism that defines the nation in terms of
ethnicity, which always includes some elements of descent from previous
generations. It also includes ideas of a culture shared between members of a group
with common ancestors and language.

Left-wing nationalism: refers to any political movement that combines left-wing

politics with nationalism. Fidel Castro’s 26th of July movement which launched
the Cuban Revolution that ousted the American-backed Fulgencio Batista in 1959
is an example of this type of nationalism.

Ultra-nationalism: is a zealous nationalism that expresses extremist support for

one’s nationalist ideals. It is often characterized by authoritarianism, efforts
towards support or stoppage of immigration, expulsion and/or oppression of non-
native populations within the nation or its territory, predicating the existence of
threats to the survival of the native, militarism, populism, and propaganda.
24
Diaspora nationalism: refers to nationalist feeling among a people in Diaspora
such as the Jews around the world after their expulsion from Jerusalem.

Anti-colonial nationalism: is a form of nationalism experienced during the

decolonization of the post war period. It was a reaction mainly of Africans and
Asians against being subdued by foreign powers. It took many appearances. This
form of nationalism is grounded in the experience of literate and bilingual
indigenous intellectuals fluent in the language of imperial powers, schooled in its
national history, and staffing the colonial administrative cadres up to but not
including its highest levels (Anderson, 1983). It was witnessed in Nigeria, India,
Ghana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi (formerly Nyasaland), and Ceylon
(now Sri-Lanka), etc, during the colonial era.

4.1. Nationalist Movement in Nigeria before 1914

What became known as nationalist movement in Nigeria or Nigerian nationalism

after the amalgamation of 1914 had its roots prior to the amalgamation. The
resistance mounted against the British by the indigenes and traditional rulers of the
territories that were later merged together to become Nigeria constitute the early
phase of nationalist movement in Nigeria.

This resistance took many forms. There was non-cooperation with the British in
trade, and wars fought against the British. By educating them and subsequently
denying them equality with the visitors (Europeans), the Christian missions helped
to contribute their own quota to the emergence of nationalist movement in Nigeria.

4.2. Factors Responsible for the Growth of Nationalist Movement in Nigeria

after the Amalgamation of 1914

i. The early resistance struggles consist of the various oppositions put up by

the indigenous peoples against the British penetration.
ii. The activities of the press during this period assisted in stimulating national
consciousness. These activities brought about increase in the number of
newspapers.
25
iii. Colonial policies equally contributed in stimulating national consciousness
as traditional rulers and educated elites were dissatisfied with these policies.
There was racial discrimination in the colonial system, as Africans were not
considered eligible for top civil service positions
iv. Economic depression experienced during this period equally encouraged the
growth of nationalist struggle. The depression brought about retrenchment,
unemployment, and economic hardship. There was a drastic fall of wages.
v. The imposition of capitation taxes; land expropriation for government
purposes which became a source of grievance for a people passionately
attached to their lands especially when such lands were used for purposes
not originally stated by the administration, and when inadequate
compensation was paid to their owners; intensification of economic
exploitation which was detrimental to the economy of the country; and high
prices which were charged for imported goods and low prices paid for
primary products.
vi. The activities of Nigerian students abroad were one of the external factors
that contributed to the growth of nationalist struggle in Nigeria. These
students contributed their own quota to nationalism during this period
having organized themselves into organizations e.g. West African Students
Union (W.A.S.U) founded in 1925.

4.3. Nationalist Movement in Nigeria, 1914-1960: Impact on the

Actualization of Nigerian Independence

Nationalist movement in Nigeria, after the 1914 amalgamation, brought about the
emergence of political organizations whose various activities contributed
tremendously to the actualization of Nigerian independence. They continuously
served as vehicles that aired the grievances, expressions, and the aspirations of
Nigerians.

4.4. Specific factors that spurred/triggered the rise of Nationalism in Nigeria

26
Undemocratic colonial constitutions: It is a statement of fact that the colonial
constitutions were undemocratic. A classic example is the Richard’s Constitution
of 1946 which provide for a Legislative Council whose jurisdiction was a country
wide.

Destruction of the traditional administrative values: until 1914 when the British
Colonialists amalgamated Southern and Northern protectorates what is today
known as Nigeria was made up of various groups with differential governmental
and social systems as in Hausa-Fulani emirates in the North, Oyo Empire in the
South-West and Ibos Republican government in the South East. Due to lack of
qualified personnel among other factors, indirect rule was adopted as a system of
governance.

Economic exploitation of the agricultural resources: It should be noted that the

British government believe that the economics of the Colonies should be tied to
those of the Imperial Power just for the benefit of the imperial power. For example,
according to the policy tagged “Colonial Pact” the Colonies must provide
agricultural export crops for the imperial country, and buy its manufactured goods
in return. This situation led to economic exploitation of the colonies by Britain.

Taxation: One of the purposes of the colonial taxation system was to provide
requisite funds for administering the Colony as a field of exploitation. Europe
colonizers ensured that Nigerian paid for the upkeep of the Governors and Police
who oppressed them and served as watch dogs for private capitalists.

Forced labour: The simplest form of forced labour was that which colonial
governments exacted to carry out public works. Labour for a given number of days
per year had to be given free for these public works-building castles for Governors,
Prisoners for Africans, Barracks for troops, and Bungalows for Colonial officials.

Limited political and economic opportunities:The colonizers generally

monopolised the available opportunities in the colonies to the exclusion of the
colonized.
27
Emergent/Educated Elite: People in this group include: liberal minded
Europeans, Americans and Nigerians indifferent professions. It may also include
African students abroad who suffer damming racial segregation.

The effect of independence: The attainment of independence experienced in Asia,

India and Indonesia etc.

The Atlantic Treaty of 1941: This treaty espouses the principle of self-
determination for all people.

The Cold War between the Communist bloc led by the Soviet Union and the
Capitalist bloc led by the United States

In summary, these impacts were revealed from the contributions of the Nigerian
nationalists in their struggle to liberate their country from the nefarious claws of
colonialism. However, the struggle had its first phase in the early resistance
mounted against the British penetration into the various territories that were later
brought together to form a single political entity, by the native inhabitants. These
inhabitants never believed that they required British protection to continue living.
They equally wanted to be free to live their lives as they chose.

