Exploitation of A Multifunctional Twistable Wing Trailing-Edge For Performance Improvement of A Turboprop 90-Seats Regional Aircraft

aerospace
Article
Exploitation of a Multifunctional Twistable Wing
Trailing-Edge for Performance Improvement of a
Turboprop 90-Seats Regional Aircraft
Francesco Rea 1, * , Francesco Amoroso 1 , Rosario Pecora 1 and Frederic Moens 2
1 Department of Industrial Engineering (Aerospace Division), University of Naples “Federico II”,
Via Claudio 21, 80125 Naples, Italy; [email protected] (F.A.); [email protected] (R.P.)
2 ONERA, The French Aerospace Lab, Aerodynamic Aeroelasticity and Acoustics Department,
92190 Meudon, France; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-081-768-3573

Received: 4 October 2018; Accepted: 9 November 2018; Published: 16 November 2018
Abstract: Modern transport aircraft wings have reached near-peak levels of energy-efficiency and
there is still margin for further relevant improvements. A promising strategy for improving
aircraft efficiency is to change the shape of the aircraft wing in flight in order to maximize its
aerodynamic performance under all operative conditions. In the present work, this has been
developed in the framework of the Clean Sky 2 (REG-IADP) European research project, where
the authors focused on the design of a multifunctional twistable trailing-edge for a Natural Laminar
Flow (NLF) wing. A multifunctional wing trailing-edge is used to improve aircraft performance
during climb and off-design cruise conditions in response to variations in speed, altitude and
other flight parameters. The investigation domain of the novel full-scale device covers 5.15 m
along the wing span and the 10% of the local wing chord. Concerning the wing trailing-edge,
the preliminary structural and kinematic design process of the actuation system is completely
addressed: three rotary brushless motors (placed in root, central and tip sections) are required to
activate the inner mechanisms enabling different trailing-edge morphing modes. The structural
layout of the thin-walled closed-section composite trailing-edge represents a promising concept,
meeting both the conflicting requirements of load-carrying capability and shape adaptivity. Actuation
system performances and aeroelastic deformations, considering both operative aerodynamic and
limit load conditions, prove the potential of the proposed structural concept to be energy efficient
and lightweight for real aircraft implementation. Finally, the performance assessment of the outer
natural laminar flow (NLF) wing retrofitted with the multifunctional trailing-edge is performed
by high-fidelity aerodynamic analyses. For such an NLF wing, this device can improve airplane
aerodynamic efficiency during high speed climb conditions.
Keywords: twistable trailing-edge; Natural Laminar Flow wing; actuator torque; instant centre
analysis; regional aircraft
1. Introduction
Worldwide air passenger traffic is predicted to grow at an average 4–5% per annum over the next
few decades [1]. As the number of flights increases, environmental requirements, such as emissions
and noise, will impose significant challenges for next generation transport aircraft development.
According to Europe’s vision for aviation [1], technological breakthroughs are necessary to
accomplish a major step towards the environmental goals of a 75% reduction in CO2 emissions per
passenger/kilometre, a 90% cut in NOx emissions, a 65% reduction of perceived aircraft noise levels
(all percentages referred to the transport aircraft performances measured in 2000).
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122; doi:10.3390/aerospace5040122 www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace

Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 2 of 23
Nowadays, modern transport aircraft wings have reached near-peak levels of energy-efficiency
and further improvements seem extremely difficult to obtain. Indeed, aircraft wings are still designed
with a fixed geometry fully optimized in only a few design points, which may not be so optimal for
the entire flight mission. Therefore, whereas an aircraft operates in off-design conditions, sub-optimal
performances lead to an increase of fuel burnt with impacts on air-pollution and aircraft operative
costs. Morphing the shape of the aircraft wing during flight represents a very promising strategy to
achieve some benefits throughout the entire aircraft mission [2].
During the very early days of aviation history, the possibility of changing the wing shape was
considered a crucial design factor in order to generate lift and maintain lateral equilibrium. In 1903,
the Wright Brothers achieved the first sustained, powered, heavier-than-air flight in a machine of their
own design and construction [3]. After some experiments with kites and gliders, they developed a
revolutionary wing design, enabling the lateral equilibrium of the aircraft: lateral control was indeed
realized by twisting the rear of their fabric-and-wood wings in opposite directions [4]. Soon after, as
aircraft became heavier and faster, engineers were forced to switch to stiff wings retrofitted with flaps
and ailerons to satisfy the need for higher wing loading; morphing of these surfaces was proven to be
impractical because of the higher structural stiffness required to withstand higher aerodynamic loads
due to increased performances.
Over the years, researchers and designers have conceived several promising concepts to enable
shape-changing morphing devices. All wing morphing concepts can be categorized into three
major types [5]: global plan form alteration (involving global aircraft characteristics such as span,
chord and sweep changes), out-of-plane transformation (twist, dihedral, span-wise bending) and
airfoil adjustment (camber and thickness). In each case, the design of smooth control-surface
geometry variation must strike a balance between proper structural stiffness to withstand the external
aerodynamic loads without appreciable deformations (or arising of aeroelastic instability issues) and
sufficient flexibility to make the shape change possible with a reasonable amount of actuation power.
In the mid 1980s, the Mission Adaptive Wing (MAW) research program demonstrated the concept
of changing the wing in flight. The U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory and Boeing designed and
tested adaptive wings that were installed on an F-111 aircraft [6]. Flight tests conducted on AFTI/F-111
aircraft confirmed the expected performance improvement: 20% range enhancement, 20% aerodynamic
efficiency growth, 15% increase of wing air load at constant bending moment [6].
At the end of 1990s, the DaimlerChrysler Aerospace Airbus and DLR launched the research
project ADIF (Adaptive Wing) and in this framework they proposed a concept to camber and twist
the wing trailing edge [7]. The structural layout was conceived to be used for the replacement and
enhancement of the flap trailing edge of the A340-300. Investigations of span-wise differential camber
variation confirmed 12–15% reduction of the root bending moments (RBM) through the redistribution
of the span-wise aerodynamic load.
Within SARISTU—an industrial oriented research project in the frame of the 7th European
framework Program (2011–2015)—different new concepts of morphing devices were developed and
experimented in large wind tunnel tests (WT) at TsAGI facilities [8].
Different studies showed how controlled wing twisting can be an effective alternative for ailerons
and that the amount of wing twist (washout) during the flight envelope can reduce he induced drag
thus resulting in higher efficiency and less amount of fuel burn [9,10]. For this reason, different concepts
were employed to induce wing twisting. Several works have been done on structural concepts for
aerodynamic surfaces with adjustable torsional stiffness by means of rigid-body mechanisms. Indeed,
the stiffness control for some selected components of the lifting surfaces was demonstrated to be a
promising idea for the implementation of smart roll control [11] and adaptive lift-to-drag vertical tail
ratio [12]. In such a case, the structural concept can change its own stiffness thanks to rotary wing
spars with a controllably rigid attachment that permits aeroelastic amplification [12]. The Adaptive
Torsion Wing (ATW) concept was based on the idea of a two-spar thin-walled closed section wing-box
with all-movable spar webs in chordwise direction [13].
Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 3 of 23
required to enable the predicted twisted shape [14]. In order to overcome the high-energy demand to
control wing torsion and therefore to avoid the adoption of heavy actuators, a concept relying on
These first concepts for inducing twist in a conventional wing structure were developed to reduce
warping-induced deformations to an open-section airfoil was designed and tested [15]. Within the
the torsion stiffness of the structure and, usually, high forces or moments were anyway required to
EU FP7 CHANGE project, a similar concept was investigated for a 25 kg UAV [16]. A very interesting
enable the predicted twisted shape [14]. In order to overcome the high-energy demand to control wing
way to implement wing-twist morphing was finally addressed in Reference [17]. Here, the wing-twist
torsion and therefore to avoid the adoption of heavy actuators, a concept relying on warping-induced
was controlled by working on the bending-twist coupling induced by changes of shear centre
deformations to an open-section airfoil was designed and tested [15]. Within the EU FP7 CHANGE
location; the prototype, conceived for a glider of the FAI 15 m class, used smart material with
project, a similar concept was investigated for a 25 kg UAV [16]. A very interesting way to implement
controllable shear stiffness to adaptively modify the shear centre positions of wing cross sections.
wing-twist morphing was finally addressed in Reference [17]. Here, the wing-twist was controlled by
Most of the structural concepts conceived for wing twist are related to the trailing edge area
working on the bending-twist coupling induced by changes of shear centre location; the prototype,
where high benefits could be proved to be exploited on subsonic transport aircraft. Optimization of
conceived for a glider of the FAI 15 m class, used smart material with controllable shear stiffness to
wing trailing-edge shape could assure significant drag reduction within the flight envelope. With
adaptively modify the shear centre positions of wing cross sections.
respect to a civil transport aircraft configuration using conventional trailing-edge control surfaces,
Most of the structural concepts conceived for wing twist are related to the trailing edge area where
the benefits that might be brought by a morphing-camber system to the aircraft efficiency can
high benefits could be proved to be exploited on subsonic transport aircraft. Optimization of wing
approach more than 10 per cent, in off-design flight conditions and 1–3 per cent in cruise [18].
trailing-edge shape could assure significant drag reduction within the flight envelope. With respect to
Estimated benefits for a reference transport aircraft (L-1011) prove the positive effects of variable
a civil transport aircraft configuration using conventional trailing-edge control surfaces, the benefits
camber system based on aileron-type trailing-edge surface deflections.
that might be brought by a morphing-camber system to the aircraft efficiency can approach more than
A competitive concept to enhance aircraft performances could be represented by a
10 per cent, in off-design flight conditions and 1–3 per cent in cruise [18]. Estimated benefits for a
multifunctional trailing edge, retrofitting a Fowler flap, implementing wing camber-morphing
reference transport aircraft (L-1011) prove the positive effects of variable camber system based on
through rigid surface deflections (for lift-to-drag ratio improvement [18]) and continuous span-wise
aileron-type trailing-edge surface deflections.
twist control for root bending moments (RBM) alleviation (through the redistribution of the span-
A competitive concept to enhance aircraft performances could be represented by a multifunctional
wise aerodynamic load [19]).
trailing edge, retrofitting a Fowler flap, implementing wing camber-morphing through rigid surface
Reporting about the research activities developed in the framework of the Airgreen2 project
deflections (for lift-to-drag ratio improvement [18]) and continuous span-wise twist control for
(running within the “Clean Sky 2” Regional Integrated Development Platform), this paper is focused
root bending moments (RBM) alleviation (through the redistribution of the span-wise aerodynamic
on the preliminary design of a full-scale composite multifunctional and twistable trailing-edge
load [19]).
retrofitting the outboard morphing Fowler flap of a turboprop regional aircraft. The investigation
Reporting about the research activities developed in the framework of the Airgreen2 project
domain of the novel device (Figure 1) covers 5.15 m in wing span direction and the 10% of the wing
(running within the “Clean Sky 2” Regional Integrated Development Platform), this paper is focused on
local chord. The two functionalities of the flap tab (/trailing edge) device are activated when the
the preliminary design of a full-scale composite multifunctional and twistable trailing-edge retrofitting
fowler flap is stowed in the wing during cruise, climb and off-design flight conditions:
the outboard morphing Fowler flap of a turboprop regional aircraft. The investigation domain of the
novelMode A: Rigid
device deflections
(Figure 1) coversof5.15
the mFowler flapspan
in wing tip segment
direction(from
andthe
the90%
10%toof100% of thelocal
the wing local chord.
wing
chord) within the angles range [+10°/−10°] (downwards/upwards),
The two functionalities of the flap tab (/trailing edge) device are activated when the fowler flap is
stowed
Mode B: “Continuous”
in the span-wise
wing during cruise, climb twist
andwith a maximum
off-design differential twist-angle of 10° between
flight conditions:
the tip and root sections of the flap (up to ±5° at the root and tip sections respectively).
• Mode A: Rigid deflections of the Fowler flap tip segment (from the 90% to 100% of the local wing
Continuous
chord) within span-wise
the anglestwist
range is [+10
achieved
◦ /−10by elastic torsional deformation of the flap tab via
◦ ] (downwards/upwards),
distributed
• actuators. The conceived structural
Mode B: “Continuous” span-wise twist with a maximum concept differential
deals withtwist-angle
issues related to real
of 10◦ between
implementation on large aircraft and is based on a reasonable
◦ number of subcomponents
the tip and root sections of the flap (up to ±5 at the root and tip sections respectively). integrating
lightweight and energy efficient actuation systems.
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure1.1.Multifunctional
MultifunctionalTwistable
TwistableWing
WingTE: TE:(a)
(a)Outboard
Outboard wing
wing TE,
TE, (/flap
(/flaptab)
tab)investigation
investigationregion
regionfor
for
the structural concept; (b) Explanation of the outboard wing TE functionalities, (upper) rigid deflection
the structural concept; (b) Explanation of the outboard wing TE functionalities, (upper) rigid deflection
of
ofthe
theFowler
Fowlerflap
flaptip
tipsegment,
segment,(lower)
(lower)continuous
continuous span-wise twist
span-wise along
twist alongthethe
outboard
outboardwing span.
wing span.
Continuous span-wise twist is achieved by elastic torsional deformation of the flap tab via
distributed actuators. The conceived structural concept deals with issues related to real implementation
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 4 of 23
on large aircraft and is based on a reasonable number of subcomponents integrating lightweight and
energy efficient actuation systems.
2. Aerodynamic Design of the Multifunctional Twistable Trailing-Edge

