Question: Explain the difference between computer networks and distributed systems.

Answer:

VPN (Virtual Private Network): A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is a tool that helps keep your
online activities private and secure. Imagine you have a secret tunnel that goes from your
device (like your phone or computer) to the internet. This tunnel hides everything you do online
from anyone trying to spy on you, like hackers or even your internet service provider.

Imagine you are at a coffee shop using their free Wi-Fi. Normally, anyone on the same Wi-Fi
network could potentially see what websites you're visiting or even intercept your login details
for various sites. But if you're using a VPN, your internet activity is hidden inside that secure
tunnel, and anyone trying to spy on you will only see encrypted data, which looks like random
noise to them.

Client-Server Model: The client-server model is a foundational concept in computer networking

and distributed systems. In this model, two main entities are involved:
● Client: A device or application that requests services or resources.
● Server: A device or application that provides services or resources in response to client
requests.

How it works:
● Request: The client sends a request to the server. This request contains information
about what the client wants (e.g., a specific webpage, an email message, or game data).

● Processing: The server receives the request, processes it, and determines the
appropriate response. This may involve reading files, querying a database, or performing
computations.

● Response: The server sends the response back to the client. This response contains
the requested data or an error message if the request can't be fulfilled.
Peer-to-Peer Communication: Peer-to-peer (P2P) communication is a decentralized network
model where each participant (peer) can act as both a client and a server, sharing resources
and data directly with other peers without the need for a central server.

Advantages:

● Decentralization: No central server is required; all nodes (peers) are equal and can
communicate directly with each other.

● Resource Sharing: Peers share resources such as files, processing power, and
bandwidth with each other.

● Scalability: The network can easily scale as more peers join, distributing the load
across all participants.

● Resilience: The network is typically more resilient to failures because there is no single
point of failure.

Person-to-Person Communication: Person-to-person communication in computer networks

refers to the direct exchange of information between individuals using networked devices.
This can encompass various forms of digital communication, including emails, instant
messaging, voice calls, video calls, and social media interactions.

Examples:

● Email: Allows users to send text messages, files, and other attachments over the
internet.
 ● Instant Messaging (IM): Real-time text communication, often with added features like
file sharing, voice, and video calls (e.g., WhatsApp, Slack).

● Voice over IP (VoIP): Enables voice communication over the internet (e.g., Skype,
Zoom).

● Video Conferencing: Real-time video communication over the internet (e.g., Zoom,
Microsoft Teams).

● Social Media Platforms: Enable messaging, sharing, and interaction through posts,
comments, and direct messages (e.g., Facebook, Twitter).

Transmission Technoligies: There are two types of transmission technology that are in
widespread use: broadcast links and point-to-point links.

Broadcast Links: Broadcast links are communication links where a single communication
channel is shared by multiple devices. In this type of network, a message sent by one device
can be received by all other devices connected to the same network. Examples, Ethernet (in its
basic form), Wi-Fi networks.

Advantages:
● Efficiency in Local Networks: Ideal for local area networks (LANs) where frequent
broadcast communications are needed.
● Simpler Network Management: Easier to manage small to medium-sized networks.

Disadvantages:
● Scalability Issues: As the number of devices increases, collisions and network traffic
can become problematic.
● Security Concerns: Messages can be intercepted by any device on the network, raising
security issues.

Point-to-Point Links: Point-to-point links are direct communication links between two devices.
Each link is dedicated to a single pair of devices, and no other devices share the same link.
Examples, Dial-up connections, leased lines, direct serial connections.

Advantages:
● High Reliability: Dedicated connection ensures consistent performance.
● Security: Enhanced security since the link is private between the two devices.
● No Traffic Interference: No competition for bandwidth from other devices.
Disadvantages:
● Cost: More expensive to set up and maintain multiple point-to-point connections.
● Complexity in Large Networks: Managing a large number of point-to-point connections
can become complex.

Personal Area Network (PAN): Personal Area Networks (PANs) enable devices to
communicate over a short range, typically around an individual. A common PAN example is a
wireless network that connects a computer to its peripherals, such as a monitor, keyboard,
mouse, and printer.

Examples:
● Bluetooth connections between a phone and wireless headphones.
● Infrared connections for data transfer between devices.