Nationalist movement in Nigeria brought about the emergence of newspapers

which laid the foundation for journalism in the country; the emergence of higher
education institutions which provided Nigerians with the opportunity to acquire
higher education; the emergence of political organizations and associations which
provided Nigerians with the opportunity to participate in the political affairs of
their country; the emergence of professional unions; the establishment of a federal
structure of government; and constitutional reforms which laid the foundation for
the subsequent constitutional reforms experienced after independence.
Additionally, nationalist movement introduced ethnic politics and regional disunity
in Nigeria’s political environment. This development has continued to adversely
affect the political development of the country after independence.

5.0. Post-Colonial Period

28
The post-colonial period in the annals of Nigerian political history started on
October 1, 1960 when the British flag, the Union Jack was lowered in Nigeria and
the reign of government was taken over by the Nigerian leaders who emerged
through the process of the 1959 general elections.

Post-colonialism is sometimes assumed to refer to “after colonialism” or “after-

independence” (McEwan, 2009), describing the wide range of social, cultural and
political events arising specifically from the decline and fall of European
colonialism that took place after World War II. Post-colonialism expresses the
opposite idea of colonialism. Hence, post-colonialism literature is a consequence
of colonialism. A colonised individual is usually forced to follow the culture of
their colony regardless if they are against it or not. Post-colonial writers usually
write about how their rich native cultures were destroyed under the power of
imperialism.One scholar has suggested that although most countries have gained
independence from their colonisers, they are still indirectly subjected in one way or
another to the forms of neo-colonial domination (Ashcroft, et al. 2003).

African politics in the post-colonial era has been marred by authoritarianism,

corruption, military intervention, and leadership failures amidst a broader socio-
economic crisis characterized by poverty. Upon obtaining independence from
colonial rule in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the public mood was marked by
exuberance and hope for immediate and substantial changes. Equally, the political
landscape, fuelled by the triumph of independence and corresponding
empowerment, fostered an atmosphere of high expectations for a better future for
Africans.

5.1. Some of the challenges of post-colonial period include:

i. African governments at independence inherited bureaucracies and

economies that did not have the capacity to meet the tremendous challenges
that lay ahead. The legitimacy of the first independent governments in
Africa depended on their ability to meet these needs. Yet weak government

29
 structures, lack of funds, and limited number of qualified leaders proved to
be immense obstacles to the successful implementation of policies. But
expectations were high and could not be fulfilled immediately; hence
political dissatisfaction and unrest resulted.
ii. High expectations, lack of financial resources, political fragmentation, lack
of national unity, and inexperience conspired to create extremely insecure
governments. To counteract the enormous expectations and to create a
political space in which to pursue policies, most governments began to
consolidate power and expand political control.
iii. The single-party state became the norm in African politics as early as the
late 1960s. Authoritarianism began to replace democratic means of
governance as all political power came to rest in the executive branch. That
means that the presidencies, through control of the security forces and the
bureaucratic agencies, came to determine the structures, institutions, and
policies of African politics.
iv. Political opposition continued to be expressed through ethnic and/or regional
channels as politicians who lost out in the power consolidation moves
appealed to those groupswho were perceived not to be favoured by the
presidency. Consequently, the ruling elitesaw itself forced to build stronger
foundations of political support. It used patronage andthe resultant patron-
client ties to co-opt opposition and ensure broader support for itsposition in
government.
v. The trajectory of African politics since independence appears appalling. It is
impossible to divorce current and future African political activity from the
foundations laid down during the colonial and post-colonial eras.

6.0. Federalism
The term power has several meanings but for this context, it is the ability to control
people or things. Our focus is on the political control of a country or an area.
Power could be centralized or concentrated in one unit or it could be divided
among various units in the system. Where power or authority is centralized, it is
30
called a unitary system like it is in Britain. However, when power is divided or
shared among various units, it is known as federalism, that is what is practiced in
Nigeria.

In this discussion, the concept of federalism, origin and evolution of federalism,

main features of federalism, structure of the Nigerian federalism among others are
considered.

6.1. Origin and Evolution of Nigerian Federation or Federalism

The concept of Federalism
Federalism is a type of political arrangement in which political power is
shared between the federal or central government and the federating units
which may be called regions, states, provinces, etc. Nigeria became a federation of
three regions in 1954 while today it is a federation of thirty-six states. The
United States is a federation of fifty states.

In Nigeria, there are three levels or units or tiers of government which work
together, coordinate and interact with one another and each of them has
its powers and jurisdiction. The powers of these levels or units are from the
same source which is the Nigerian constitution. The federal government exercises
powers and functions in the exclusive list which includes currency
defence, external Affairs, Aviation, Immigration, Customs, Mining, etc.

The Federal and State Governments exercise the concurrent list at the same time.
These items include health, education, roads, communication, etc. The state
or regional or local governments exercise powers and functions that are residual;
these include those items which are neither in the exclusive nor in the concurrent
list e.g., Chieftaincy affairs, etc.

6.2. Historical Background of Nigerian Federalism

The origin and evolution of Nigerian federalism could be traced to the division of
the country into three provinces i.e. Northern, Eastern and Western provinces in

31
1939. Before Governor Bourdillon left office, he recommended for the
introduction of regions to replace the existing provinces. In 1946, Richard’s
constitution introduced regionalism into the Nigerian political system.
Northern, Eastern and Western regions then replaced the former provinces. The
introduction of a federal structure in 1954 was the idea of Richard’s
constitution of 1946. In 1953 McPherson’s constitution improved on
Richard’s by creating House of Representatives with powers to make laws for the
country and Regional House of Assembly also to make laws for the regions on
specific matters.

Federalism is identified with power sharing and this was what actually happened
with McPherson constitution. In the same vein, the Lyttleton constitution of 1954
came with a federal system of government for the country. It was as a result of the
1953 London Constitutional Conference, where it was decided that Nigeria should
be made a federal state. federalism, involves the sharing of powers
between the central government and other subordinate unit or units, e.g. local
government and states or region. In 1954, we had two tiers of government – the
centre and regions, both had their powers defined and shared by the constitution.