The study presented in this section had the objective to define the optimal morphed shapes to be
implemented for the wing trailing-edge (/flap tab) in order to improve the aircraft performance in
high speed (climb) conditions.
Retrofitting the segment of the AG2-NLF wing flap system (designed in cruise condition) with a
multifunctional trailing-edge (/tab), the span load distribution could be optimized aiming at improve
the global aircraft aerodynamic performance.
The 3D computations of the aerodynamic flow around the airplane configurations have been
carried out, referring to the ONERA elsA code [20]. This high fidelity CFD software solves the
RANS equations on structured multi-block grids by a cell-centred finite volume technique. Spatial
discretization uses the second order centred scheme of Jameson with 2nd and 4th order artificial
dissipation. Convergence to steady flow solution is carried out thanks to a backward Euler technique
with robust LU-SSOR implicit scheme method. The convergence is accelerated by the use of
multigrid techniques for steady flows. Different turbulence models are available in elsA and in
this work the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model was used with the QCR modification [21]. In the
RANS computations, the ONERA elsA software has the capability to compute laminar flow regions
and to determine the transition location, by using the so-called AHD compressible criterion for
Tollmien-Schlichting instabilities [22] and the so-called C1 criterion for crossflow instabilities [23],
within the iterative convergence process.
The generation of the wing shapes with morphed elements is done through the use of a grid
deformation technique that has been used also in SARISTU project ([24]). The surface grid is firstly
deformed according to the requested shape. Then, a displacement field of the grid nodes is derived for
a volumetric transfinite deformation technic applied to the initial grid. The advantage of this method
is that the same scripts can be used for the different computations, as the topological information is
kept. The drawback is that it is based on the initial topology and some local grid inversion can be
found if deformation is too large.
Trailing-Edge Aerodynamic Performance

For the AG2-NLF regional airplane, multifunctional twistable trailing-edge could help to recover
the laminar extent by an adaptation of pressure gradient in off-design condition. Considering the CL
related to high speed climb condition, free transition computations show that laminar flow on the
upper surface starts to be lost.
Figure 2 presents the different configurations considered for the multifunctional twistable
trailing-edge: a rigid trailing-edge deflection (mode A) equal to 2.5◦ is presented in Figure 2a, while
a discretely increasing distribution of deflection angles along the span (mode B, angles 4◦ /3◦ /2◦ ) is
sketched in Figure 2b. Figure 3 compares the computed Lift over Drag ratio (L/D) evolution versus CL
in climb conditions for both the mentioned configurations. The L/D for the baseline configuration
(no morphing) is also reported in Figure 3. As expected, the efficiency of the trailing-edge morphing
concept for the AG2-NLF airplane is visible for high CL , where an increase of about 0.4 in Lift over
Drag ratio is found. More in detail, according to Figure 3, the increase of Lift-over-Drag ratio (L/D) is
up to +2% considering the CL evolution at climb condition (M∞ = 0.36 at 4372 m). This value resulted
fully compliant with the industrial expectations in terms of benefits brought by the new technology;
although marginal at aircraft level, the 2% increase of L/D was indeed considered very relevant at
fleet level in force of the very positive impacts on large scale operations.
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 5 of 23
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure
Figure
Figure 2. Configurations
2. 2. for
Configurationsfor
Configurations the
forthe multifunctional
themultifunctional TE:
multifunctionalTE: (a)Trailing-edge
TE:(a)
(a) Trailing-edgerigid
Trailing-edge rigidrotation
rigid rotation
rotation (Mode
(Mode
(Mode A)A) equal
equal to
to 2.5°;
◦
to (b)
2.5°; Continuous
(b) Continuousincrease
increase in
indeflection
deflection angles
angles (Mode
(Mode B)
B) from
from tip
tip to
to root
root
2.5 ; (b) Continuous increase in deflection angles (Mode B) from tip to root (4 /3 /2 ). ◦(4°/3°/2°).
◦ ◦
(4°/3°/2°).
Figure 3. Performance of the multifunctional trailing-edge.

