Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering

Series editor
Muhammad H. Rashid, Pensacola, USA
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13509
G.N. Tiwari Arvind Tiwari
•

Shyam

Handbook of Solar Energy

Theory, Analysis and Applications

123
G.N. Tiwari Shyam
Centre for Energy Studies Centre for Energy Studies
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
New Delhi New Delhi
India India

Arvind Tiwari
Qassim University
College of Engineering
Buraydah
Saudi Arabia

ISSN 2199-8582 ISSN 2199-8590 (electronic)

Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering
ISBN 978-981-10-0805-4 ISBN 978-981-10-0807-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0807-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016937507

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016

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Our respected teacher and guruji, Padmashri
Prof. M.S. Sodha, FNA, on his 84th birthday
(February 08, 2016)
Preface

Solar energy is clean, environmentally friendly and freely available over the planet
earth. Life on earth also owes its existence to solar energy. Solar energy is used to
produce thermal as well as electrical power. If fossil fuels continue to be depleted at
the present rate, they will be exhausted soon. The use of fossil fuels is also largely
responsible for increasing pollution and resulting climate change. Solar energy and
other renewable sources, enable us to meet the demand for energy, while offering a
cleaner and greener footprint.
In the recent past, there has been rapid development in solar thermal tech-
nologies and photovoltaic (PV) materials. This development brought cost effec-
tiveness to solar devices. Based on the developments in the field of solar
technology, we decided to compose a handbook of solar energy, which goes
beyond the usual and brings together a myriad of current topics such as
Day-lighting, Solar cell materials, Photovoltaic thermal (PVT) systems, Energy
conservation, Solar power generation, Thermodynamics, Solar cooling of houses,
Energy and exergy analysis, CO2 credit, Energy Matrices, Life Cycle analysis with
and without CO2 credit.
The main objective of writing this book is to create a comprehensive and
easy-to-understand source of information on the advances in this rapidly growing
research area. This book includes enough information on the basics to be used as a
textbook undergraduate coursework in for engineering and the sciences. The
inclusion of advanced concepts and research trends will also make it useful as a
reference for scientists and professionals. An attempt has also been made to give
solved examples and exercise problems with hint and objective questions at
appropriate place in each chapter for better understanding of solar energy
applications.
This book consists of twenty chapters. The basics of hourly, daily, monthly solar
radiation on horizontal and inclined surfaces and sun-earth angles have been dis-
cussed briefly in Chap. 1. The various natural day lighting system with examples
have been discussed in Chap. 2. Chapter 3 deals with the basic elements of heat
transfer mechanisms, laws of thermodynamics and exergy which have been used

vii
viii Preface

throughout text. Effects of nano-particles with water as a base fluid have also been
discussed briefly. Chapter 4 discusses different solar cell materials, PV modules, PV
arrays and its applications in various sectors. Solar fluid collectors namely con-
ventional flat plate collectors (FPC’s), solar concentrators and evacuated tubular
collectors (ETC’s) are dealt with in Chaps. 5−7. Chapter 8 discusses industrial solar
water heating systems for different modes of operation. The modeling of PVT solar
air heaters and their applications are reported in Chap. 9. The various passive
concepts of heating/cooling of a house with approximate methods and solar cooling
houses have been briefly discussed in Chaps. 10 and 11, respectively. Chapters 12
and 13 cover other solar thermal applications namely solar crop drying and solar
distillation systems with basic heat transfer, thermal modeling and examples.
Energy analyses of solar thermal and PV systems have been covered in Chap. 14.
Solar energy storage in different modes is discussed in Chap. 15. Solar power
generation by means of photovoltaic (grid and off-grid) and solar concentrating
have been considered in Chap. 16. Chapters 17 and 18 report applications of solar
thermal energy, which has not been covered in preceding chapters and cover energy
conservation in different sectors. Study of exergy, CO2 mitigation, carbon credit,
and life cycle cost analysis of some solar thermal and PV system, which is the
backbone of its success, is included in Chaps. 19 and 20, respectively.
SI units are used throughout the book. Some conversion units, various physical
and chemical properties of water, air, metals and non-metals are also given as
appendices.