6.3. Main Features of Nigerian Federalism

The main features of Nigerian federalism include the following:

i. Division and sharing of governmental powers between the federal and

regional or state governments.
ii. The different governments in Nigeria derive their powers from
the constitution.
iii. Duplication of organs of government in all governments of Nigeria.
iv. Adoption of a written and rigid constitution.
v. The supremacy of the constitution
vi. The supremacy of the federal government vii. Existence of bicameral
legislature in Nigeria

32
vii. Existence of Supreme Court for judicial interpretation and review.
viii. Constitutional republication of secession
ix. The division of Nigeria into unequal regions or state.

6.4. Factors Responsible for Nigeria’s Federalism

The factors responsible for Nigeria’s federalism include:

Cultural Diversity: It is argued that cultural diversity among ethnic groups in

Nigeria makes the operation of the federal system possible.

British colonial policy: Britain imposed a federal structure by dividing the

territory into regions and ruling them separately. It was the Lyttleton
constitution that formally introduced a federal system in 1954

Size of the Country: Nigeria is a large country both in population and

territory, and so federalism is a better option preferred model.

Availability of human and natural resources: Nigeria has enough of these

resources to run a federal system.

Geographical factor: Different component units are geographically near to one

another, making it easier for the adoption of a federal system.

For effective Administration: Federalism makes for duplication of functions

creating the atmosphere for an enduring and effective administration.

Bringing Government to the Grass-roots: Federalism makes the people to be

involved in governance and also be involved in the policy.

The rights of the minorities and other interest groups: Minority rights are
recognized and protected in a federal system.

6.5. Structure of Nigerian Federalism

Although the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates of Nigeria

in 1914 imposed a sort of unitary system of government on the country as a result
33
of the concentration of too much powers in the central government, the
recognition of Northern and Southern provinces as near autonomous entities
gave the country the colouration of federalism.

The structures of Nigerian federalism have three tiers of government which include
the federal government, state government and the local government. The
federal government is the first tier, the state government is the second tier, and the
local governmentis the third tier. The three tiers of government perform
independent and coordinate functions. However, in practice the powers of the
federal government tend to supersede the powers of the other tiers of government.
Nigeria was a federalism of three regions in 1954, four regions in 1963, 12 states in
1967, 19 states in 1976, 21 states in 1987, 30 states in 1991 and 36 states in 1996.
At the federal level, the Headof State or President and commander-in-chief of the
armed Forces wield the highest power. At the state and the local government
levels, the Governor and the Chairman wield the highest power respectively.

6.6. Problems of Nigerian Federalism

The following are some of the problems of Nigerian Federalism:-

i. It is always difficult to select and to accept leadership at the federal level.

Each of the federating units always wants to produce the president of the
federation.
ii. Fear of domination is always nursed by the minority ethnic groups as they
fear being marginalized or submerged by the majority ethnic groups.
iii. The demand for the creation of states and local government councils has
been a constant problem bugging the federation.
iv. The issue of revenue allocation has remained a nagging problem
as the federating units continue hold a bigger percentage of the federally
generated revenue while starving the units of funds to discharge their
functions to the masses.

34
 v. Sectional politicalparties and associations always operate because each unit
wants to have a share of power at the centre. Truly national political parties
are always absent.
vi. Corruption, nepotism and favouritism remain major problems of
the federation. Leaders at the centre or even at the units’ levels try to favour
their areas of the federation more than others. vii. The threat of secession has
always remained a bane of the Nigerian Federalism e.g. the attempt by the
Eastern Region to secede from the rest of the federation in 1967.
vii. The federating units have constant boundary disputes between
then e.g. Anambra and Enugu states Anambra and Kogi states, etc.
viii. Census problem has continued to persist in Nigeria because census figures
are usedfor national planning. Each unit wants to be on top hence the
continuous struggle over census figures.
ix. Power sharing in the federation between the components has remained
a serious problem. Quantification of the powers of the federal, state and
local governments has remained a source of argument and
disagreement in the federation.

The above analyses show that population is very vital for a federal system. Nigeria
is a multi-ethnic nation and has a very large area or geographical size. The best
form of government for it and the one it at can to adequately meet the welfare of its
citizens is a democratic federal system. This is because a federal system allows for
thesharing of power among coordinate units which interrelate together to
form a whole. Nigerians should learn from the United States of America, their
units are more than ours but yet they run a successful federal system.

7.0. Political parties

Defining political parties: Political parties are organisations whose ultimate goal is
to contest and win control of the state power or instrumentality of government,
often through the mandate of the people. Political parties take many forms, but
their main functions are similar:
35
 i. To supply personnel for government positions;
ii. To organise these personnel around the formation and implementation of
public policy; and
iii. To serve in a mediating role between individuals and their government.

Political parties are as old as organised political systems. For example, man of the
ancient Greek city-states had organised competitive parties. Political parties have
been organised for various reasons:

i. To support a particular political figure;

ii. To advance a particular policy or a general ideological stand;
iii. To aid politically certain groups or sections of society, or to merely to
combine for short-term political advantages.

Political parties have also been organised in various was; in some, control of
exercised by a small central elite, either elected or self-perpetuating, while in
others, power is decentralised, with candidate picking and decision making spread
among local party units. The modern mass political party has taken shape in the
last century, along with the rise of democratic ideology, universal suffrage,
nationalism, and more effective means of communication. Thus, according to
Tobert Lane, political parties can be described as:

‘...are tripartite institutions. First, they are legal institutions with a structure
defined by law, custom, and by-laws. Second, they are associations of leaders
seeking to capture the offices of government. And third, although it may be true
that [...], they are significant reference group for voters’ (Lane, 1959).

Berelson et al (1954) described political parties as organisation preoccupied with

the agenda of:

‘...forming national leadership, local organisation as well as the forming the

symbols in the minds of men’ (Berelson et al, 1954).