Figure Performance of
3. Performance
Figure 3. of the
the multifunctional
multifunctional trailing-edge.
trailing-edge.
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 6 of 23
3. Concept Description
The concept of multifunctional twistable wing trailing-edge investigated in the present work is
3. Concept
based on the ideaDescription
of retrofitting the tab of an outer board Fowler flap to enable new functionalities
during cruise and climb
The concept flight conditions.
of multifunctional The investigation
twistable wing trailing-edgedomain is presented
investigated in theinpresent
Figure 1work and isthe
summary of main geometric data in Table 1.
based on the idea of retrofitting the tab of an outer board Fowler flap to enable new functionalities
During
during off-design
cruise and climb cruise flight
flight conditions,
conditions. the TE can rigidly
The investigation domainrotate aroundinitsFigure
is presented main 1hinge
and theaxis,
during the climb
summary of mainphase, continuous
geometric data inspan-wise
Table 1. twist can be enabled as explained in Figure 1; in both
cases the goal isoff-design
During always to enhance
cruise flightthe aerodynamic
conditions, the TEefficiency
can rigidly of rotate
the wing andits
around getmain
consequent
hinge axis,fuel
savings.
duringThe multifunctional
the climb twistable
phase, continuous trailing-edge
span-wise twist canconcept is a thin-walled
be enabled as explainedclosedin Figuresection
1; in whose
both
cases the goal
functionalities is enabled
are always tothanksenhance to the
the aerodynamic
actuation torque efficiency
providedof thebywing
three and get consequent
brushless fuel
rotary motor,
savings.
properly The multifunctional
amplified by harmonic twistable
drive geartrailing-edge
units and concept is a thin-walledAs
inner mechanisms. closed
rotarysection whose
actuators are
functionalities are enabled thanks to the actuation torque provided
activated, the inner mechanisms can transfer torque to the structural concept thus providing the by three brushless rotary motor,
properly
required amplified by
performance. harmonic
Upon drive gear
the actuation units
of the and ribs,
active innerthe mechanisms.
Fowler flapAs tabrotary
is putactuators
in movementare
activated, the inner mechanisms can transfer torque to the structural
thus changing the external shape of the trailing edge (Figures 1 and 4); if the shape change of each concept thus providing the
rib required
is preventedperformance.
by locking Upon the actuation
the actuation of thethe
system, active ribs, theflap
composite Fowler
tab isflap tab is putstable
elastically in movement
under the
thus changing the external shape of the trailing edge (Figures 1 and 4); if the shape change of each rib
action of external aerodynamic loads. The rigid rotation of the wing TE (Figure 1b, upper) can be
is prevented by locking the actuation system, the composite flap tab is elastically stable under the
obtained synchronizing the three actuators (R1, R2, R3). Conversely, “continuous” span-wise elastic
action of external aerodynamic loads. The rigid rotation of the wing TE (Figure 1b, upper) can be
twist of the flap trailing-edge (Figure 1b, lower) can be activated by providing differential actuation
obtained synchronizing the three actuators (R1, R2, R3). Conversely, “continuous” span-wise elastic
control. For example, linear span-wise tab twist can be enabled providing a clockwise rotation to the
twist of the flap trailing-edge (Figure 1b, lower) can be activated by providing differential actuation
tip actuator (R3) and an anti-clockwise rotation to the root actuator (R1) while locking the central
control. For example, linear span-wise tab twist can be enabled providing a clockwise rotation to the
actuator (R2). Fast
tip actuator (R3)and
andreliable analytical and
an anti-clockwise numerical
rotation to the methods in combination
root actuator with rational
(R1) while locking design
the central
criteria, were implemented to assess the structural layout and actuation
actuator (R2). Fast and reliable analytical and numerical methods in combination with rational designsystem with reference to the
most severe
criteria, loadimplemented
were condition expectedto assessin theservice (limit
structural loadand
layout condition);
actuationAL2024-T5
system with alloy was used
reference to thefor
themost
greatsevere
part ofload
the condition
items of the expected in service (limit load condition); AL2024-T5 alloy was usedof
inner mechanism, while 17-4PH steel was used for the fork link the
for
leverage mechanism.
the great part of theAitems glassoffibre
the prepreg with HexPly913
inner mechanism, from Hexcel
while 17-4PH steel wascomposites
used for was usedlink
the fork forofthe
skin,
the“active”
leverageribs and C-shape
mechanism. spars
A glass fibreofprepreg
the trailing
withedge.
HexPly913 from Hexcel composites was used for
theThe final
skin, structural
“active” layout
ribs and (Figure
C-shape 4) was
spars analysed
of the trailingby means of an advanced finite element model
edge.
The final
which finally structural layout (Figure 4) was analysed by means of an advanced finite element
proved:
model which finally proved:
• the capability of the actuation system to enable morphing through smooth rigid-body kinematic
 of the
the inner
capability of the actuation system to enable morphing through smooth rigid-body kinematic
mechanisms;
• theofabsence
the inner of mechanisms;
any local plasticization and elastic instability at limit load condition for the items
 madethe ofabsence of
aluminium any and
localsteel
plasticization
alloy; and elastic instability at limit load condition for the items
made of aluminium and steel alloy;
• the strains for items made of GFRP to be lower than the maximum allowed strains at the limit
 the strains for items made of GFRP to be lower than the maximum allowed strains at the limit
load (both along the fibre direction and transversally with respect to the fibres);
load (both along the fibre direction and transversally with respect to the fibres);
•  thethe absence of any failure up to the ultimate load condition (i.e., limit loads multiplied by a
absence of any failure up to the ultimate load condition (i.e., limit loads multiplied by a
contingency
contingency factor
factorequal
equal toto1.5).
1.5).
Figure 4. Multifunctional
Figure Twistable
4. Multifunctional TwistableWing
WingTrailing-edge
Trailing-edgemounted
mounted on the tip
on the tipof
ofaaFowler
Fowlerflap:
flap:3D-CAD.
3D-CAD.
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 7 of 23
Aerospace 2018,
Aerospace 2018, 5,
5, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 77 of
of 24
24
Aerodynamic Design
Aerodynamic Design Load Condition
Load Condition
Condition
Aerodynamic Design Load
According to
According to reference
referenceregulations
regulations([25]),
([25]),the
thestructural
structuraldesign
designofof
any movable
any control
movable surface
control on
surface
According to reference regulations ([25]), the structural design of any movable control surface
a large airplane
on aa large must
large airplane
airplane mustcomply with
must comply the
comply with following
with the
the followingrequirements:
following requirements:
requirements:
on
I. I.
I. capability
capability
capability to to support
to support
support limit
limit
limit loads
loads
loads without
without
without permanentdetrimental
permanent
permanent detrimentaldeformation
detrimental deformationand
deformation anddeformation
and deformation
deformation
levels
levels not not compromising
compromising safesafe operations
operations (EASA
(EASA CS CS 25.305(a));
25.305(a));
levels not compromising safe operations (EASA CS 25.305(a));
II. II. capability
II. capability to withstand
capability
to withstand ultimate
to withstand loads loads
ultimate
ultimate loads without failuresfailures
without
without failures in structural
in structural components
in structural or actuator
actuator
components
components or or
systems;
actuator
systems; systems;
III. III. clearance
III. clearance from
clearance
from aeroelastic
from
aeroelastic instability
aeroelastic phenomena
instability
instability phenomena
phenomena (EASA
(EASA
(EASA CS CS
CS 25.629).
25.629).
25.629).
Moreover, when
Moreover, when flying
whenflying
flyingatatatdive
dive
dive speed,
speed,
speed,thethe
the control
control
controlsurface
surface must
must
surface be able
be
must able to be
to
be ablebetodeflected
deflected by an
by
be deflected an by
angle
anglean
equal
equal to one
angle to oneto
equal third
third of
one of theof
the
third maximum
maximum
the maximum designdesign
design deflection.
deflection. This condition
This
deflection. condition has been
has
This condition been considered
has considered
been consideredas limit
as limit
as
operative
operative configuration
configuration
limit operative for the
for thefor
configuration preliminary
preliminary design
design of
the preliminary of the device,
the device,
design being,
of the being, the
device,the highest
highest
being, dynamic
thedynamic pressure
pressure
highest dynamic
occurring
occurring at the
at
pressure occurringthe dive
dive
at thespeed.
speed. The limit
The
dive speed. limit loadsloads
loads
The limit werewere
were evaluated
evaluated
evaluated by by
by means
means
means ofofan
of an in-house
anin-house code
in-house code
implementing
implementing aaa 3D
implementing 3D Doublet
3D Doublet Lattice
Doublet Lattice Method
Lattice Method (DLM);
Method (DLM);
(DLM); thethe adopted
the adopted aerodynamic
adopted aerodynamic
aerodynamic model model
model is is depicted
is depicted
depicted in in
Figure 5, limit resultant loads along the outer wing trailing
Figure 5, limit resultant loads along the outer wing trailing edge (/flap edge (/flap tab)
(/flap tab) have
tab) have been
have been summarized
been summarized
summarized in in
in
Table 1.
Table 1. In
In the
the preliminary
preliminary design
preliminary design phase,
design phase, the
phase, the pressure
the pressure distribution
pressure distribution
distribution waswas considered
was considered
considered as as uniform
uniform
uniform on on flap
on flap
flap
tab upper
tab upper and
upper and lower
and lower external
lower external surfaces
external surfaces (Figure
surfaces (Figure 6a). Particular
(Figure 6a). Particular attention
Particular attention was
attention was paid
was paid
paid toto the
to the power
the power required
power required
required
to
to morph
to morph the structure and to the consequent
morph the structure and to the consequent actuators actuators size
actuators size and
size and weight;
and weight;
weight; inin summary,
in summary,
summary, the the entire
the entire
preliminary design
preliminary design process
process of of the
the system
system waswas driven
driven byby the
by the need
the need
need ofof simultaneously
of simultaneously meeting
simultaneously meeting different
meeting different
different
requirements (Figure 6b) in order to come to a solution of industrial
requirements (Figure 6b) in order to come to a solution of industrial relevance. relevance.
relevance.
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Aerodynamic model
model used forfor limit load
load evaluation by
by means of of DLM: (a)
(a) Aerodynamic Lattice
Lattice
Figure 5.Aerodynamic
Aerodynamic modelused used forlimit
limit loadevaluation
evaluation bymeans
means of DLM:
DLM: (a) Aerodynamic
Aerodynamic Lattice
of the
of the reference regional
regional aircraft TP90;
TP90; (b) aerodynamic
aerodynamic lattice of
of the outboard
outboard wing
wing trailing-edge.
trailing-edge.
of the reference
reference regionalaircraft
aircraft TP90;(b)
(b) aerodynamiclattice
lattice ofthe
the outboard wing trailing-edge.
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 6. Design
Figure 6.
Figure Design condition:
Design condition: (a)
condition: (a) Pressure
(a) Pressure distribution
Pressure distribution on
distribution on TE
on TE upper
TE upper and
upper and lower
and lower surfaces
lower surfaces for
surfaces for limit
for limit load
limit load
load
condition; (b) Requirements
condition; (b) Requirements
condition; simultaneously fulfilled to integrate a multifunctional
Requirements simultaneously fulfilled to integrate a multifunctional TE at
multifunctional TE at aircraft
at aircraft level.
aircraft level.
level.
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 8 of 23
Table 1. Flap tab geometric data and Limit Load Condition considered for its design (loads obtained
by means of DLM).
Table 1. Flap tab geometric data and Limit Load Condition considered for its design (loads obtained
by means of DLM). TE Root Chord 0.222 m
TE root chord as % of local wing chord 10.57%
TE tip chord TE Root Chord 0.222 mm
0.167
TEroot
TE tip chord
chord asas%%ofoflocal
the wing
localchord
wing chord 7.770%
10.57%
TE tip chord
Outboard Flap Span 0.167 mm
5.015
TE tip chord as % of the local wing chord 7.770%
TE rigid deflection (downward) +5.00°
Outboard Flap Span 5.015 m
TErigid
TE mean geometric
deflection chord
(downward) +5.00◦ m
0.236
Pressure
TE coefficient
mean geometric (upper), 𝐶 ,
chord 0.3247
0.236 m
Pressure
Pressurecoefficient
coefficient(upper),
(lower), 𝐶,
C p, UP 0.3247
0.5011
Pressure coefficient
Dynamic pressure (lower), C p, LOW 0.5011
12,005 Pa
Dynamic pressure 12,005 Pa
Dynamic pressure (upper), 𝑞 ∗ 𝐶
Dynamic pressure (upper), q ∗ C p, UP , 3898 Pa
3898 Pa
Dynamic pressure
Dynamic pressure q ∗ C𝑞p,∗LOW
(lower),
(lower), 𝐶, 6015 Pa Pa
6015
Forceresultant
Force resultant (upper),
(upper), FUP 𝐹 2378
2378 NN
Force
Forceresultant
resultant(lower),
(lower),FLOW𝐹 3668 NN
3668
Total Hinge moment around TE hinge axis, MB3 475.8 N·m
Total Hinge moment around TE hinge axis, 𝑀 475.8 N·m
4.
4. Actuation
Actuation System: Design Process
System: Design Process and
and Estimated
Estimated Performances
Performances
The core element
The core elementofofan anadaptive
adaptive structure
structure is the
is the actuation
actuation system
system including
including its transmission
its transmission line.
line. Interactions
Interactions between
between the elements
the basic basic elements
of this of this mechanized
mechanized system system
and the and the external
external loads
loads provide
provide fundamental
fundamental insight
insight into into the behaviour
the behaviour of the
of the overall overallsystem.
adaptive adaptive system.
Power andPower
weightand weight
reductions
reductions are of paramount
are of paramount importance importance to successfully
to successfully integrate
integrate adaptive
adaptive systems systems in large
in large airplanes
airplanes for
for improving performances and enlarge mission profiles. In Figure 7, the flow-chart
improving performances and enlarge mission profiles. In Figure 7, the flow-chart of the actuation of the actuation
system
system design
design process
process is
is summarized.
summarized.
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Flow-chart
Flow-chart of
of the
the actuation
actuation system
system design
design process.
process.
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 9 of 23
4.1. Kinematic Design of the Inner Mechanism