Acknowledgements

It is our great pleasure to express our gratitude to Prof. Brian Norton, Ireland; Prof.
T. Muneer, UK; Prof. Yogi Goswami, USA; Prof. T.T. Chow, Hong Kong and
Prof. Christophe Ménézo, France; Prof. Wolfram Sparber, Italy: Prof. Ibrahim
Dincer, Canada; Prof. B.K. Bala, Bangladesh; Dr. Alok Srivastava, USA and our
other colleagues in India and abroad.
We duly acknowledge with thanks the financial support by the Curriculum
Development Cell (CD Cell), IIT Delhi for preparation of the book.
We are also thankful to Springer for publishing this book.
Last but not least, we express our deep gratitude to Late Smt. Bhagirathi Tiwari,
Late Shree Bashisht Tiwari, Late Shree Bhagwan Singh Yadav and Smt. Asha
Yadav for their blessings to write this book. Further, we also thank Smt. Kamalawati
Tiwari, Smt. Vibha Tiwari, Ghansyam, Gopika, Ram, Pooja Yadav, Aradhya, Sri
Vats and Ganeshu for keeping our morale high during the writing of this book.

G.N. Tiwari
Arvind Tiwari
Shyam
Contents

1 Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Basic Concept of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Source of Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Formation of the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Solar Spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.5 Solar Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.6 Air Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.7 Solar Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2 Sun‒Earth Angles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.1 Solar Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 Energy and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.4 Instruments to Measure Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.1 Pyrheliometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.2 Pyranometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.4.3 Sunshine Recorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.5 Solar Radiation on a Horizontal Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.5.1 Extraterrestrial Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.5.2 Terrestrial Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.6 Solar Radiation on an Inclined Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.6.1 Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.6.2 Total Solar Radiation on an Inclined/Tilted
Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 40
1.6.3 Monthly Average Daily Solar Radiation H
T
on Inclined Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 42
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 48
2 Daylighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2 History of Daylighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

ix
x Contents

2.3 Components of Daylighting (Natural Light) . . . . . . . . . . .... 55

2.3.1 Daylight Factor (DF). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 55
2.3.2 Daylight Factor Due to Sky Components . . . . . .... 55
2.3.3 Daylight Factor Due to External Reflection
Components (ERC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 60
2.3.4 Daylight Factor Due to Internal Reflection
Components (IRC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.4 Different Concept of Daylighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.4.1 Modern Sky Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.4.2 Solar Pipe (SP)/Light Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.4.3 Semitransparent Solar Photovoltaic Lighting
System (SSPLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.4.4 Light Shelves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.4.5 Light Reflector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.4.6 Tubular Daylighting Devices (TDDs) . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.4.7 Sawtooth Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.4.8 Heliostats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.4.9 Smart-Glass Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4.10 Fiber-Optic Concrete Wall (FOCW) . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4.11 Hybrid Solar Lighting (HSL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.4.12 Solarium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.5 Experiments on Skylight for Natural Lighting for a Mud
House: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 68
2.5.1 Experimental Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 68
2.5.2 Modeling of the Skylight for a Dome-Shaped
Mud House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 71
2.5.3 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis for Skylight in the
Mud House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 75
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 82
3 Law of Thermodynamics and Element of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . 85
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2 Law of Thermodynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.1 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2.4 The Third Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.3 Element of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.3.2 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.3.3 Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.3.4 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.3.5 Evaporation (Mass Transfer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.3.6 Total Heat-Transfer Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Contents xi