7.1. Functions of Political Parties

36
 i. They assist in presenting candidates for elective positions through political
recruitment
ii. They serve as agents of public enlightenment and education. They teach the
people particularly the electorates on how to vote, why the electorates
should variously consider them (parties) in their (people’s) electoral choice
iii. They also serve as bridge between the government and the people. Through
membership of political parties, citizens are enabled to participate in
government directly or indirectly. Party members not in government, can
meet their parties, representatives in government and tell them what they
need these representatives to do for them for people at large. This
opportunity may be elusive if there is no political party.
iv. They also serve to aggregating the interest of the people in their quest to
give advice to government on which policy direction should be adopted
v. They are institution(s) or vehicles through which people can decide on
whom among the candidate (flag-bearers) will most satisfy their individual
interests b forming opinion on each candidate b considering his/her party’s
manifestos. This is because the party manifestoes are supposed to reflect
what each candidate represents, to show whether he is a communist or
capitalist, secularist or sectarian etc. it is the ideologies of the parties that
will help the electorates to form opinion among the aspirates, which will
make them (electorates) to finally make them political choice.
vi. They also serve agents of political socialisation. The young members of the
political parties look up to the veterans in the parties to imbibe the age-long
norms and ideals of the parties, so that they can function well as members of
the parties. This is more evident in older democracies like the US and
Britain where the existing political parties have a long history of party creed
culture and beliefs
vii. Political parties also help to itemise the interest of the people in their
political articulations through various forums (or fora) including rallies,
campaigns, lectures, debates, symposia, conferences, and mass media.
37
viii. They can also serve to protect the fundamental human rights of the people.
For instance, the destruction of Odi and the Niger Delta region of Nigeria b
the military under the Obasanjo administration (1999-2007) attracted wide-
spectrum of criticisms, particularly, not only among the human rights
organisations but also among opposition political parties notably the
Alliance for Democracy (AD)
ix. They also contribute in the law-making process. Political parties always
liaise with their members in the parliament. They nonetheless have a great
impact on the activities of their members in the parliament. They
nonetheless have a great impact on the activities of their members in the
parliament to support or disprove a particular bill or the other in legislative
debate for the corporate interest of their parties
x. They perform the function of social change. It is not surprising that,
currently in Nigeria, some political parties can be found to be advocating
against some primitive practices like female genital mutilation and child
marriage. They are also pushing for some legislations to outlaw such
inhuman primitive practices
xi. Political parties are now found to be taking the role of a mediator. They
often intervene to mediate and broker peace not only in inter-communal
conflicts but also religious conflicts, industrial conflicts, intra-parliamentary
conflicts, inter-governmental conflicts among others
xii. A number of political parties also provide social welfare for citizens. Some
parties assist indigent students with scholarships, help communities in
provision of borehole, and building of recreation centres, rehabilitation
homes, to mention a few. They also provide jobs for their unemployed
members. They also assist several members with food and shelter.

7.2. Types of Party System

38
There are several types of party system. Thus, party is usually categorised by the
type of party system in which it operates. Basically, there are three tuype so party
system with distinct characteristics. These include:

i. One party
ii. Two party and
iii. Multi-party

7.3. One Part System

In the countries where one party system is being practiced, there is only one legally
recognised political party. This is not to say that there are no other political parties
but all other parties operate outside legal domain of such political systems.
Therefore, it is only one political party that is recognised under the law, and the
only means through which seekers of political office(s) can aspire to fulfil their
political ambition.

The experience of Africa in the 1960s featured the rise of one-party states and
authoritarian regimes, which attracted instrumentalisation of political disorder and
social cataclysm in several of such states on the continent.

Since the 1990s, there has been a new wave of political redemption on the
condiment where the military regimes began to fade away for democratic
governments, and the former one-party regimes widened the political landscape of
their countries allowing for greater participation n the democratic process(es) by
moving towards two-party system or multi-party system. This is evident in Kenya
after the exit of Daniel ArapMoi, Cango-Kinshasa (Zaire), Sierra-Leone, Caeroon
among other (Chazan et al, 1999).

7.4. Advantages of One Party System

i. It helps to promote unit in the country, particularly as all the various ethnic
groups in a given state will be operating under the same (one) party structure

39
 ii. The absence of opposition parties that characterise the one party system
tends to enhance the stability of the state
iii. One-party system also avoids or discourages waste of public funds. This is
because there are no opposition parties to contest elections. Even, the time
and resources put in place for post-election adjudication are enormous,
which may not be necessary under one-party system
iv. One-party system also provides opportunities to arrive at decisions quickly
due to the fact that there s no opposition party(ies) to contest the view or
policy actions of the one-party government
v. One-party system can also help to promote economic development of the
state where it is being practiced. Time is very precious business; the
opportunity of quick decision making by government is likely to be a vital
instrument for economic recovery and growth. This is not surprising that
most Asian countries that have recorded tremendous economic growth in
recent time, have been able to achieve economic development and
technological advancement under one-party regimes
vi. The system also helps in the strengthening of state and building of
nationhood. This is because it tends to foster a deep of sense togetherness
among various ethnic nationalities in a multi-ethnic state where it is being
practiced. The issue of creating political parties along ethnic divides does
arise because all political gladiators or political office seekers have only a
party as a vehicle through which they can fulfil their political aspirations.

7.5. Disadvantages of One-Party System

i. One-party system does not allow for wide choice. This because it is only the
candidates presented by the party that people are forced to give their
mandate to. So, if the party presents unpopular candidates, people will be
left no option other than to choose one of them because of the limited choice
that characterises the one-party system.

40
 ii. The system can also create a situation whereby incompetent people as well
as looters of public funds will enjoy continued relevance in politics basically
because of the restrictive political landscape. These public office holders of
questionable character may be difficult to be brought to popular (people’s)
justice as they will continue to hide behind the party to cover-up their ill-
actions and official recklessness
iii. There is a tendency that the system will lead to misrule and abuse of
political office. The absence of opposition parties and limited choice for
people to express their opinion in elections, the government is likely to be
less effective in carrying out its official functions because there is no
alternative party, which people can give their mandate if the ruling party
fails to take care of the yearnings of the people
iv. There is no broad scope of political views. This is because one-party system
is a one traffic party system where people cannot have access divergent
views and alternative viewpoint that dominate pluralist political systems
(states that have more two or more political parties). Therefore, we are
likely to experience limited political education and communication in one-
party system.
v. One-party regimes are likely to be autocratic and capable of abusing the
fundamental rights of the people because there is no opposition party to act
as watchdogs to contain any official reckless and illegality of the ruling
party.
vi. One-party system can also create a fertile atmosphere for political
instability. There is the tendency that people and interest groups may revolt
against the government when they realise that, in order to guard the
corporate existence of the state as well as protecting their natural rights,
alternative political platforms are needed to articulate their opinions at the
pools. And if the government fails to agree with the view of the people
peacefully, adopting violent methods by the people to ensure government

41
 compliance is imminent. The latter is capable of creating tensions in the
polity, which will result in political instability.