The design engineer must ensure that the proposed mechanism will not fail under operating
conditions. At the beginning of the design process, a tentative linkage has to be synthesized with the
principal goal to provide the kinematic performances required by morphing operations; in a second
stage, the obtained mechanism is properly investigated from the structural standpoint. The position
of all the links or elements in the mechanism has to be evaluated for each increment of input motion
and compared with the expected kinematic performance enabling the transition of the airfoil from its
baseline configuration to the target morphed one.
The tentative linkage was selected as the one that can be seen in Figure 8a: a Watt’s Six-bar plus a
Four-bar linkage. In such a way, the hollow-shaft rotary brushless motor can transfer rotation from the
crank element (link 1 in Figure 8a) to the output element (link 7 in Figure 8a).
As a first step, the lengths and positions of the links were defined as function of the input angle θ1
as the full linkage is a single degree of freedom (DOF) mechanism. Indeed, assuming trial link lengths,
unknown link angles were evaluated and each link, represented as a position vector, was completely
defined for each increment of input motion. The approach to linkage position analysis generates a
vector loop (or several loops) around the linkage as first proposed by Raven [26].
In Figure 8b, the links are represented as position vectors that form a vector loop. The lengths
of the vectors are the link lengths, which are known. The choices of vector directions and sense, as
indicated by their arrowheads, lead to this vector loop equation:
→ → → →
r1 + r T0T1 − r2 − r3a = 0
→ → → →
r3b + r T1T2 − r5a − r4 = 0 (1)
→ → → →
r5b + r6 − r7 − r T2H = 0
→
where position vectors are defined with complex number notation r i = ri ·e jθi (with i = 1, . . . , 7).
Each vector loop can be expressed as Freudenstein’s equation; if we solve for the angle θ3a , output
of first vector loop equation, we have:
K I · cos θ1 − K I I · cos θ3a + K I I I = cos(θ3a − θ1 ) (2)
r T0T1 r r3a 2 − r2 2 + r1 2 + r T0T1 2

KI = ; K I I = T0T1 ; K I I I = ; (3)
r3a r4 2·r3a ·r1
Then, the first vector loop, expressed as Freudenstein’s Equation (2), can be simplified as:
√ !
−1 −B ± B2 − 4· A · C
θ3a = 2· tan (4)
2A
where link lengths and known input angle θ1 terms have been collected as constants A, B and C:
A = K I · cos θ1 + K I I + K I I I + cos θ1 ; B = −2 cos θ1 ; C = K I I I − K I I − cos θ1 + K I · cos θ1 (5)
The full inner mechanism is made up of three four-bar linkages in series, as shown in Figure 8b.
These vector loop Equation (1) can be solved in succession with the results of the first loop applied
as input to the second loop. Note that there is a constant angular relationship between vectors r3a and
r3b within ternary link 3. The solution for the four-bar linkage (4) is simply applied twice in the Watt’s
Six-bar case:
θ3a = f (r1 , r2 , r3a , r T0T1 , θ1 )
(6)
θ5a = g(r3b , r4 , r5a , r T1T2 , θ3a )
𝐾 ∙ cos 𝜃 − 𝐾 ∙ cos 𝜃 𝐾 = cos 𝜃 −𝜃 (2)
𝐾 = ; 𝐾 = ; 𝐾 = ; (3)
∙ ∙
Then, the first vector loop, expressed as Freudenstein’s Equation (2), can be simplified as:
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 −𝐵 √𝐵 − 4 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝐶 10 of 23
𝜃 = 2 ∙ tan (4)
2𝐴
and one where

more link
timelengths and
for the known
last four-bar angle 𝜃 in
input linkage terms have 6a:
Figure been collected as constants A, B and C:
𝐴 = 𝐾 ∙ cos 𝜃 𝐾 𝐾 cos 𝜃 ; 𝐵 = −2 cos 𝜃 ; 𝐶 = 𝐾 − 𝐾 − cos 𝜃 𝐾 ∙ cos 𝜃 (5)
θ7 =upf (ofr5bthree
The full inner mechanism is made , r6 , four-bar
r7 , r T2Hlinkages
, θ5a ) in series, as shown in Figure 8b. (7)
These vector loop Equation (1) can be solved in succession with the results of the first loop
applied as input to the second loop. Note that there is a constant angular relationship between vectors
𝑟 and 𝑟 within ternary (a)link 3. The solution for the four-bar linkage (4) is simply
(b) applied twice in
the Watt’s Six-bar case:
Figure 8. Kinematic model of the inner mechanism: (a) full leverage can be seen as six-bar linkage
Figure 8. Kinematic model of the inner mechanism: (a) full leverage can be seen as six-bar linkage plus
= 𝑓 𝑟 ,𝑟 ,𝑟 ,𝑟
plus a four-bar linkage; (b) Vector loop𝜃 equations. ,𝜃
a four-bar linkage; (b) Vector loop equations. (6)
𝜃 = 𝑔 𝑟 ,𝑟 ,𝑟 ,𝑟 ,𝜃
and one more time
The independent for theis
variable last
θ1four-bar
whichlinkage
will beincontrolled
Figure 6a: with the brushless motor. In such a way,
each angle link was expressed as function 𝜃 =of𝑓 the
𝑟 , 𝑟crank
, 𝑟 , 𝑟 angle
,𝜃 θ1 (Figure 9a), once the(7) link lengths
were defined within
The independent variable is 𝜃 which will be controlled with the brushless motor. In such (Figure
the minimum available design space of the tip trailing-edge section a 9b).
When the way,
hollow-shaft
each angle brushless rotary as
link was expressed motor is activated,
function of the crank the 𝜃 (Figure
angleinput rotation is transferred
9a), once the link to the
lengths(link
crank element were 1).
defined within theoutput
Leverage’s minimum available(link
element design7)space
mustof provide
the tip trailing-edge
adequatesection
control action
(Figure 9b). When the hollow-shaft brushless rotary motor is activated, the input rotation is
during trailing-edge evolution from baseline position to the target shape. As shown in Figure 9a,
transferred to the crank element (link 1). Leverage’s output element (link 7) must provide adequate
the final output
controlangle curve trailing-edge
action during θ7 (θ1 ) was evolution
able to fulfill performance
from baseline position angle requirements
to the target within
shape. As shown in the range
[+10◦ /−10Figure
◦ ] with
9a,the
the following
final outputadditional 𝜃 𝜃 was
angle curve criteria observed to assure
able to fulfill effective
performance trailing-edge
angle requirements transition
within theoperations:
during morphing range [+10°/−10°] with the following additional criteria observed to assure effective
trailing-edge transition duringdθ morphing operations:
7
6= 0 ∀ θ7 (θ1 ) ∈ [+10◦ ; −10◦ ], (8)
dθ1 0 ∀ 𝜃 𝜃 ∈ 10°; −10° , (8)
When condition (8) is verified,

When condition inversion
(8) is verified, inversionpoints (i.e.,toggle
points (i.e., toggle positions
positions of theof the linkage)
linkage) are avoided
are avoided
and smoothness transition
and smoothness fromfrom
transition the baseline position
the baseline tothe
position to thetarget
target shape
shape (and (and vicecan
vice versa) versa)
occur.can occur.
(a)
(b)
Figure 9. Kinematic design of the inner mechanism: (a) Link Angles as function of the crank angle
Figure 9. Kinematic design of the inner mechanism: (a) Link Angles as function of the crank angle
input rotation 𝜃 ; (b) Link lengths within the minimum available design space of the tip TE section.
input rotation θ1 ; (b) Link lengths within the minimum available design space of the tip TE section.
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 11 of 23
4.2. Inner Mechanism Mechanical Advantage

Modern adaptive systems, designed for large demonstrators, are commonly based on the seamless
integration of actuators, mechanisms and structures with the purpose of reshaping the external surface
on demand. The reduction of power required to morph the structure and of the actuation system
weight are of paramount importance to successfully integrate adaptive systems in large airplanes.
For this reason, an energy-efficient approach must be adopted since the preliminary design phase
of the actuation system. Parameters capable to express interactions between the basic elements of this
mechanized system and the external loads have to be defined to provide insight into the behaviour
of the overall adaptive architecture. The mechanical advantage of a mechanism could be defined as
the ratio between the output and the input torque [27]. In order to cut down the capacities of electro-
mechanical actuators, the mechanical advantage of the inner mechanism within the TE angle working
range should be as high as possible. For the inner mechanism (IM) in Figure 9b, the main output is
the moment transferred around the trailing-edge hinge axis (MOUT ) and the input refers to the torque
applied to the crank (MIN ).
Assuming that the friction and inertia are neglectable, according to the principle of the virtual
works, the following relationship can be found for the inner mechanism:
PIN = MIN · ωIN = MOUT · ωOUT = POUT (9)
where ωIN is the crank angular speed and ωOUT is the angular speed around the trailing-edge hinge
axis. According to the definition of instant center of rotation, at a given instant of time, a linkage
mechanism undergoing planar movement has a point showing the same speed for both the input and
output parts, thus the following relationship can be defined:
ωIN ·IC12 − IC2B3 = ωOUT ·IC1B3 − IC2B3 (10)
where IC12 is the instant centre between frame and input part (crank), IC1B3 is the instant centre
between frame and output part, IC2B3 is the instant centre between input part and output part;
IC12 − IC2B3 is the distance of instant centers IC12 and IC2B3 , IC1B3 − IC2B3 is the distance of instant
centres IC1B3 and IC2B3 .
Let’s now recall the Aronhold-Kennedy’s theorem which deals with the three instant centres
between three links of a system of rigid members [28]:
Aronhold-Kennedy’s Theorem: The three instantaneous centres of three bodies moving relative to one
another must lie along a straight line.
By returning to the inner mechanism obtained at the end of the kinematic design process
(Figure 9b) and applying this theorem, we can further simplify Equation (10) as follows:
ωIN IC26 − IC12 ωIN IC6B3 − IC1B3