3.4 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4 Solar Cell Materials, Photovoltaic Modules and Arrays . . . . . . . . . 123
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.2 Fundamentals of Semiconductor and Solar Cells . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.2.1 Doping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.2.2 Fermi Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.2.3 p–n Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.2.4 p–n Junction Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2.5 Photovoltaic Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.2.6 Solar Cell (Photovoltaic) Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.2.7 Basic Parameters of the Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3 Generation of Solar Cell (Photovoltaic) Materials . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.3.1 First Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.3.2 Second Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.3.3 Third Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.4 Photovoltaic (PV) Module and PV Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.4.1 Single-Crystal Solar Cell Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.4.2 Thin-Film PV Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.4.3 III–V Single Junction and Multijunction PV
Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4.4 Emerging and New PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.4.5 Packing Factor ðbc Þ of the PV Module . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.4.6 Efficiency of the PV Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.4.7 Energy Balance Equations for PV Modules . . . . . . . 150
4.4.8 Series and Parallel Combination of PV Modules. . . . 155
4.4.9 Applications of the PV Module/PV Array . . . . . . . . 156
4.5 Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.5.1 PVT Water Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.5.2 PVT Air Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.6 Degradation of Solar Cell Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.6.1 Dust Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.6.2 Aging Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.7 Additional Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5 Flat-Plate Collectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.2 Flat-Plate Collector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.2.1 Glazing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.2.2 Working Principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.2.3 Characteristic Curve of the Flat-Plate Collector. . . . . 177
5.2.4 Classification of Flat-Plate Collectors (FPC) . . . . . . . 179
xii Contents

5.3 Flat-Plate Collector Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

5.3.1 Orientable Test Rig. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.3.2 Series-Connected Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.3.3 Flat-Plate Collector with Intermittent Output . . . . . . 182
5.3.4 The ASHRAE Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.4 Heat-Transfer Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.4.1 Overall Top-Loss Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.4.2 Overall Heat-Loss Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.4.3 Film Heat-Transfer Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.5 Optimization of Heat Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.5.1 Transparent Insulating Material (Honeycomb). . . . . . 201
5.5.2 Selective Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.6 Fin Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.7 Analysis of Flat-Plate Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.7.1 Basic Energy-Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.7.2 Effective Transmittance—Absorptance
Product ðsaÞe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.7.3 Flat-Plate Collector Efficiency Factor F 0 . . . . . . . . . 207
5.7.4 Temperature Distribution in Flow Direction . . . . . . . 214
5.7.5 Collector Heat-Removal Factor (FR) . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.7.6 Threshold Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.8 Combination of FPCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.8.1 M-FPC Connected in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.8.2 N-Collectors Connected in Series
(Expression for TfoN). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.8.3 FPC Connected in Series and Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.9 Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Water Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.9.2 Partially Covered Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT)
Water FPC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.10 Effect of Heat Capacity in a Flat-Plate Collector. . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.11 Optimum Inclination of the Flat-Plate Collector . . . . . . . . . . . 242
5.12 Effect of Dust in the Flat-Plate Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
6 Solar Concentrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.2 Characteristic Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.3 Classification of Solar Concentrators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.4 Types of Solar Concentrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.4.1 Tracking Solar Concentrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.4.2 Non-tracking Solar Concentrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.5 Theoretical Solar Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Contents xiii