7.6. Two-Party System

Two-Party system occurs in a political systems or countries where there is only

two political parties recognised by the law. Again, two-party system operates in
political systems where there exist two dominant political parties.

However, this party system can be found in the United States (the Republican
Party and Democratic Party), Nigeria under Babangida transition programme (the
National Republican Part and Social Democratic Party), Britain (Labour and
Conservative Parties). We can also find this kind of party system in several other
countries including Australia.

7.7. Advantages of Two-Party System

i. There is greater choice among the people to express their electoral opinions
because there are more than one political party in the state. If the ruling
party does not perform up-to people’s expectations, people will have
alternative political parties that give their mandate in subsequent election(s).
Again, the people may have opportunity to decide on which political party
should control the executive or the one to have majority in the legislature.
The electoral opinion will determine if the part that controls the executive
will have its members controlling the majority of the parliament. The recent
experience in the United States shows that different parties control the
executive and legislature as the Republican Party controls the presidency
(executive) while the Democratic Party has the majority in the congress
(legislature).
ii. It prevents misrule and autocratic administration. The opposition is always
on alert, serving as watchdog and always scrutinizes the activities of
government. Whenever the government is to adopt any policy-action, the
opposition will analyse such policies and communicate the consequences of
42
 such policies on the nation at large. Through this, people are enlightened
about government activities, and enable them (people) not to be in the dark.
iii. It promotes good governance and economic development. Due to the
existence of alternative political platform, government of the day usually
tries as much as possible to fulfil its campaign promises and people’s need
are likely to be given a great priority.
iv. It also promotes political stability. This is because each party will always
watch its steps by articulating policies and programmes that will promote the
goodwill and popularity of the party.
v. It allows for participation of the opposition party in the decision-making
process (es) of the government through critical appraisal of government
policies. In most times, the comments of the opposition enable the
government to streamline and synthesise its policies, so that, the policies
will attract wide public support; and
vi. Two-party system also encourages broader political communication and
education

7.8. Disadvantages of Two-Party System

i. It may be costly to operate because it usually consumes a lot of financial

resources. The nations that are poor may find it an uphill task to sustain the
system of two-party, and that is why most developing countries like Africa
usually seek for financial assistance from international donors mostly the
developed countries or their agencies. A lot of money is spent in organising
and conducting elections under two-party system because there is existence
of two dominant political parties competing for elective offices. Therefore,
government will need to provide for more electoral materials (than in one
party system) and other logistics. These will of course attract a lot of
money. Again, election tribunals will also be established. The purpose for
its set-up is to provide post-election dispute settlement in which the tribunals
will address issues of electoral conflicts, malpractices and violence. Post-

43
 election adjudication is so vital in two-party to avoid anarchy after the
conduct of election and announcement of election results. Post-election
adjudication is more applied in two-party system than one-party, and it
(post-election adjudication) is nonetheless expensive.
ii. It may crate instability in the polity. There is no doubt; two-party system is
not always desirable for countries that experience sharply ethno-religious or
ideological division. Thus, there is inherent danger if people’s political
choice is built largely around ethnic chauvinism, religious bigotry or
(inter)ideological hatred. Just imagine having two-party system in a
political system (country) where there is mutual suspicion and structural
hatred between two ethnic groups, and each of the two dominant parties is
majorly controlled by each of the two ethnic groups. There is a tendency
that such situation will generate tensions, and perhaps, political instability.
iii. Under two-party system, parties are often tempted to adopt clandestine or
destructive methods against each other. This is to enjoy a comparative
advantage over each other in their quest to win the mandate of the people.
Thus, what is lost by one party is gained by the other party.
iv. The desire of the ruling party to stay in power perpetually may attract strong
opposition from the other party. Such opposition may generate inter-party
violence, capable of over-heating the polity
v. The public may be deceived by the opposition party against the policies of
the ruling party. This often done with the aim of winning people’s political
affections towards it.
vi. There is limited choice in the expression of electoral opinion of the people.
This because there are only two political parties available, and if none of the
parties has programme and manifestos that majority of the people desire,
yet, people will be forced to reckon with available parties. People become
beggars that have no choice. Consequently, the political choice in two-party
system may not be actually or true reflection of their political preferences.

7.9. Multi-Party System

44
In a multi-party system, there is existence of three or more political party’s
recognised b the law of a given state. In political system (country) where multi-
party system is adopted, there are three or more political, and each of them enjoys
almost equal influence but varying potentials in the power equilibrium, particularly
as it concerns acquisition of political power.

Most times, due to the existence of numerous political parties, the government is
formed through coalition and workable arrangement of two or more parties to form
a formidable and larger party. This is often done where we have parties in which
none of them has majority support among the electorates (sufficient enough) to
achieve electoral victory.

The countries where multi-party system is being practiced may include: Nigeria,
Ghana, Italy, Zimbabwe, Sweden, Zambia, France, among others.

7.10. Advantages of Multi-Party System

i. The system assists people to enjoy greater political choice because they are
free to choose among the numerous political parties to give their mandate.
Thus, the existence of more two political parties enable the electorates
(voters) to freely choose which among the many parties suit them most
rather than being restricted b the existence of only one or two parties.
ii. Multi-party system also enable various interests to showcase or advance
their philosophical or ideological thoughts through movements or any other
form(s) of association can set-up their own political parties within the ambits
of the law. For instance, when opportunity came the way of labour acted
promptly. That is why we now have Labour Party (LP) in Nigeria, to project
the vision and interest of the Nigerian workers. Thus, the party never did
badly in the 2007 general elections in Nigeria. But, the party is not yet
popular among the Nigerian workers as expected.

45
iii. There are two or more opposition parties, which will always serve as
watchdogs, criticising any policy of the ruling party considered to be
retrogressive or anti-people.
iv. The system also helps to prevent misrule and dictatorship of the ruling party.
Here, the opposition parties are likely to challenge any dictatorial attitude
exhibited b the ruling party. The challenge is often carried-out through
adoption of various methods ranging from public criticism, protest, and
litigation to violent opposition.