Local Area Network (LAN): Local Area Networks (LANs) are privately owned networks
operating within a single building or nearby locations, such as homes, offices, or factories. They
connect personal computers and consumer electronics to share resources like printers and
exchange information.
Types of LANs:
● Wired LANs: Use copper wires or optical fiber for connections. Wired LANs are reliable,
have low delay, and support high speeds (100 Mbps to 10 Gbps). They commonly use
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), where devices connect to switches via point-to-point links.
● Wireless LANs (WLANs): Use radio modems and antennas to communicate, often with
an Access Point (AP) for relaying packets. The IEEE 802.11 standard (WiFi) is widely
used, with speeds from 11 Mbps to several hundred Mbps.

Examples:
● Office networks.
● Home networks connecting computers and printers.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) cover a city and
provide a network infrastructure that can support various services, including cable television and
high-speed internet.

Examples:
● Citywide Wi-Fi networks.
● University campus networks connecting multiple buildings.

Wide Area Network (WAN): Wide Area Networks (WANs) span large geographical areas, often
encompassing entire countries or continents. WANs can be wired or wireless, and they connect
multiple smaller networks, enabling communication over vast distances.
 1. Wired WANs:
● Example: A company with branch offices in different cities, such as Perth,
Melbourne, and Brisbane.

2. Variations of WANs:
● Virtual Private Network (VPN): Uses the Internet to connect offices with virtual
links, offering flexibility but less control over resources.
● ISP Network: Operated by a network service provider (ISP), connecting multiple
customers and providing Internet access.

3. Wireless WANs:
● Satellite Systems: Use ground antennas to communicate with orbiting satellites,
offering broadcast capabilities.
● Cellular Networks: Consists of base stations covering large areas and
connected by a wired backbone. They have evolved from voice-only analog
systems to digital networks supporting both voice and data.

Examples:
● The Internet.
● Corporate networks connecting offices in different cities or countries.
Internetwork: An internetwork (or internet) is a network of networks, where multiple distinct
networks are interconnected to form a larger network.

Examples:
● The global Internet connects millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks.
● Enterprise internetworks that connect various departmental networks within a
corporation.

Connection-oriented Service: In a connection-oriented service, a communication session or

connection is established between the sender and receiver before any data is transmitted. This
connection is maintained for the duration of the communication and is terminated once the
communication is complete.

Examples:
● Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Used in applications where reliable, ordered
delivery of data is crucial, such as web browsing, email, and file transfers.
● Telephone Networks: Traditional telephone calls, where a dedicated circuit is
established for the duration of the call.

Advantages:
● Reliability: High reliability with mechanisms to ensure data integrity and correct
sequence.
● Consistent Communication: Provides a stable and consistent communication channel.
Disadvantages:
● Overhead: Connection setup and teardown add overhead and can introduce delays.
● Resource Intensive: Maintains state information, requiring more resources on both
ends.

Connectionless Service: In a connectionless service, data is sent as individual packets without

establishing a dedicated connection between the sender and receiver. Each packet is treated
independently and may take different paths to reach the destination.

Examples:
● User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Used in applications where speed is critical and some
data loss is acceptable, such as streaming media, online gaming, and VoIP.
● Postal System: Sending letters or parcels where each item is handled independently
without establishing a prior connection.

Advantages:
● Low Overhead: No need for connection setup or teardown, resulting in lower overhead
and faster data transmission.
● Flexibility: Each packet can take a different route to the destination, which can be
beneficial in dynamic or congested networks.

Disadvantages:
● Unreliable Delivery: No guarantees that packets will be delivered, delivered in order, or
without errors.
● Lack of Flow Control: Can lead to congestion if the sender transmits data faster than
the network can handle.

Service Primitives:
OSI (Open System Interconnection) Reference Model: The OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to understand and implement standard
communication protocols in networked systems. Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), the OSI model divides networking tasks into seven distinct layers, each
with specific functions and services. This layered approach helps standardize interactions
between different networking systems and devices, making it easier to design, understand, and
troubleshoot networks.