6.6 Thermal Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

6.6.1 Natural Mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6.6.2 Forced Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.6.3 N-Solar Concentrators Connected in Series . . . . . . . 273
6.6.4 m-Solar Concentrators Connected in Parallel . . . . . . 274
6.6.5 Solar Concentrators Connected in Parallel and
Series Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.7 Solar Concentration Ratio (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.7.1 Cylindrical Parabolic Solar Concentrator . . . . . . . . . 277
6.7.2 Three-Dimensional Concentrator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.7.3 Hemispherical Bowl Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.8 Solar Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
6.8.1 Three-Dimensional Solar Concentrators . . . . . . . . . . 279
6.8.2 Two-Dimensional Solar Concentrators . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.9 Materials for Solar Concentrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.9.1 Reflecting and Refracting Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.9.2 Receiver Covers and Surface Coatings . . . . . . . . . . 281
6.9.3 Working Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
6.9.4 Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
6.10 Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Concentrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
6.10.1 Single Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT)
Concentrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
7 Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector (ETSC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
7.2 Evacuated Tubular Solar Collectors (ETSC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
7.2.1 Solaron Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
7.2.2 Phillips (Germany) Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
7.2.3 Instantaneous Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
7.3 Williams Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector (ETSC) . . . . . . . 307
7.3.1 Sanyo Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector . . . . . . . . 307
7.3.2 Corning Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector . . . . . . . 307
7.3.3 Phillips (Germany) Evacuated Tubular Solar
Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.3.4 Roberts Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector . . . . . . . 309
7.3.5 General Electric (GE) TC-100 Evacuated Tubular
Solar Collector (ETSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
7.3.6 Owens–Illinois (OI) Evacuated Tubular Solar
Collector (ETSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
7.4 Analysis of Owens–Illinois (OI) Tubular Solar Collector . . . . . 312
7.5 Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector with Heat Pipe . . . . . . . . . 317
7.5.1 Heat Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
7.5.2 Corning Tubular Solar Collector with Internal
Reflector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
xiv Contents

7.5.3 Gumman Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector

(ETSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
7.5.4 Thermal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
8 Solar Water-Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
8.2 Collection-Cum-Storage Solar Water Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
8.2.1 Built-in Storage Water Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
8.2.2 Shallow Solar Pond (SSP) Solar Water Heater . . . . . 331
8.3 Solar Water-Heating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
8.3.1 Natural Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
8.3.2 Forced-Circulation Solar Water Heater . . . . . . . . . . 340
8.4 Detailed Analysis of a Double-Loop Solar Water-Heating
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
8.4.1 Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
8.4.2 Choice of Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
8.4.3 Analysis of a Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
8.4.4 Heat-Exchanger Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
8.4.5 Natural-Convection Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
8.5 Heat Collection in an Insulated Storage Tank. . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
8.5.1 Heat Collection with a Stratified Insulated
Storage Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
8.5.2 Heat Collection with a Well-Mixed Insulated
Storage Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
8.5.3 Effect of Heat Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
9 Solar Flat-Plate Air Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
9.2 Classification of Solar Air Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
9.2.1 Nonporous-Type Solar Air Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
9.2.2 Porous-Type Solar Air Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
9.3 Conventional Nonporous Solar Air Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
9.3.1 Steady-State Analysis for Natural Mode . . . . . . . . . 374
9.3.2 Steady-State Analysis for Forced Mode . . . . . . . . . . 379
9.3.3 Transient Analysis for Forced Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
9.4 Double-Exposure Solar Air Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
9.5 Solar Air Heater with Flow on Both Sides
of the Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
9.6 Two-Pass Solar Air Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
9.6.1 Nonporous Conventional Two-Pass Solar Air
Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
9.6.2 Comparison with Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . 393
9.6.3 PVT Nonporous Conventional Two-Pass Solar
Air Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Contents xv

9.7 Effect of Fin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

9.7.1 Air Heater with Finned Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
9.7.2 Air Heater with Vee-Corrugated Absorber . . . . . . . . 399
9.8 Reverse-Absorber Air Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9.8.1 Working Principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9.8.2 Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9.8.3 Performance Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
9.9 Solar Air Heaters with Porous Absorbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
9.9.1 Matrix Solar Air Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
9.9.2 Overlapped Glass-Plate Solar Air Heaters . . . . . . . . 407
9.9.3 Solar Air Heater with Honeycomb Absorber . . . . . . 408
9.10 Testing of a Solar Air Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
9.10.1 Performance of an Air Collector Versus that of a
Liquid Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.11 Parametric Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.11.1 Effect of Air Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.11.2 Effect of Particulate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
10 Solar House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
10.2 Physical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
10.2.1 Air Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
10.2.2 Relative Humidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
10.2.3 Air Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
10.2.4 Mean Radiant Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
10.2.5 Air Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
10.2.6 Air Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
10.2.7 Air Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.2.8 Acoustics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.2.9 Day Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.3 Physiological Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.3.1 Nutritional Intake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.3.2 Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
10.3.3 Ethnic Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
10.3.4 Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
10.3.5 Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
10.4 Intermediate Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
10.4.1 Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
10.4.2 Activity Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
10.4.3 Adaption and Acclimatisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
10.4.4 Time of the Day/Season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
10.4.5 Occupancy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
10.4.6 Psychological Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
xvi Contents