7.11. Disadvantages of Multi-Party System

i. One of the demerits of multi-party system is that, it is capable of causing

political instability. There may be unhealthy competition and rivalry among
various political parties in their quest to acquire political power.
ii. The system also encourages coalition between two or more parties to form
government. Coalition governments are often weak ones. This is because it
is usually difficult to harmonise the ideologies and programmes of the
collation parties. This situation tends to create problem of incoherence in
government, and consequently the government may be weak.
iii. The ruling party may invite (some of) the opposition parties to form a
government of national unity (GNU) with the aim of buying them over.
Some of the opposition may accept the offer, and this action is capable of
undermining the efficacy of the opposition in examining the government
policies. In situation like this, where opposition parties are bought over by
the ruling party, there is tendency that the interest of the people will be
jeopardised.
iv. If the ruling party is very strong, the opposition may not be capable enough
to articulate any formidable opposition to government. This happens when
the opposition are (very) small and weak. This is evident in Nigeria under
the current (fourth) republic. The Action People’s Congress (APC)
government enjoys enormous power, which cannot be equalled by any

46
 opposition. Through state resources, the APC government has been able to
amass itself enormous power to the extent that it has great influence over the
leaderships of mostly the opposition parties, who are ready to trade their
parties’ interest for money.
v. Multi-party system is very expensive to operate due to great amount of
financial and material resources that go into elections, logistics and
adjudication due to multi-plurality of political parties that participate in the
electoral and political processes.

8.0. Military intervention in politics

The military is one of the security apparatuses of the state under the control of the
Executive arm of government which is charged with the defence of the country
from external and internal invasions. A military government is formed
when some members of the Armed Forces of a nation seize the existing
machinery of government from the politicians. A military government or Military
Rule is established after a successful over-throw of the existing government in
a country in a coup d’etat. Military coups can be either bloody or bloodless,
depending on their nature.

A bloody military coup eliminates many government officials including the Head
of State himself. A bloodless coup does not involve the loss of any live. Military
coup d’etat can be against an existing military or civilian government. And this
was what the Nigerian Army did on January 1966 thus opening a chain of events
and pattern in the history of Nigeria, the end of which nobody could predict.

8.1. Military Rule n Nigeia

The first military coup d’etat that took place in Nigeria occurred on January 15,
1966, when the civilian government of AlhajiAbubakarTafawaBalewa was ousted
from power by some five young majors of the Nigerian Army led by Major
ChukwumaNzeogwu. The coup was bloody because the Head of Government,
AlhajiAbubakarTafawaBalewa, some of his ministers and two regional premiers
47
lost their lives in the exercise. Between January 1966 and November 1993,
Nigeria witnessed seven military coups, six successful and one unsuccessful.

On January 15, 1966, the civilian government of AlhajiAbubakarTafawaBalewa

was ousted in a bloody coup led by Major ChukwumaNzeogwu. On July 29, 1966,
the military government of Major – General AguiyiIronsi was overthrown
in a bloody coup staged by young Northern Regional Army Officers led by Lt.
Col. T.Y. Danjuma was overthrown by General Murtala Mohammed in a
bloodless coup. The coup took place while Gowon was attending the O.A.U
summit in Kampala, Uganda. On February 13, 1976, an aborted military coup was
staged by Lt. Col. D.S. Dimka. It was bloody; General Murtala Mohammed was
killed in the exercise. On December 31, 1983, the civilian government of the first
Executive President of Nigeria AlhajiShehuShagari was overthrown by the
duo of Generals MuhammaduBuhari and TundeIdiagbon. It was bloodless.

On August 27, 1985, the military government of Generals, Buhari and

Idiabgonwas ousted from power by General Ibrahim BadamosiBabangida in a
bloodless coup. On November 17, 1993, a palace coup was organized by General
SaniAbacha to oust the Interim National Government of Chief Ernest Shonekan.

Military governments are not democratic governments. They are not

constitutional and they rule by decrees – which are all the time viewed as
draconian. The military ruled Nigeria for thirty years between 1960 and 1999.

8.2. Features/Characteristics of Military Rule in Nigeria

The Armed Forces have features or characteristics which distinguish them from
other groups in all political systems. These features or characteristics
include the following:

i. The suspension and modification of some sections of constitution to be in

line with the military rule.
ii. Dictatorial form of government.
iii. A highly centralized system of government
48
 iv. Rule with decrees.
v. Absence of all forms of opposition.
vi. Fusion of the legislative and the executive arms of government.
vii. Inclusion of civilians in the administration
viii. The use of coercion in the implementation of policies.
ix. Absence of elections
x. Closure of the countr y’s borders, sea and airports when the military come
to power
xi. Imposition of dusk to dawn curfew whenever the military take over power in
a country.
xii. The military anywhere in the world monopolise the chief instruments of
violence in the political system

8.3. Reasons for military intervention in Nigeria

The following are some of the reasons for military intervention in Nigerian
politics.