The Seven Layers of the OSI Model are:

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

● Function: Defines the physical means of transmitting raw bits over a physical
data link connecting network nodes.
 ● Components: Includes hardware elements like cables, switches, network
interface cards (NICs), and electrical signals.
● Protocols/Standards: Examples include Ethernet, USB, and Bluetooth.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

● Function: Provides node-to-node data transfer and handles error correction from
the physical layer.
● Components: Includes MAC (Media Access Control) addresses and switches.
● Sub-layers:
● MAC (Media Access Control) Sub-layer: Manages protocol access to
the physical network medium.
● LLC (Logical Link Control) Sub-layer: Manages frame synchronization,
flow control, and error checking.
● Protocols/Standards: Examples include Ethernet, PPP (Point-to-Point
Protocol), and Wi-Fi.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

● Function: Handles routing of data packets between nodes located on different
networks. It determines the best physical path for data to travel.
● Components: Includes routers and logical IP addresses.
● Protocols/Standards: Examples include IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet
Control Message Protocol), and IPsec.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

● Function: Ensures complete data transfer, managing error correction, data flow
control, and retransmission of lost or corrupted data.
● Components: End-to-end communication between hosts.
● Protocols/Standards: Examples include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

● Function: Manages sessions or connections between applications. It
establishes, manages, and terminates connections between applications.
● Components: Session management and maintenance.
● Protocols/Standards: Examples include NetBIOS, PPTP (Point-to-Point
Tunneling Protocol), and RPC (Remote Procedure Call).

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

● Function: Translates data between the application layer and the network format.
It handles data encryption, decryption, compression, and translation.
● Components: Data format and encryption/decryption.
● Protocols/Standards: Examples include SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets
Layer/Transport Layer Security), JPEG, and ASCII.
 7. Application Layer (Layer 7):
● Function: Provides network services directly to user applications. It interfaces
directly with end-user software applications.
● Components: End-user applications and services.
● Protocols/Standards: Examples include HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol),
FTP (File Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and DNS
(Domain Name System).

ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network):

TCP/IP Reference Model: The TCP/IP reference model, also known as the Internet protocol
suite, is a conceptual framework for understanding and designing the network protocols that
govern the internet and similar networks. It consists of four layers, each with specific functions
and protocols that work together to ensure data is transmitted accurately and efficiently. Here's
an overview of each layer:

1. Link Layer (Network Interface Layer):

● Function: This layer is responsible for the physical transmission of data on the
local network. It handles hardware addressing, media access control, and the
interface between the computer and the network hardware.
● Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).
2. Internet Layer:
● Function: The primary purpose of this layer is to route packets across the
network from the source to the destination, regardless of the path taken. It
 manages logical addressing (IP addresses) and handles packet fragmentation
and reassembly.
● Protocols: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol),
IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol).
3. Transport Layer:
● Function: This layer provides end-to-end communication services for
applications. It ensures data is delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no
losses or duplications. It can offer reliable (TCP) or unreliable (UDP) data
transfer.
● Protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).
4. Application Layer:
● Function: This layer contains protocols that provide specific network services
directly to the user's applications. It supports processes such as email, file
transfer, and web browsing.
● Protocols: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol),
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), DNS (Domain Name System), and many
others.
Question: What are two reasons for using layered protocols? What is one possible
disadvantage of using layered protocols?
Answer: Layered protocols are a fundamental design approach in network architecture,
exemplified by models such as the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP
model. Here are two key reasons for using layered protocols:

● Clear Separation of Functions: Each layer in a layered protocol architecture is

designed to handle a specific subset of the overall communication tasks. This separation
of concerns simplifies the design, implementation, and maintenance of network
protocols. Developers can focus on individual layers without needing to understand the
entire stack.

● Standardization: Standardizing the functions and interfaces of each layer allows

different technologies and implementations to work together seamlessly. This
standardization facilitates the widespread adoption and deployment of network
technologies, driving innovation and compatibility across the industry.

While layered protocols offer many benefits, they also come with some potential disadvantages.
One notable disadvantage is:

● Added Complexity and Processing Overhead: Each layer in a protocol stack typically
adds its own headers and performs its own processing. This can lead to additional
computational overhead and increased latency as data passes through multiple layers.
For instance, encapsulating and decapsulating data at each layer adds to the processing
time and resource consumption.

Question: What are the characteristics on which the effectiveness of data communication
systems depends?
Answer: The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

● Delivery: This refers to the ability of the system to ensure that data reach the correct
destination. It's crucial that data are received by the intended device or user and only by
that device or user. Without proper delivery, the entire communication process breaks
down, leading to data loss or misrouting.

● Accuracy: Accuracy entails delivering data without any alterations or errors introduced
during transmission. If data are corrupted or modified en route and remain uncorrected,
they become unusable. Maintaining accuracy ensures that the information received is
the same as the information sent, preserving the integrity of the communication.