10.5 World Climatic Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

10.6 Solair Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
10.6.1 Horizontal Bare Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
10.6.2 Horizontal Wetted Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
10.6.3 Blackened/Glazed Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
10.7 Thermal Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.7.1 Direct Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.7.2 Indirect Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
10.7.3 Isolated Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
10.8 Thermal Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
10.8.1 Evaporative Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
10.8.2 Infiltration/Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
10.8.3 Wind Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
10.8.4 Earth‒Air Heat Exchanger (EAHE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
10.8.5 Air Vent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
10.8.6 Shading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
10.8.7 Rock Bed Regenerative Cooler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
10.8.8 Radiative Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.8.9 Green/Cool Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
10.8.10 Heating and Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
10.9 Time Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
10.10 Approximate Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
10.11 Solar Load‒Ratio Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
11 Solar Cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
11.2 Solar Air Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
11.2.1 Solar-Absorption Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
11.2.2 Solar-Desiccant Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
11.2.3 Solar Mechanical Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
11.2.4 Solar Photovoltaic Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
11.2.5 Difference Between Basic Vapour Compression
and the Absorption Cooling Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
11.3 Comparison of Different Solar Cooling Technologies . . . . . . . 483
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
12 Solar Crop Dryers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
12.1 Importance of Solar-Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
12.2 Solar Crop-Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
12.2.1 Open-Sun Drying (OSD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
12.2.2 Direct Solar Drying (DSD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
12.2.3 Indirect Solar Drying (ISD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
12.2.4 PVT Greenhouse Dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
12.2.5 Reverse-Absorber Cabinet Dryer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Contents xvii

12.3 Deep-Bed Grain Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512

12.4 Energy Balance for Indirect Solar Drying (ISD) Systems. . . . . 515
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
13 Solar Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
13.1 Importance of Solar Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
13.2 Working Principle of Solar Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
13.3 Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
13.3.1 Instantaneous Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
13.3.2 An Overall Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
13.4 Basic Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
13.4.1 External Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
13.4.2 Internal Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
13.4.3 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
13.4.4 Distillate Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
13.5 Other Designs of Passive/Active Solar Stills . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
13.5.1 Passive Solar Still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
13.5.2 Active Solar Still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
13.6 Heat and Mass Transfer: A New Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
13.7 Thermal Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
13.8 Effect of Design and Climatic Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
14 Energy Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 555
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 555
14.2 Embodied-Energy Analysis . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 556
14.3 Energy Density (Intensity) . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 557
14.4 Overall Thermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 558
14.5 Energy-Payback Time (EPBT) . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 558
14.6 Embodied Energy and Payback Time of Solar Systems . . . . . . 559
14.6.1 PV Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 559
14.6.2 Flat-Plate Collector . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 561
14.6.3 Hybrid Flat-Plate Collector . . ........... . . . . . 564
14.6.4 Hybrid Air Collector . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 564
14.6.5 Solar Still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 566
14.6.6 Solar Dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 567
14.6.7 Evacuated Tubular Collector . ........... . . . . . 570
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . 572
15 Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
15.2 Sensible Heat Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
15.2.1 Liquid-Media Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
15.2.2 Solid-Media Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
15.2.3 Dual-Media Thermal Energy Storage (TES) . . . . . . . 584
xviii Contents