i. Tribal Loyalty: This is a great problem facing Nigeria as a nation. Tribal

loyalty takes precedence over loyalty to the central government.
ii. Regional Differences: Differences among the regions weresoacute as to
direct assumption of power.
iii. Regional /State Based Political Parties:Political parties ofthe First
Republic were all regional political parties. There was no one of them that
commanded a nation – wide support. For example, NPC was for the North,
NCNC was for the East and A.G. was for the West. This polarization of
political parties can cause friction among them and of course does not make
for unity.
iv. Politicization of the Army: The army or military of the first republic
maintained her core values and thereafter became politicized.
Appointments and promotions were based on tribal and political
sentiments and not on seniority or merit.
49
 v. Disputeover the Census Result: Another reason for military
involvement in politics in Nigeria was because of the 1962 and 1963 census
results. The 1962 census figures was rejected as many people claimed the
result was falsified and that the figures were inflated. Also, the 1963
census result was rejected on the same grounds. The essence of population
census cannot be ignored and this explainswhy most of the results were
inflated. For example, it is needed for revenue allocation, constituency
delimitation, boundary adjustments, allocation of seats in parliament, etc.
vi. The Action Group Crisis of 1962: The crisis came as a result of
serious conflict within the party and differences of opinion and
personality clash between Chief ObafemiAwalowo, the party leader and his
deputy Chief S.L Akintola. The situation was so serious that, the federal
government had to intervene by declaring a state of emergency in
the region.
vii. General Election Crises of 1964: The election was held in 1964 but the
result was seriously disputed. The election witnessed party
alliances major and minor political parties merging to contest for seats in the
House of Representatives. There was alleged massive rigging in the
election. Nigeria was on the verge of anarchy and reign of terror and so the
army had to come to salvage the situation.
viii. Western Nigeria’s Election Crisis of 1965: This was another election
crisis that drew the attention of the military to the political process. It was
the election into the Western Nigeria House of Assemblywhere twoparties’
rivals were contesting – NNDP led by Chief S. L. Akintola and UPGA led
by Chief Adegbenro. There was rigging in the elections, there
was chaos and uncertainly, events remained at a standstill. The
federal government was at the crossroad and could not restore sanity and so
the army had to come in.
ix. Allegation of Corruption, Nepotism, and Sectionalism: This led to the
military intervention in Nigeria. Many politicians were so rich that,
50
 theywere making a public display oftheir wealth. Nepotism and
sectionalism played major role in appointment, promotion, etc
especially in the civil and public services.
x. Low Level of Economic Development: This was one of thereasons for
military intervention in Nigeria. Some individuals were so rich and have
succeeded in developing their towns and villages at the expense of the
development of the country.
xi. Absence of Honest and Reliable Leadership: This has eluded the
country ever since independence. Many of the rulers were dishonest and not
reliable. They have actually refused to move the country forward.
xii. Mismanagement of Public Funds: The extent to which money meant for
development was diverted into other projects and even into private
accounts was enough reason for military intervention. Politicians of the
first and second republics and even some military leaders had
displayed while in power.

8.4. Strengths or achievements of Military Rule in Nigeria

The achievements of military government in Nigeria are as follow:-

i. The army succeeded in keeping or defending the sovereignty and unity of

the country during the civil war.
ii. At the end of the civil war, the army embarked on the policy of
reconstruction, rehabilitation and reconciliation, which have healed the
wounds and aftermath of the war.
iii. The army successfully created more states in the country e.g. they created 12
states in 1967, 19 states in 1976, and 21 states in 1987, 30 states in 1991,
and 36 in 1996.
iv. The army introduced a uniform and single tier system of local government in
the country in 1976.

51
 v. The army provided modern infrastructures inthe countryespecially inthe
rural areas e.g. they built more roads, seaports, airports, hospitals, electricity
etc.
vi. The army revolutionalized the agricultural system in the country through the
introduction of the Land Use Decree, Operation Feed the Nation and
DFRRI.
vii. The army made a big progress in the field of education e.g. they established
more post primary institutions and introduced the Universal
Primary Education (UPE).
viii. The army evolved an articulate and dynamic foreign policy for the country
which made Nigeria to become the giant of Africa.
ix. The army revived the ailing or distressed economy of the country through
their various policies of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP)
e.g. The introduction of Second Tier Foreign Exchange Market
(SFEM) and the Foreign Exchange Market (FEM).
x. The army took the decision to relocate the Federal Capital Territory
away from Lagos to Abuja.
xi. The introduction of the indigenization policy or decrees in 1976. This
policy helped to nationalize most foreign companies in Nigeria.
xii. Ban on importation of certain commodities and thus encouraged
local production of commodities and thus encouraged the growth of local
industries.
xiii. The army successfully handed over government to the civilians in 1979 and
introduced a new constitution for the country and a presidential system
of government.
xiv. The army reduced the scale of corruption and indiscipline in the
country through the public execution of armed robbers, killing of drug
publishers, trial of people who embezzled public funds and the
launching of War Against Indiscipline (WAI).

8.5. Weaknesses or failures of military in Nigeria

52
The weaknesses or failures of military include:

i. The militaryregime was constituted by military personnel who lacked both

administrative and political experience to govern.
ii. Military regime did not tolerate criticism and therefore hostile to
criticisms and intolerant of public opinions.
iii. All military administrations were dictatorial. They ruled by decrees and
edicts that may not be challenged in any court of law.
iv. The independence of the judiciary was sometimes not guaranteed and many
of their decrees contain to ouster clauses that rendered the judiciary
powerless.
v. The military rule was responsible for the civil war that claimed millions of
lives. The war was between 1967 and 1970.
vi. There waswidespread corruption among those in the corridors of power.
Many of these military men acquired their ill-gotten wealth with impunity.
vii. The military mismanaged and wasted the public funds, through
massive importation of cement, fuel, rice etc.
viii. Military rule was mostly noted for violating of the fundamental human
rights. People were detained without trial.
ix. Some have accused the military men of aiding and abetting crime in
the country.
x. Military administration was undemocratic. Leaders were not chosen through
the ballot.
xi. Since the military rule was without a constitution, respect for the rule of law
may not be possible.
xii. Laws are made through issuing of decrees. Most of these decrees were
made by a few and imposed on the majority of Nigerians.
xiii. Failure to conduct reliable and acceptable census.

9.0. Attainment of Independence

53
Since colonial incursion and the attainment of political independence, Nigeria like
other erstwhile colonialpossessions have inculcated the Westminster-styled
political system at independence “influenced tremulously byan elite class that
projects the political culture which could make or mar democracy as a result of the
politicalparties” (Aristotle, 2007).This means that the political parties become
platforms on which the politicians actualize the authoritativeallocation of values,
often time the idiosyncrasies of these political elites form values which are
inconsistent withthe parent political-style copied, thus making the attainment of
good governance impossible. Suffice to state thatcopied western-style political
system, have inherent challenges which are managed with a compelling sense
ofpatriotism- a very rare feature in Nigeria and most other Third World countries.