● Timeliness: Timeliness is about delivering data promptly and within an acceptable

timeframe. Late delivery renders data useless, especially in scenarios where real-time
 transmission is essential. For applications like video and audio streaming, timeliness
means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order, and without significant
delay. Real-time transmission ensures smooth and uninterrupted communication.

● Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in packet arrival time, causing uneven delays in the
delivery of audio or video packets. In other words, it's the inconsistency in the timing of
packet arrivals. For instance, if video packets are expected to arrive every 30
milliseconds but some arrive with a 30-ms delay while others arrive with a 40-ms delay, it
results in uneven quality in the video stream. Minimizing jitter is crucial for maintaining
the quality and consistency of multimedia transmissions.

Question: What are the five components of the data communications?

Answer: The five components of the data communications are:

● Message: This is the information or data that needs to be communicated. It can take
various forms such as text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

● Sender: The sender is the device that originates the data message. Examples of
senders include computers, workstations, telephone handsets, and video cameras.

● Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the data message. Examples of
receivers include computers, workstations, telephone handsets, and televisions.

● Transmission Medium: This is the physical path through which the message travels
from the sender to the receiver. Examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wires, coaxial cables, fiber-optic cables, and radio waves.

● Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern the communication process. It

represents an agreement between the communicating devices, ensuring they can
understand and process the data being exchanged. Without a protocol, even if devices
are connected, they may not be able to communicate effectively, similar to how a person
speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
Data Flow: Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only

one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and
traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input;
the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the
channel to send data in one direction.

Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The
half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars
are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex transmission,
the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at
the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizen band) radios are both half-duplex systems. The
half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions
at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Full-Duplex: In full-duplex mode, both stations involved in the communication can transmit and
receive data simultaneously. This mode of communication is akin to a two-way street where
traffic flows in both directions at the same time. One common example of full-duplex
communication is the telephone network. When two people are communicating by a telephone
line, both can talk and listen at the same time. Full-duplex communication is essential in
situations where simultaneous two-way communication is required.

Question: What are the different types of connections?

Answer: There are two possible types of connections:

Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The
entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most
point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but
other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible. When you change
television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection
between the remote control and the television's control system.

Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is
shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a
spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a time-shared connection.
Question: What are the four basic types of topologies?
Answer: The four basic types of topologies are

Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.

Advantages:
● Reliability: Each device is connected to multiple other devices, so there are multiple
paths for data to travel. If one path fails, another can be used.
● Robustness: High fault tolerance since failure of one link doesn’t affect the entire
network.
● Security: Data travels along dedicated paths, which can be more secure and harder to
intercept.
● Scalability: Easy to add new devices without disrupting the network.

Disadvantages:
● Cost: Requires a large number of cables and ports, making it expensive to install and
maintain.
● Complexity: The network can become very complex and difficult to manage as more
devices are added.
● Installation: Setting up a mesh network is time-consuming due to the need for many
connections.
 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike
a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller
acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.

Advantages:
● Simplicity: Easy to set up and understand, making it ideal for smaller networks.
● Centralized Management: The central hub makes it easy to manage the network and
troubleshoot issues.
● Isolation of Devices: Each device is connected to the hub independently, so failure of
one device doesn’t affect others.
● Ease of Maintenance: Faults are easily isolated and repaired.

Disadvantages:
● Single Point of Failure: The entire network depends on the central hub. If the hub fails,
the whole network goes down.
● Cost: More cabling is required compared to bus topology.
● Scalability Limitations: The number of devices is limited by the number of ports
available on the hub.
 A star topology connecting four stations

Bus Topology: A bus topology is a multipoint connection. One long cable acts as a backbone
to link all the devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and
taps. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat.
Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason, there
is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

Advantages:
● Cost-Effective: Requires less cable than star or mesh topologies, making it cheaper to
install.
● Simplicity: Easy to install for small networks.
● Scalability: Easy to add new devices by extending the bus.

Disadvantages:
● Limited Cable Length: The length of the bus is limited, which restricts the number of
devices.
● Difficult Troubleshooting: A fault in the main cable can cause the entire network to fail,
making it hard to isolate issues.
● Performance Issues: As more devices are added, performance can decrease due to
data collisions and network congestion.
● Maintenance: If the main cable fails, the entire network goes down, and repairing the
cable can be difficult.

A bus topology connecting three stations

Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with
only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from
device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits
and passes them along.