15.3 Latent-Heat Storage (LHS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585

15.3.1 Energy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
15.3.2 Exergy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
15.3.3 Applications of PCM Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
15.4 Chemical-Energy Storage (CES). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
15.5 Solar Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
15.6 PV Pumped-Storage Hydroelectricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
16 Solar-Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
16.2 Power Generation by PV Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
16.2.1 PV Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
16.2.2 Applications of PV Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
16.2.3 Charge Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
16.2.4 PV Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
16.2.5 DC–AC Converter and Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
16.2.6 Off Grid‒Connected PV Power Systems . . . . . . . . . 605
16.3 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
16.3.1 Solar Stirling Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
16.3.2 Concentrating Linear Fresnel Reflector (CLFR) . . . . 606
16.3.3 Solar Steam Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
16.3.4 Parabolic-Trough Concentrator Power . . . . . . . . . . . 608
16.3.5 Latent-Heat Storage Concentrating Solar
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
17 Other Applications of Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
17.2 Fossil Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
17.3 Box-Type Solar Cooker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
17.4 Swimming Pool Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
17.4.1 Passive Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
17.4.2 Active Heating of a Swimming Pool . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
17.5 Solar Heating of Biogas Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
17.5.1 Active Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
17.5.2 Design Digester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
17.6 Greenhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
17.6.1 Working Principle of a Greenhouse. . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
17.6.2 Different Cooling Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
17.6.3 Different Heating Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
Contents xix

17.7 Solar Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634

17.7.1 Stability Criteria for a Nonconvective
Solar Pond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
17.7.2 Salt-Stabilized Nonconvective Solar Pond . . . . . . . . 636
17.7.3 Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
18 Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
18.2 Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
18.3 Solar Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
18.4 Energy Conservation in Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
18.5 Energy Conservation in Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
18.6 Energy Conservation in Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
18.7 Commercial Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
18.8 Industrial Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
19 Exergy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
19.2 Exergy Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
19.3 Energy Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
19.3.1 Energy-Payback Time (EPBT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
19.3.2 Energy-Production Factor (EPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
19.3.3 Life Cycle Conversion Efficiency (LCCE) . . . . . . . . 658
19.4 Energy Matrices of Different Solar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
19.4.1 Flat-Plate Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
19.4.2 Solar Cooker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
19.4.3 Solar Still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
19.4.4 Evacuated Tubular Solar Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
19.4.5 PV Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
19.4.6 Hybrid Flat-Plate Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
19.4.7 Hybrid Air Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
19.4.8 PVT Greenhouse Dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
19.4.9 PVT Solar Concentrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
19.5 CO2 Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
19.6 Carbon Credit (C-Credit [CC]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
19.6.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
19.6.2 A Case Study with the BIPVT System . . . . . . . . . . 667
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
xx Contents

20 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
20.2 Cost Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
20.2.1 Future Value Factor or Compound-Interest
Factor (CIF). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
20.2.2 Present-Value Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
20.2.3 Uniform Annual Cost (Unacost) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
20.2.4 Sinking-Fund Factor (SFF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
20.3 Cash Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
20.4 Capitalized Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
20.5 Net Present Value (NPV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
20.6 Analytical Expression for Payout Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
20.7 Benefit‒Cost Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
20.8 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
20.9 Effect of Depreciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685

Appendix I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691

Appendix II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697

Appendix III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699

Appendix IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711

Appendix V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713

Appendix VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727

Appendix VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731

Appendix VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

Appendix IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
About the Authors