9.1. The First Republic, 1960-1966

The first republic started from October 1, 1960 to January 15, 1966 with the three
major parties representing thethen three regions and nationalities – Action Group
(AG), National Council for Nigeria and the Cameroun(NCNC), and Northern
People Congress (NPC). The first general election in Nigeria on the eve of
independencewas contested by these three political parties with electoral victories
reflected in their regions of origin. In theEast, the NCNC won with a large majority
and the NPC swept the North. In the West, the AG initially won 44seats but this
increased to 49 as some NCNC members declared for the Action Group
(Orugbani2005). Nigerianpolitical system during this era was described by
Crawford Young as a “three-person game, with bidding sharesultimately
determined by the electoral mechanism. The three actors enter the contest with a
given demographicallocation 29 percent for the Hausa-Fulani, 20 percent for the
Yoruba, 17 percent for the Ibo - if they succeeded inmobilizing their full cultural
community” (Young, 1993:292). The two referred to here were
AlhajiTafawaBalawe (Prime Minister), Dr. NnamdiAzikiwe (President), and Chief
ObafemiAwolowo (Leader of Opposition)following the NPC-NCNC alliance. As
at this time, Nigeria adopted the parliamentary system of government.

54
The ruling political elites at the time faced inter and intra-party rivalries – the AG,
Chief ObafemiAwolowo andChief S. L. Akintola rivalry resulting to election crisis
in the Western Region in 1962 and subsequent impositionof state of emergency in
the region on 29th May, 1962 (Harriman, 2006: 4); the treason trial of Chief
Awolowoand some AG chieftains; the controversial 1963 census which declared
the North more populated with 55%; theabsence of a truly national party, and the
last struck was the January 15, 1966 coup launched by Major C.K.Nzeogwu which
sacked the first republic and opened a new page in the political history of the
country – militaryincursion into politics.

9.2. The Second Republic, 1979-1983

After 13 years of military rule, the military under the Murtala/Obasanjo’s regime
was faithful to a transition tocivilian rule. This transition programme produced the
following- a constitution (1979) which provided for amongother things an
executive president after the American model. This was a departure from the
British- styledparliamentary system. The Supreme Military Council (SMC) of
Murtala/Obasanjo approved a five-stageprogramme designed to ensure a smooth
transition to civil rule. These were – state creation, settling down of the created
states before election, lifting up of ban on politicalactivities, the final stages –
elections into the states and federal houses before handing over (Odinkalu,
2001:65).
9.3. The Third Republic, 1985-1993
By this time Nigeria has gotten use to the reign of the generals and the martial
music that announced the end andbeginning of another. The General Buhari’s junta
was sacked in a palace coup by General Ibrahim Babangida, theself-styled military
president in Nigeria political history. The Babangida’s administration thinned the
number ofpolitical parties from five in the second republic to two in the third
republic – the Social Democratic Party, SDP,and the National Republic
Convention, NRC. These emerged out of the many political associations formed
toterminate IBB’s regime in 1992. A minority group of the 1986 political Bureau,
55
had proposed 1992 as terminaldate while the majority, 1990. Decree No. 19 of
1987 established the National Electoral Commission, NEC. Thetwin political
parties had government imposed pseudo – ideological orientation – the NRC – “a
little to the rightand the SDP – “a little to the left” (Alkali; 1999:1-2).

9.4. The Fourth Republic

Nigeria’s fourth republic has witnessed four general elections (1999, 2003, 2007,
and 2011) and is yet to showprofound evidence of a growing democracy (Dkihru,
2011:1) the lamentation is appropriate owing to inherentchallenges (mostly
avoidable).The Abubakar’s regime mid-wifed this republic in admirable manner
but theelectoral umpires lacked the credibility to conduct free and fair
elections.With judicial intervention the registration process for political parties was
liberalized, hence after the 1999election, 30 political parties were registered and
the entrance of many retired military officers (mostly wealthy ex-Generals)
probably a ploy to stave off coups in the country. On the performance of the
umpire (INEC), the 2003and 2007 were appalling. For instance, electoral tickets
were given to people who never contested primaries andtotal votes polled more
than accredited voters in a polling unit. The courts were thus stuff-filled with
electionpetitions, many states had re-run or the wrong candidate’s stolen mandate
retrieved and conferred on the rightfulcandidate. This was the case in Edo State (in
2008 and 2012),Ekiti and Osun had the same experience. There wasoften rift
between the executive and legislative arms of government.

In summary, it is clearfrom the analysis that Nigeria centenary history, which

spans from colonial era through the period of independence, has witnessed some
challenging situations – ethnicity, corruption, violence military intervention,civil
war and electoral malfeasance. Despite these challenges, the people are still
managing their union with thehope of building a strong and united nation, with a
stable democracy that would stand the test of time andcompete with other
developed democracies in the world. The centenary celebration should be a time

56
for reflectionon missed steps and opportunities so that Nigeria will truly become
the giant of Africa.

57
10.0. References/further readings
Adigwe, F. (1985)Essentials of Government for West Africa. Ibadan University
Press, Ltd.

Ajakaye, O. & Solomon, B. (1999) Issues in the Review of the 1999 Constitution
of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Ibadan: NISER.

Ajayi, J.F. (2000)Tradition and Change in Africa: The Essays of J.F. Ade-Ajayi
Trenton: Africa World Press.

Ake, C. (1980)Revolutionary Pressures in Africa. London: Zel.

Ake, C. (1981)A Political Economy of Africa. Longman, Geria

Alkali, M. N. (ed),(1999)Nigeria in the Transition Years 1993-1999. Kuru;

National Institute Press.

Amuwo, K., et al (1998) Federalism and Political Restructuring in Nigeria.

Ibadan. Spectrum

Anderson, B. (1983) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and

Spread of Nationalism, New York: Verso

Anyaele, J. U (2003) Comprehensive Government. Lagos. A. Johnson

Publishers.

Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (2003)The post-colonial studies reader.
London: Taylor & Francis

Berelson, B.B., Lazarsfelf, P.F., & McPhee, W.N. (1954)Voting. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.

Chazan, N., Lewis, P.M., Rothchild, D. & Stedman, S.J. (1999)Politics and
Society in Contemporary Africa: 3rd Edition. Boulder: Lynne Rienner
Publishers.

58
Chukwu, D.O. (2000),An Introduction to Nigerian Political History. Enugu: His
Glory Publications.

Cohen, D.I, &Dnil, J. (Eds) (1981)Political Economy of Africa. London:

Longman.

Coleman, J.S. (1986)Nigeria: Background to Nationalism. Benin City: Broburg

and Wistrom.

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