· = · (11)
ω6 IC26 − IC16 ωOUT IC6B3 − IC16
where IC6B3 is a first order instant centre and IC26 is a second order instant center.
Therefore, the mechanical advantage of the inner mechanism can be defined as a function of
particular first order and second order Instant Centres (ICs) of the linkage:
MOUT ωIN IC − IC16 IC6B3 − IC1B3

M.A. = = = 26 · (12)
MIN ωOUT IC26 − IC12 IC6B3 − IC16
where IC12 , IC16 and IC1B3 are the primary instant centers which respectively coincide with leverage’s
fixed hinges (1, 2), (1, 6) and (1, B3). Construction of required instant centers for the inner mechanism,
as shown in Figure 10a, is based on the intersection of proper Aronhold-Kennedy (AK) lines. All
Figure 10b) were evaluated by intersection of the respective Aronhold-Kennedy lines. In the second
iteration, the second order ICs (2, 6) was finally evaluated and the mechanical advantage, for this
specific linkage position, was obtained.
When the crank is activated, the rib rotates from the baseline position to the maximum
downward (upward) deflection equal to +10° (−10°). During the transition from the baseline position
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 12 of 23
to the target shape, for each intermediate linkage position, all required instant centres were estimated
to completely obtain the mechanical advantage curve as function of the input crank rotation.
In Figure
required ICs for11a, the evolution
the estimation ofmechanical
of the each instant centre position
advantage is reported.
are summarized in theThe mechanical
IC matrix of the
advantage for the
linkage (Figure working output angle range [+10°; −10°] is within the range [5.18; 8.97] (Figure 11b).
10b).
(a)
(b)
Figure 10.
Figure Inner mechanism
10. Inner mechanism instant
instant centres
centres analysis:
analysis: (a)
(a) Construction
Construction ofof the
the instant
instant centres
centres by
by means
means
of AK
of AK lines;
lines; (b)
(b) IC matrix
matrix of the linkage: main
main hinges
hinges (labelled
(labelled in
in green),
green), first
first order
order ICs
ICs (labelled
(labelled in
in
blue), second
blue), second order
order IC (labelled in orange) and required ICs for MA estimation (marked in red).
If the main hinges (labelled in green in Figure 10a) of the inner mechanism are defined as the
output of the kinematic design process, in the first iteration the first order ICs (labelled in blue in
Figure 10b) were evaluated by intersection of the respective Aronhold-Kennedy lines. In the second
iteration, the second order ICs (2, 6) was finally evaluated and the mechanical advantage, for this
specific linkage position, was obtained.
When the crank is activated, the rib rotates from the baseline position to the maximum downward
(upward) deflection equal to +10◦ (−10◦ ). During the transition from the baseline position to the target
shape, for each intermediate linkage position, all required instant centres were estimated to completely
obtain the mechanical advantage curve as function of the input crank rotation.
In Figure 11a, the evolution of each instant centre position is reported. The mechanical advantage
for the working output angle range [+10◦ ; −10◦ ] is within the range [5.18; 8.97] (Figure 11b).
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 13 of 23
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure 11. 11. Inner
Inner mechanisminstant
mechanism instantcentres
centres analysis:
analysis: (a)
(a)Evolution
Evolution ofof
ICs positions
ICs for for
positions several IM IM
several
configurations;
configurations; (b)(b) Mechanical
Mechanical Advantageand
Advantage and output
output angle
anglecurve
curveasasfunction of crank
function rotation
of crank angle.
rotation angle.
4.3. 4.3. Structural

Structural Assessment
Assessment of ofthetheInner
InnerMechanism
Mechanism
To enable
To enable the transition
the transition of theofMultifunctional
the Multifunctional Twistable
Twistable trailing-edge
trailing-edge concept
concept from from the
the reference
reference (baseline) shape to the target ones (Mode A and B), three “active ribs” were
(baseline) shape to the target ones (Mode A and B), three “active ribs” were defined along the span-wise defined along
the span-wise direction: root, central and tip sections.
direction: root, central and tip sections.
Each active rib has the same inner mechanism, which was synthesized to be placed within the
Each active rib has the same inner mechanism, which was synthesized to be placed within
minimum design space available in the rib block 2 (B2) of the Fowler flap. Indeed, each single degree-
the minimum design space available in the rib block 2 (B2) of the Fowler flap. Indeed, each single
of-freedom (DOF) leverage is activated by a single brushless rotary motor. Therefore, the rigid
degree-of-freedom (DOF)flap
rotation of the Fowler leverage is activated
tab (Mode A) can beby obtained
a single brushless rotary motor.
by synchronizing Therefore,
the three actuators.the
Onrigid
rotation of the Fowler flap tab (Mode A) can be obtained by synchronizing the
the other hand, “continuous” span-wise trailing edge twist (Mode B) can be activated providing three actuators. On the
other hand, “continuous” span-wise trailing edge twist (Mode B) can be activated
different control actions. For example, linear span-wise flap tab twist can be enabled providing providing different
control actions.
clockwise For example,
rotation linear span-wise
to the tip actuator flap tabrotation
and anti- clockwise twist can be root
to the enabled providing clockwise
actuator.
rotation For
to the
thistip actuator
reason, the and anti- clockwise
geometric parametersrotation to the root
of the leverage were actuator.
synthesized in order to obtain
almost linear
For this relationship
reason, without oscillations
the geometric parametersbetween the crank were
of the leverage angle synthesized
and the TE angle (Figure
in order to9a),
obtain
as well as a high mechanical advantage. If the first loop design was mainly driven
almost linear relationship without oscillations between the crank angle and the TE angle (Figure 9a), by kinematic
performance
as well as a high according
mechanicalto theadvantage.
minimum available room
If the first within
loop the Fowler
design flap structure,
was mainly driven the
by second
kinematic
loop was mainly driven by the structural sizing of the links and by the mechanical arrangement
performance according to the minimum available room within the Fowler flap structure, the second
loop was mainly driven by the structural sizing of the links and by the mechanical arrangement
definition in compliance with limit aerodynamic loads. As the actuation system was the core of the
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 14 of 23