Prof. G.N. Tiwari received postgraduate and doctoral degrees in 1972 and 1976,
respectively, from the Banaras Hindu University, India. Since 1977, he has been
involved in the teaching program at the Centre for Energy Studies, IIT Delhi. His
research interests in the field of solar-energy applications are solar distillation,
water/air heating systems, greenhouse technology for agriculture and aquaculture,
earth-to-air heat exchangers, passive building design, hybrid photovoltaic thermal
(HPVT) systems, climate change, energy security, etc. He has guided approxi-
mately 80 Ph.D. students and published more than 550 research papers in journals
of repute. He has authored 20 books associated with reputed publishers. He was a
corecipient of the Hariom Ashram Prerit S.S. Bhatnagar Award in 1982. He taught
at the University of Papua, New Guinea, from 1987 to 1989 as an expert in energy
and the environment. He was also named European Fellow in 1997 and has been
nominated for the IDEA award. He is responsible for the development of the Solar
Energy Park at IIT Delhi and the Energy Laboratory at the University of Papua,
New Guinea, Port Moresby. Dr. Tiwari has successfully coordinated various
research projects funded by the Government of India. Dr. Tiwari was editor of the
International Journal of Agricultural Engineering for 3 years (2006–2008). He is
associate editor for the Solar Energy Journal (SEJ) in the area of solar distillation
and has been editor of the International Journal of Energy Research since 2007. He
is also the editor-in-chief of Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Applications and
servers as a reviewer for many international journals. He was conferred the title of
Vigyan Ratna by the State of Uttar Pradesh, India, on March 26, 2008. He is also
founder president of the Bag Energy Research Society, which is responsible for
energy education in rural India.
Dr. Arvind Tiwari holds a bachelor’s degree in physics and a mater’s of science
degree majoring in material science from Jamia Millia Islamia as well as a master’s
degree in technology in microelectronics from Punjab University (2002). He
completed his doctorate in hybrid photovoltaic thermal systems in 2006 from IIT
Delhi. He is a postdoctoral fellow from the University of Twente, Netherlands.
Besides holding several other teaching engagements throughout his career,

xxi
xxii About the Authors

Dr. Tiwari has worked as an Indian expert in the capacity of senior lecturer at
Manmohan Memorial Polytechnic, Morang, Nepal, on deputation by the
Government of India from January 2010 to January 2012. At present, he is working
as a professor at Qassim University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
To his credit, he has written more than 20 research papers published in inter-
national journals of repute. He cosupervised three Ph.D. students at IIT Delhi and is
currently supervising an additional four Ph.D. students. He is also reviewer of many
international journals including Solar Energy, Energy Research, and Journal of
Open Access.
Mr. Shyam holds a bachelor’s of science degree (B.Sc.) majoring in mathematics,
physics, and chemistry and a master’s of science degree (M.Sc.) in physics from the
University of Allahabad. He also holds a master’s of technology degree (M.Tech.)
in cryogenic engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India.
During his M.Tech. programme he studied the giant magnetoimpedance
(GMI) effect in manganites and developed a magnetic-position sensor based on the
GMI effect. He worked as an assistant professor at the Marathwada Institute of
Technology, Bulandshahr, from August 2008 to October 2012 and taught engi-
neering physics at the undergraduate level.
Presently, he is pursuing a doctoral degree under the supervision of Professor
G.N. Tiwari at the Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi.
His areas of research interest include solar thermal collectors (modelling and
experiments), photovoltaics, heat and mass transfer, exergy, CO2 mitigation, cli-
mate change and carbon trading, and exergoeconomic and enviroeconomic
analyses.
Approximate Values of Various Constants
in Solar Energy

S.No Constants Actual value Approximate value

1 Diameter of the Sun 1:39  109 m 1:50  109 m
2 Distance of the Sun from the Earth 1:5  1011 m 150  109 m
3 Black-body temperature of the 5777 K 6000 K
Sun
4 Centre core temperature of the 840  106 K 930  106 K
Sun
5 Energy generated in the Sun’s 90 % 90 %
centre core
6 Diameter of the Earth 1300 km 1:5  106 m
2
7 Solar constant 1367W=m 1500W=m2
8 Short-wavelength radiation 0.23–2.6 μm 0.3–3.0 μm
9 Average temperature of the Earth 298 K 300 K
10 Stefan–Boltzmann constant 5:67  108 W=m2 K 4 60  109 W=m2 K 4
11 Wein’s displacement law ðkT Þ 2897:6 lmK 3000 lmK
12 Long-wavelength radiation from 10 lm 9 lm
the Earth
13 Wavelength radiation from the 0  30 lm 0  30 lm
Earth
14 Sunshine hour at the equator 12 h 12 h
15 Sunshine hour at the North Pole 24 h 24 h
16 Optimum tilt angle for maximum /  15 /  15
solar radiation
17 Convective heat-transfer 2:8 þ 3 V 3ð 1 þ V Þ
coefficient for air