adaptive structure, reliable and accurate finite-element model were defined to simulate its kinematics,
definition in compliance with limit aerodynamic loads. As the actuation system was the core of the
verify the preliminary design tool based on instant centres (ICs) as well as to prove its structural
adaptive structure, reliable and accurate finite-element model were defined to simulate its
integrity upon limit loads. A three-dimensional finite-element model was generated; it consisted
kinematics, verify the preliminary design tool based on instant centres (ICs) as well as to prove its
of six-faced solid elements (CHEXA [29]) for the links of the inner mechanisms and trailing edge
structural integrity upon limit loads. A three-dimensional finite-element model was generated; it
hinge fitting and beam elements (CBEAM [29]) coupled to rigid body elements (RBE2 [29]) for the
consisted of six-faced solid elements (CHEXA [29]) for the links of the inner mechanisms and trailing
cylindrical
edge hinge hinges
fittingand
andrelated pins. For
beam elements structural
(CBEAM [29])analysis
coupled topurpose,
rigid body theelements
implicit(RBE2
nonlinear solver
[29]) for
of MSC-NASTRAN ® (SOL 400) was used to account for nonlinear effects and large displacements
the cylindrical hinges and related pins. For structural analysis purpose, the implicit nonlinear solver
(rotations). The capability
of MSC-NASTRAN ® (SOL of400)
the was
actuation
used tosystem
account to for
enable morphing
nonlinear effectsthrough
and large smooth rigid-body
displacements
kinematic of the
(rotations). Theinner mechanism
capability was verified
of the actuation systemby to
applying enforced displacements
enable morphing through smooth(SPCD [29]) to
rigid-body
the kinematic
crank andofresistant
the innertorque
mechanism(equalwas 160 N·m)
to verified by along
applyingtheenforced
hinge axis of the actuator
displacements (SPCDhinge
[29])fitting.
to
Thethe crank andof
magnitude resistant torque rotation
the enforced (equal to was
160 N·m)
definedalong
onthe
thehinge
base axis
of a of the actuatoriterative
preliminary hinge fitting.
analysis
The magnitude
finalized of the enforced
to get a specific rotation rotation
angle ofwas defined edge.
the trailing on theA base of arotation
crank preliminary iterative
(θ1 ) equal 35.3◦ was
analysis
to −
finalized
found to get a specific
to be required rotation
to obtain angle of therotation
a trailing-edge trailing edge. A crank
(θ7 ) equal rotation
to +5 ◦. (𝜃 ) equal to −35.3° was
found to be required to obtain a trailing-edge rotation (𝜃 ) equal to +5°.
Von Mises stress distribution (Figure 12b) over the actuation mechanism confirms the absence of
any localVon Mises stress distribution (Figure 12b) over the actuation mechanism confirms the absence
plasticization at limit load condition: maximum peak stress is equal to 484 MPa and located
of any local plasticization at limit load condition: maximum peak stress is equal to 484 MPa and
in the “fork” link made of 17-4PH steel which in turn has a Yield Strength higher than 700 MPa. All
located in the “fork” link made of 17-4PH steel which in turn has a Yield Strength higher than 700
the other leverage’s items made of aluminium, show lower stress than the Yield Strength of Al2024-T5
MPa. All the other leverage’s items made of aluminium, show lower stress than the Yield Strength of
alloy. Finally, the actuation torque required to hold the leverage in the final position resulted equal to
Al2024-T5 alloy. Finally, the actuation torque required to hold the leverage in the final position
23.25 N·m: equal
resulted the mechanical
to 23.25 N·m: advantage resulted
the mechanical equal toresulted
advantage 6.88 in equal
accordance
to 6.88 with the outcomes
in accordance of the
with the
instant centre tool used in the preliminary design stage.
outcomes of the instant centre tool used in the preliminary design stage.
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure 12.12. Finite
Finite Elementmodel
Element modelof
ofthe
the Inner
Inner Mechanism:
Mechanism:(a) (a)Trailing-edge
Trailing-edgerotation equal
rotation to 5to
equal degrees,
5 degrees,
Displacement
Displacement distribution
distribution (mm);(b)
(mm); (b)Von
VonMises
Misesstress
stress distribution
distribution (MPa).
(MPa).
4.4. Definition of the Mechanical Arrangement
The aeronautical needs for compactness and lightness guided the choice of the mechanical
components necessary for the actuation system design. The mechanical system, shown as exploded
view in Figure 13b, consists of a crank, two ternary links and three binary links. The items are
connected
Aerospace by cylindrical hinges. The crank and the ternary links are doubly supported on the rib
2018, 5, 122 15 of 23
block 2 (B2) plates. In such a way, out-of- plane rotations of the actuation system are strongly reduced
and the actuator moment is effectively transferred along the tab hinge axis. Commercial Off-the-Shelf
(COTS) actuators
4.4. Definition and gearbox
of the Mechanical were considered for the finalized design.
Arrangement
The Harmonic-drive® strain wave gear unit was selected because of its high-power density (gear
The equal
ratio aeronautical needs
to 120, for CPL-17Afor [30]),
compactness and lightness
overall dimensions guided theInchoice
and repeatability. such aof thethe
way, mechanical
torque
components
provided by a brushless rotary motor can be amplified and transferred by the gear unit to theexploded
necessary for the actuation system design. The mechanical system, shown as inner
viewmechanism.
in Figure 13b, consists
Each of a crank,
rotary actuator two
(R1, R2 ternary
and R3) islinks and three
connected to abinary links.
segmented Thewhich
shaft itemscanaretransfer
connected
by cylindrical
the torque hinges. The crank
to the harmonic and
drive theunit
gear ternary
of eachlinks
rib. are
Eachdoubly
gear issupported on the
properly joined rib rib
to the block 2 (B2)
block
plate
plates. Inand
such it can transfer
a way, the plane
out-of- torque rotations
to the crank
of of
theeach inner mechanism
actuation system are(Figure 13c).reduced
strongly Each crank and is the
doubly supported by the rib plates and ball bearings were used to reduce friction
actuator moment is effectively transferred along the tab hinge axis. Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) between moving
parts during
actuators operations.
and gearbox were considered for the finalized design.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure
Figure 13. Mechanical
13. Mechanical Arrangement
Arrangement ofofthe
theInner
InnerMechanism:
Mechanism: (a)
(a)Leverage
Leveragewithin
withinthethe
available design
available design
space in the wing tip section, 3D-CAD (side-view); (b) 3D-CAD exploded view; (c) section
space in the wing tip section, 3D-CAD (side-view); (b) 3D-CAD exploded view; (c) section view. view.
The Harmonic-drive® strain wave gear unit was selected because of its high-power density (gear
ratio equal to 120, for CPL-17A [30]), overall dimensions and repeatability. In such a way, the torque
provided by a brushless rotary motor can be amplified and transferred by the gear unit to the inner
mechanism. Each rotary actuator (R1, R2 and R3) is connected to a segmented shaft which can transfer
the torque to the harmonic drive gear unit of each rib. Each gear is properly joined to the rib block
plate and it can transfer the torque to the crank of each inner mechanism (Figure 13c). Each crank is
doubly supported by the rib plates and ball bearings were used to reduce friction between moving
parts during operations.
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 16 of 23

5. Multifunctional Twistable Trailing-Edge
5. Multifunctional Twistable Trailing-Edge
The Multifunctional Twistable TE concept is based on a thin-walled closed section beam layout
The Multifunctional Twistable TE concept is based on a thin-walled closed section beam layout
(Figure 14). Three rotary actuators (placed in root, central and tip regions) transfer the torque to three
(Figure 14). Three rotary actuators (placed in root, central and tip regions) transfer the torque to three
independent actuation
independent systems
actuation consisting
systems consistingofofharmonic drivegear
harmonic drive gearunit
unitwith
with a six-bar
a six-bar linkage.
linkage.
Figure Multifunctional
14.14.
Figure MultifunctionalTwistable Trailing-edgestructural
Twistable Trailing-edge structural layout.
layout.
Control action
Control of the
action TETE
of the shape
shapecan
canbebeprovided
provided by means
meansofofactive
active ribs
ribs connected
connected to actuation
to the the actuation
systems
systems with fitting
with fitting and bonded
and bonded to thetoskin.
the Two
skin. “c-shape”
Two “c-shape”
spars spars are bonded
are bonded to theto theand
skin skinconnected
and
to theconnected to the
Fowler flap byFowler
meansflap by means
of hinge of hinge fittings.
fittings.
The energy
The energy required
required to the
to the actuationsystems
actuation systems toto twist
twistthe
thetrailing
trailingedge
edgeis strictly related
is strictly to the
related to the
geometric layout and material data. The twist of a homogeneous closed thin-walled section beam
geometric layout and material data. The twist of a homogeneous closed thin-walled section beam
loaded by a torque 𝑀𝑡 and that is free to warp can be evaluated according to the Bredt equation [31]:
loaded by a torque Mt and that is free to warp can be evaluated according to the Bredt equation [31]:
𝑑𝜗 𝑀 𝑑𝑠 𝑀
𝜓 = = I = (13)
𝑑𝑥
dϑ 4𝐴Mt 𝐺𝑡 ds 𝐺𝐽 Mt
ψ = = 2
= (13)
where 𝐴 dx
is the area enclosed by the mid-line4A
of m Gt wall
the profile’s GJand
t ϑ is the twist angle about the
X-axis, normal to the beam section. For a homogeneous cross section, the twist in case of restrained
where Am is the area enclosed by the mid-line of the profile’s wall and ϑ is the twist angle about the
warping can be expressed by the following differential equation [32],
X-axis, normal to the beam section. For a homogeneous cross section, the twist in case of restrained
𝑑 𝜗 differential
warping can be expressed by the following 𝑑𝜗 equation
𝐸𝐶 − 𝐺𝐽 𝑀 = 0 [32], (14)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
where 𝐽 = 𝑀 /𝐺𝜓 is the torsional constantd3 ϑ of the dϑ
cross section and Cω is the sectorial moment of
ECω 3
− GJt + Mt = 0 (14)
inertia of the cross section, expressed asdxfollows: dx
where Jt = Mt /Gψ is the torsional constant 𝐶 =of the 𝑑𝑠 section and Cω is the sectorial moment
𝜔 𝑡cross (15) of
inertia of the cross section, expressed as follows:
where 𝜔 is the sectorial area and 𝑡 is the sectionZthickness.
s
In case of tip section free to twist butCwarping-constrained
ω 2 t ds and central section fixed (no twist nor (15)
ω =
warp), the solution of Equation (14) is given by: 0
𝑀 𝛽𝑙
= and t issinh
where ω is the sectorialϑarea the𝛽𝑥
section
𝛽 𝑙 thickness.
− 𝑥 − tanh 1 cosh 𝛽𝑥 (16)
𝐸𝐶 𝛽 2
In case of tip section free to twist but warping-constrained and central section fixed (no twist nor
warp), theThe twist angle
solution will be maximum
of Equation at 𝑥 by:
(14) is given = 0 (tab tip section),
𝑀 𝛽𝑙
Mt 𝜗 = 𝛽𝑙 − 2 tanh βl
2 (1 + cosh βx )]
𝐸𝐶+𝛽β(l − x ) − tanh
(17)
ϑ = 3
[sinhβx (16)
ECω β /
2
where the parameter 𝛽 = 𝐺𝐽 /𝐸𝐶 is the ratio between the Saint-Venant torsion rigidity 𝐺𝐽
and twist
The the warping rigidity
angle will 𝐸𝐶 which at
be maximum in x
turn
= 0depends
(tab tiponly on the cross-section geometry.
section),
Mt βl
ϑmax = ( βl − 2tanh ) (17)
ECω β3 2
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 17 of 23
where the parameter β = ( GJt /ECω )1/2 is the ratio between the Saint-Venant torsion rigidity GJt and
the warping rigidity ECω which in turn depends only on the cross-section geometry.
The parameter χ can be defined to give indication to whether the Saint-Venant torsion or warping
torsion predominates [33],
l 2 GJt
χ2 = = l 2 β2 (18)
Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW ECω 17 of 24
For small values of χ, only

The parameter warping
χ can torsion
be defined needs
to give to betoconsidered,
indication whether the however there
Saint-Venant willorbe a certain
torsion
region for χwarping
wheretorsion predominates
neither Saint-Venant[33], torsion nor warping torsion may be neglected and thus the
structural system must be analysed for mixed torsion.𝑙 𝐺𝐽 If the numerator in the expression for χ2 is large
𝜒 = = 𝑙 𝛽 (18)
𝐸𝐶
as compared to the denominator, one may expect that Saint-Venant torsion is predominant. Indeed,
the twist angle For small valueswill
distribution of χ,be
only warping torsion
described by theneeds to be considered,
following equation:however there will be a
certain region for χ where neither Saint-Venant torsion nor warping torsion may be neglected and
thus the structural system must be analysed for mixed
Mttorsion.
x If the numerator in the expression for
ϑSV = one may expect that Saint-Venant torsion is
𝜒 is large as compared to the denominator, (19)
GJ
predominant. Indeed, the twist angle distribution will bet described by the following equation:
and for x = l, the maximum Saint-Venant twist 𝑀 𝑥 will be:

𝜗 angle
= (19)
𝐺𝐽
and for 𝑥 = 𝑙, the maximum Saint-Venant twist angle will
Mt be:
l
ϑSV, max = (20)
𝑀 𝑙GJt
𝜗 , = (20)
𝐺𝐽
In the above equations, the elastic moduli are related to the generic section (Figure 15) and can be
In the above equations, the elastic moduli are related to the generic section (Figure 15) and can
obtained asbeintegration along thealong
obtained as integration section profile
the section contour:
profile contour:
R𝐸s𝑑𝑠
𝐸= E ds (21)
E = R0𝑑𝑠s (21)
0 ds
𝐺 𝑑𝑠
𝐺̅ = Rs (22)
𝑑𝑠G ds
G = 0R s (22)
where 𝑠 is a coordinate following the profile’s contour.
0 ds
The actuation torque to be provided by the actuation system can be preliminary estimated with
where s is aEquation
coordinate following
(17) assuming the profile’s
the properties contour.
of the outer tab mean geometric section, summarized in Table 2.
15. Outer
FigureFigure Trailing-edge
15. Outer meangeometric
Trailing-edge mean geometric section.
section.
The actuation torque toTable 2. Data of theby

be provided Outer
theTrailing-edge
actuation mean geometric
system can section.
be preliminary estimated with
Equation (17) assuming the properties of the outer tab mean geometric section,
Chord 190.8 mm summarized in Table 2.
Area 542.7 mm2
Shear
Table 2. Data ofCentre (fromTrailing-edge
the Outer Centroid), SCy mean geometric
−1.995 mm
section.
Shear Centre (from Centroid), SCz 0.904 mm
Torsional
Chord Constant, Jt 2.918 × 10 5 mm4
190.8 mm
Warping Constant, Cω 7.567 × 107 mm6
Area (Torsional-Bending length) 2
Characteristic Length 31.18542.7
mm mm
Shear Centre (from Centroid),
Torsion Parameter,SC
χ y −
64281.995 mm
Shear Centre (from Centroid), SCz 0.904 mm
Torsional Constant, Jt 2.918 × 105 mm4
Warping Constant, Cω 7.567 × 107 mm6
Characteristic Length (Torsional-Bending length) 31.18 mm
Torsion Parameter, χ 6428
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 18 of 23
5.1. Assessment of the Structural Layout

The analytical model represented an effective tool to estimate main figure-of-merit and parameters
during5.1.the
Assessment of the Structural
preliminary Layout To verify the mechanical behaviour of the multifunctional
design phase.
twistableThe trailing-edge
analytical in operative
model conditions,
represented finite element
an effective (FE) simulations
tool to estimate were instead
main figure-of-merit andtaken
in account.
parameters during the preliminary design phase. To verify the mechanical behaviour of the
multifunctional
A twistable
glass fibre prepreg trailing-edge
with HexPly913infromoperative
Hexcelconditions,
compositesfinite[34]
element (FE) simulations
was chosen were
as material for the
instead taken in account.
upper and lower skins, the active ribs and the “C-shape” spars. This material is widely used for the
A glassof
manufacturing fibre prepreg
rotor blades.with HexPly913
Indeed, from Hexcel
the material composites
assures good [34] was chosen
compromise as material
between for
robustness
the upper and lower skins, the active ribs and the “C-shape” spars. This material is widely used for
and capabilities to accommodate the large strains arising while twisting the trailing-edge.
the manufacturing of rotor blades. Indeed, the material assures good compromise between
A 3D finite-elements model was generated by using quadrilateral plane elements (CQUAD4 [29])
robustness and capabilities to accommodate the large strains arising while twisting the trailing-edge.
for the skin, C-shape spars and active ribs, while six-faced solid elements (CHEXA [29]) for the foam,
A 3D finite-elements model was generated by using quadrilateral plane elements (CQUAD4
actuators
[29]) and hinge
for the skin,fittings.
C-shapeThe sparsnumerical
and activesimulations were performed
ribs, while six-faced using(CHEXA
solid elements the linear[29])
static
forsolver
the of
MSC-Nastran ® [29]. A preliminary analysis was performed on the composite tab without aerodynamic
foam, actuators and hinge fittings. The numerical simulations were performed using the linear static
loadssolver
to assess the maximum
of MSC-Nastran twisting
® [29]. torque required
A preliminary by the
analysis was actuation
performed on system to implement
the composite Mode B
tab without
aerodynamic
as well loads tostrength
as the structural assess the of maximum
the twisted twisting torque
skin. The required
central by the
“active” ribactuation system toin all
was constrained
implement
degrees Modeenforced
of freedom; B as well as the structural
rotations (SPCD strength of theapplied
[29]) were twisted at
skin.
theThe
tipcentral
active “active” rib was “+”
rib (+5 degrees,
constrained
standing in all degrees
for downward) and ofatfreedom;
the root enforced
active ribrotations (SPCD“[29])
(−5 degrees, were applied
−“ standing at the tip active
for upward). As shown
rib (+5 degrees, “+” standing for downward) and at the root active rib (−5 degrees, “−“ standing for
in Figure 16b, a maximum strain of about 1.34% is reached near the cut-out of the central section. For
upward). As shown in Figure 16b, a maximum strain of about 1.34% is reached near the cut-out of
the most part of the remaining structure the strain is lower than 0.8%. According to [35], the maximum
the central section. For the most part of the remaining structure the strain is lower than 0.8%.
allowed strain to
According to 2.5% along
[35], the fibres direction
maximum is equal
allowed strain and along
to 2.5% to 0.5% along
fibres the direction
direction is equalperpendicular
and to 0.5% to
the fibres. The torque required to enable linear twist is equal to 64.05 N · m for the tip
along the direction perpendicular to the fibres. The torque required to enable linear twist is equal to actuation system
and 103.6
64.05 NN·m·mfor
forthe
thetiproot one. system and 103.6 N·m for the root one.
actuation
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure 16. Finite
16. Finite Element
Element analysiswith
analysis withthe
themaximum
maximum linear
lineartwist
twistforfor
Mode B from
Mode tip to
B from tiproot section
to root section
◦ (−5°/0°/+5°):
◦ ◦ (a) Displacement (mm); (b) Strain distribution, Max Principal [MicroStrain].
(−5 /0 /+5 ): (a) Displacement (mm); (b) Strain distribution, Max Principal [MicroStrain].
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 19 of 23
A second analysis was performed to prove the structural integrity of the composite structure
A second analysis was performed to prove the structural integrity of the composite structure
upon the limit load condition (depicted in Figure 17) pertaining to Mode A (TE rigid rotation equal to
upon the limit load condition (depicted in Figure 17) pertaining to Mode A (TE rigid rotation equal
+5 degrees downward). In such a case, all actuation systems must withstand the total aerodynamic
to +5 degrees downward). In such a case, all actuation systems must withstand the total aerodynamic
hinge-moment pertaining
hinge-moment to the
pertaining limit
to the load
limit loadofofTable
Table2.
2.
Figure
Figure 17. 17. Strain
Strain distribution[MicroStrain]
distribution [MicroStrain] under
underlimit
limitload condition.
load condition.
As shown
As shown in Figure
in Figure 17,aamaximum
17, maximum strain
strainofof
about 1.42%
about is reached
1.42% near the
is reached central
near the section.
centralThe
section.
maximum displacement is equal to 7.39 mm at the midpoint of the inboard tab region. In the
The maximum displacement is equal to 7.39 mm at the midpoint of the inboard tab region. In the
remaining part of the structure, the overall displacement is below 3 mm which demonstrates
remaining part of the structure, the overall displacement is below 3 mm which demonstrates sufficient
sufficient stiffness of the system; in compliance with regulations (EASA CS 25.305(a)) the deformation
stiffness of the system; in compliance with regulations (EASA CS 25.305(a)) the deformation levels do
levels do not interfere with the safe operation at limit load condition.
not interfere with the safe operation at limit load condition.
5.2. Estimation of Trailing-Edge Performance in Operative Conditions
5.2. Estimation of Trailing-Edge Performance in Operative Conditions
According to airworthiness requirements [25], aircraft structures must withstand the limit load
According
conditions in toorder
airworthiness
to prove itsrequirements [25],across
structural integrity aircraft
thestructures must
overall flight withstand the limit load
envelope.
conditionsHowever,
in order during
to prove theitsregular
structural integrity
airplane flight across
missionthe overall
profile, flight envelope.
load-bearing aircraft structures
have to withstand
However, during aerodynamic loads lower
the regular airplane than
flight the onesprofile,
mission prescribed in the limitaircraft
load-bearing condition.
structures have
to withstand In such cases, the multifunctional
aerodynamic loads lower than twistable trailing-edge
the ones usedinonthe
prescribed thelimit
AG2-NLF wing is expected
condition.
to such
In be activated
cases, theinmultifunctional
high speed climb flight trailing-edge
twistable conditions. Tousedenable theAG2-NLF
on the transition wing
fromisbaseline
expected to
configuration to the rigid trailing-edge deflection (mode A) equal to 2.5°, all rotary brushless motors
be activated in high speed climb flight conditions. To enable the transition from baseline configuration
have to be activated (R1, R2 and R3) transferring to their respective “active” ribs the same angle. In
to the rigid trailing-edge deflection (mode A) equal to 2.5◦ , all rotary brushless motors have to be
this case, the actuating torques required to enable this transition are reported in Figure 18.
activated (R1, R2 andspan-wise
Continuous R3) transferring
increasetointheir respective
deflection angles“active”
(mode B) ribs
fromthetip
same angle.
to root can In
bethis case, the
enabled
actuating torques required to enable this transition are reported in Figure 18.
whit three independent actuation systems transferring angles equal to (4°/3°/2°) to their respective
“active” ribs. Considering the aerodynamic load pertaining to the climb condition (𝑀 = 0.36 at 4572
m) with TE morphing in Mode B (4°/3°/2°), the structural layout shows the maximum strain equal to
0.28 per cent and the required actuating torques (per each active rib) are summarized in Figure 19.
During morphing TE operations, each actuation system can provide the respective active rib
with an output torque equal to
𝓜𝑶𝑼𝑻 = 𝑴𝒕 ∙ 𝑴. 𝑨. ∙ 𝑭𝑯𝑫 ∙ 𝜼𝑯𝑫 ∙ 𝜼𝑰𝑴 (23)
where 𝑴𝒕 is the torque provided by each rotary hollow-shaft brushless motor, 𝑭𝑯𝑫 is the gear ratio
of the Harmonic Drive (CPL 17-2A) [30], 𝜂 is the efficiency of the Harmonic Drive and 𝜂 the
efficiency of the inner mechanism. The output torque at each active rib can be expressed as a function
of the crank position (Figure 20).
Figure 18. Actuating torques required by the actuation systems for enabling morphing TE modes
Figure 18. Actuating torques required by the actuation systems for enabling morphing TE modes
during high speed climb flight conditions (M∞ = 0.36 at 4572 m).
during high speed climb flight conditions (𝑀 = 0.36 at 4572 m).
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 20 of 23
Continuous span-wise increase in deflection angles (mode B) from tip to root can be enabled whit
three independent actuation systems transferring angles equal to (4◦ /3◦ /2◦ ) to their respective “active”
ribs. Considering the aerodynamic load pertaining to the climb condition (M∞ = 0.36 at 4572 m) with
TE morphing
Figure 18.in (4◦ /3◦ /2
Mode B torques
Actuating
◦ ), the structural layout shows the maximum strain equal to 0.28 per
required by the actuation systems for enabling morphing TE modes
cent during
and the required
high actuating
speed climb flighttorques
conditions(per
(𝑀each active
= 0.36 rib) are
at 4572 m). summarized in Figure 19.
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure 19.
19.TETE
finite element
finite analysis
element with
analysis continuous
with increase
continuous deflection
increase angles
deflection (Mode(Mode
angles B) from
B)tip to
from
root section
tip to root section ◦
(+4°/+3°/+2°):
(+4 /+3 ◦ ◦
(a) Displacement (mm); (b) Strain
/+2 ): (a) Displacement distribution,
(mm); (b) StrainMax Principal Max
distribution, [MicroStrain].
Principal
[MicroStrain].
During morphing TE operations, each actuation system can provide the respective active rib with
an output torque equal to
MOUT = Mt ·(M.A.)·FHD ·ηHD ·ηIM (23)
where Mt is the torque provided by each rotary hollow-shaft brushless motor, FHD is the gear ratio
of the Harmonic Drive (CPL 17-2A) [30], ηHD is the efficiency of the Harmonic Drive and ηIM the
efficiency of the inner mechanism. The output torque at each active rib can be expressed as a function
of the crank position (Figure 20).
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 21 of 23
Figure
Figure 20.
20. Actuating
Actuating torque
torque provided
provided by
by each actuation systems to its active rib during operations.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
The use
The use ofof aa morphing
morphing system
system using
using aamultifunctional
multifunctional twistable
twistable trailing-edge
trailing-edge hashas been
been evaluated
evaluated
with reference to the NLF wing of the CLeanSky2 regional aircraft.
with reference to the NLF wing of the CLeanSky2 regional aircraft. For such subsonic aircraft, For such subsonic aircraft,
performance improvements can be expected only by recovering the loss
performance improvements can be expected only by recovering the loss of laminar flow that occursof laminar flow that occurs at
low
at (on(on
low thethe
lower
lowersurface)
surface) or or
high
high(on(on
thethe
upper
uppersurface)
surface)CL 𝐶values.
values.
As concerns the wing trailing-edge, the structural and
As concerns the wing trailing-edge, the structural and kinematic design kinematic design process
process ofof the
the actuation
actuation
system were
system were completely
completely addressed:
addressed: three three rotary
rotary brushless
brushless motors
motors (placed
(placed inin root,
root, central
central andand tip
tip
sections) were required to activate the inner mechanisms enabling different
sections) were required to activate the inner mechanisms enabling different trailing-edge morphing trailing-edge morphing
modes. The
modes. The structural
structural layout
layout of of the
the thin-walled
thin-walled closed-section
closed-section composite
composite trailing-edge
trailing-edge represents
represents aa
promising concept
promising concepttotobalance
balance thetheconflicting requirements
conflicting requirements between
betweenload-carrying capability
load-carrying and shape
capability and
adaptivity. Actuation system performances and aeroelastic deformations,
shape adaptivity. Actuation system performances and aeroelastic deformations, considering both considering both operative
aerodynamic
operative and limit load
aerodynamic and conditions, prove the potential
limit load conditions, prove the of the proposed
potential structural
of the proposed concept to be
structural
energy efficient
concept and lightweight
to be energy efficient and for real aircraftfor
lightweight implementation.
real aircraft implementation.
Final weight of the multi-functional twistable
Final weight of the multi-functional twistable trailing-edge trailing-edge is is summarized
summarized in in Table
Table 3. Overall
3. Overall
system implications
system implications have have to tobebemade
madewith withreference
referencetotothethe
weight
weight of of
a conventional
a conventional outboard
outboardflapflap
tab
used for regional aircraft (Table
tab used for regional aircraft (Table 4). 4).
Retrofitting aa regional
Retrofitting regional aircraft
aircraft with
with such
such device,
device, aa 3.52%
3.52% weight
weight increase
increase of
of the
the outboard
outboard flapflap tip
tip
segment will
segment will bebeproduced.
produced.AtAtaircraft
aircraftlevel, thethe
level, MaxMaxZeroZero
FuelFuel
Weight (MZFW)
Weight will increase
(MZFW) of 0.012%
will increase of
only. Finally, the mechanical power required to enable load control (LC) functionalities
0.012% only. Finally, the mechanical power required to enable load control (LC) functionalities can can be proved
to be
be extremely
proved to be affordable. Assuming the
extremely affordable. maximum
Assuming theresisting
maximum torque (on crank
resisting torquelink)
(onequal
cranktolink) N·m
23.35equal
and
to a crank
23.35 N·m speed rotation
and a crank speedof 20 deg/s,ofthe
rotation 20 total
deg/s,mechanical power will
the total mechanical be equal
power will to
be 24.34
equalWatt for
to 24.34
elastic twist mode (4 ◦ /3◦ /2◦ ).
Watt for elastic twist mode (4°/3°/2°).
Table 3.
Table Multifunctional twistable
3. Multifunctional twistable wing
wing trailing-edge:
trailing-edge: weight
weight breakdown.
breakdown.
Skeleton
Skeleton (Kg)
(Kg)
SkinSkin 4.582
4.582
C-Spars
C-Spars 1.381
1.381
Active ribs 0.371
Active ribs 0.371
Foam 1.506
Foam
Hinge fittings 1.506
0.103
Hinge
Actuator fittings
fittings 0.103
0.115
Total weight
Actuator fittings 8.058
0.115
Totalsystem
Actuation weight 8.058
(Kg)
Actuation
Inner mechanisms, system
joints, bearings (Kg)
3.13
Brushless motors, gear-boxes,
Inner mechanisms, joints,shafts
bearings 6.45
3.13
BrushlessTotal weight
motors, gear-boxes, shafts 9.58
6.45
Total weight 9.58
Aerospace 2018, 5, 122 22 of 23
Table 4. Regional Turbo-Prop aircraft (90 passengers).
Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW) 33,200

Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW) 31,200
Operative Empty Weight (OEW) 19,360
Outboard Fowler Flap (conventional) 104.65
Flap tip segment (all-metallic) 13.95
Multifunctional twistable wing trailing-edge (Kg)
Structural skeleton (composites materials) 8.06
Actuation system 9.58
Total weight 17.64
Outboard Fowler flap weight increase 3.688
Author Contributions: F.R.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal Analysis,

Investigation, Resources, Data Curation, Writing-Original Draft Preparation. F.A.: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Investigation, Resources, Supervision, Project Administration. R.P.: Investigation, Resources,
Conceptualization, Writing-Review & Editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project Administration, Funding
Acquisition. F.M.: Methodology, Software, Validation, Investigation, Visualization, Data Curation,
Writing-Original Draft Preparation.
Funding: Part of the research described in this paper has been carried out in the framework of
AIRGREEN2 Project, which gratefully received funding from the Clean Sky 2 Joint Undertaking, under the
European’s Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation Program, Grant Agreement No. 807089—REG
GAM 2018—H2020-IBA-CS2-GAMS-2017.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Leonardo Aircraft, for having provided the industrial
guidelines and the necessary support to the research work addressed by this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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Exploitation of A Multifunctional Twistable Wing Trailing-Edge For Performance Improvement of A Turboprop 90-Seats Regional Aircraft

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aerospace

Aerospace 2018, 5, 122; doi:10.3390/aerospace5040122 www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace

2. Aerodynamic Design of the Multifunctional Twistable Trailing-Edge

Trailing-Edge Aerodynamic Performance

Figure 3. Performance of the multifunctional trailing-edge.

4.1. Kinematic Design of the Inner Mechanism

K I · cos θ1 − K I I · cos θ3a + K I I I = cos(θ3a − θ1 ) (2)

r T0T1 r r3a 2 − r2 2 + r1 2 + r T0T1 2

A = K I · cos θ1 + K I I + K I I I + cos θ1 ; B = −2 cos θ1 ; C = K I I I − K I I − cos θ1 + K I · cos θ1 (5)

and one where

Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24

When condition (8) is verified,

4.2. Inner Mechanism Mechanical Advantage

PIN = MIN · ωIN = MOUT · ωOUT = POUT (9)

ωIN ·IC12 − IC2B3 = ωOUT ·IC1B3 − IC2B3 (10)

ωIN IC26 − IC12 ωIN IC6B3 − IC1B3

MOUT ωIN IC − IC16 IC6B3 − IC1B3

4.3. 4.3. Structural

Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24

Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24

For small values of χ, only

and for x = l, the maximum Saint-Venant twist 𝑀 𝑥 will be:

The actuation torque toTable 2. Data of theby

5.1. Assessment of the Structural Layout

Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 24

Table 4. Regional Turbo-Prop aircraft (90 passengers).

Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW) 33,200

Author Contributions: F.R.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal Analysis,

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