18 Sky temperature Tsky (Ta–12)
19 Long-wavelength radiation 60 W=m2 60 W=m2
exchange between the ambient air
and the sky
20 Order of the radiative heat-transfer 6 W=m2 K 6 W=m2 K
coefficient
(continued)

xxiii
xxiv Approximate Values of Various Constants in Solar Energy

(continued)
S.No Constants Actual value Approximate value
21 Convective and radiative 5:7 þ 3:8 VW=m2 K 3ð2 þ vÞ W=m2 K
heat-transfer coefficient for air
22 Order of the convective 90  300 W=m2 K
heat-transfer coefficient between a
hot plate and water
23 Overall heat-transfer coefficient 6 W=m2 K
for a single glazed FPC
24 FPC-efficiency factorðF 0 Þ 0:9
25 Insulation thickness 0:10 m 0:09 m
26 Fin efficiency ðF Þ 0:9
27 Flow-rate factor \0:9
28 Transmittivity of window glass 0:9
29 Threshold intensity [ 300 W=m2
30 FPC connected in series 3
31 Thermal conductivity of an 0:03  0:04 W=mK 0:03 W=mK
insulating material
32 Maximum temperature in a 3000 °C
concentrating collector
33 Ideal efficiency of solar efficiency 60 % 60 %
34 Optimum depth of a basin of water 0:02  0:03 m 0:03 m
35 Effect of the climatic parameter on 9  12 %
solar-still yield
36 Emissivity of a surface 0:9 0:9
37 Optimum water depth in a 0:10 m 0:09 m
collection-cum-storage water
heater
38 Optimum temperature for the 25−27 °C 27 °C
fermentation of slurry for biogas
production
39 Cooking time by solar cooker 2  3h 3h
40 Latent heat of vaporization 2:3  106 J=kg 3:0  106 J=kg
41 Band gap for silicon 1:16 eV 1:2 eV
42 Boltzmann’s constant (k) 1:38  1023 J=K 12  1024 J=K
15 3
43 V-group impurity concentration 10 cm 1015 cm3
44 Effective density of states in the 2:82  10 cm 19 3
28  1018 cm3
conduction band
45 Saturation current in reverse bias 108 A 108 A
46 Thickness of an n-type 0:2 lm 0:3 lm
semiconductor in a solar cell
47 Thickness of a p-type 0:5 lm 0:6 lm
semiconductor in a solar cell
48 Diffusion path length 50  100 lm 60  90 lm
(continued)
Approximate Values of Various Constants in Solar Energy xxv

(continued)
S.No Constants Actual value Approximate value
49 Junction near an n-type 0:15 lm 0:15 lm
semiconductor in Si
50 Solar intensity in the terrestrial  900 W=m2
region
51 Efficiency of a solar cell under 15 % 15 %
standard conditions
52 Efficiency of a PV module with an 12 % 12 %
Si- solar cell
53 Specific heat of water 4190 J=kgK 4200 J=kgK
54 Specific heat of air 1000 J=kgK 1000 J=kgK
55 Density of air 1:2 kg=m3 1:2 kg=m3
56 Absorptivity of a bare surface  0:3
57 Absorptivity of a blackened [ 0:9
surface
58 Heating value of coal 29000 kJ=kg 30000 kJ=kg
59 Heating value of biogas 20000 kJ=kg 21000 kJ=kg
60 Heating value of wood/straw 15000 kJ=kg 15000 kJ=kg
61 Heating value of 42000 kJ=kg 42000 kJ=kg
gasoline/kerosene
62 Heating value of methane 50000 kJ=kg 51000 kJ=kg
63 Energy contained in an infrared 51:02 % 51 %
region
64 Energy contained in a visible 36:76 % 36 %
region
65 Energy contained in an ultraviolet 12:22 % 12 %
(UV) region