Advantages:
● Equal Access: All devices have equal access to the network, preventing data collisions.
● Performance: Data packets travel in one direction, reducing the chances of packet
collisions.
● Scalability: Adding new devices does not significantly impact the performance of the
network.

Disadvantages:
● Single Point of Failure: If one device or connection in the ring fails, the entire network
can be disrupted.
● Latency: Data must pass through all intermediate devices, which can increase latency.
● Complexity: More complex to install and reconfigure than star or bus topologies.
● Maintenance: Troubleshooting and maintenance can be more difficult since each device
is connected to two others, requiring the whole ring to be checked for issues.

A ring topology connecting six stations

Hybrid Topology: A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology
with each branch connecting several stations in a bus topology.
Guided Transmission Media:

● Magnetic Media: In this, we transfer data from one computer to another by writing it
onto magnetic tape or removable media (eg: recordable DVDs), physically transport the
tape or disk to the destination machine, and read them back in again.

Advantages:
● High storage capacity.
● Cost-effective for archival and backup purposes.

Disadvantages:
● Slow data access time (sequential access).
● Susceptibility to wear and tear.

● Twisted Pairs: Twisted pair cables consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together. This twisting helps to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk
between adjacent pairs.

Types:
● Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Commonly used in Ethernet networks. It lacks
additional shielding, making it more susceptible to EMI but also cheaper and
easier to work with.
● Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has additional shielding around the pairs of wires,
providing better protection against EMI and crosstalk.
 Advantages:
● Cost-effective and easy to install.
● Flexible and easy to terminate.
● Widely used and supported by many network devices.

Disadvantages:
● Limited bandwidth and distance compared to coaxial and fiber-optic cables.
● Susceptible to EMI and crosstalk, especially UTP.

● Coaxial Cables: Coaxial cables consist of a central copper conductor surrounded by an

insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer. The metallic shield
provides excellent protection against EMI.

Advantages:
● Higher bandwidth and data rates than twisted pair cables.
● Better protection against EMI.
● Reliable and durable for various uses.

Disadvantages:
● More expensive and harder to install than twisted pair cables.
● Less flexible and more challenging to terminate.

● Fiber-Optic Cables: Fiber-optic cables use light signals to transmit data. They consist of
a core made of glass or plastic fibers, surrounded by a cladding layer that reflects light
back into the core, and an outer protective jacket.

Types:
● Single-Mode Fiber (SMF): Has a small core and uses a single light path. It is
suitable for long-distance communication and high-bandwidth applications.
● Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF): Has a larger core and uses multiple light paths. It is
suitable for shorter distances and is commonly used in LANs and data centers.
 Advantages:
● Extremely high bandwidth and data rates.
● Immune to EMI and crosstalk.
● Long-distance transmission capabilities.

Disadvantages:
● More expensive than copper cables.
● More fragile and difficult to splice and terminate.
● Requires specialized equipment for installation and maintenance.

Unguided Transmission Media:

● Radio Waves: Data transmission through radio waves is a method of wireless

communication that utilizes the electromagnetic spectrum, particularly within the radio
frequency range, to transmit data over distances. This method is widely used in various
applications, including broadcasting, mobile communication, and wireless networking.

Advantages:
● Can cover large areas and reach remote locations.
● Can penetrate through buildings and obstacles.
● Supports mobile communication, allowing devices to stay connected while
moving.

Disadvantages:
● Susceptible to interference from other electronic devices and environmental
factors.
● Lower frequency bands have limited bandwidth, affecting data transmission
rates.
● Wireless signals can be intercepted, requiring robust encryption and security
measures.

● Infrared Waves: It is a form of wireless communication that uses infrared light to

transmit data over short distances. Infrared communication is commonly used in remote
controls, short-range data transmission between devices, and certain types of wireless
networks.

Advantages:
 ● Infrared communication is relatively secure because the signals are confined to a
small area and are not easily intercepted.
● Infrared does not interfere with other wireless communication systems such as
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or radio waves.
● Infrared devices typically consume less power, making them suitable for
battery-operated devices.

Disadvantages:
● Infrared communication usually requires a clear line of sight between the
transmitter and receiver, limiting its range and flexibility.
● Infrared communication is effective only over short distances, typically up to a
few meters.
● Infrared signals can be easily blocked by obstacles such as walls, furniture, or
even people moving between the transmitter and receiver.
● Infrared communication generally supports lower data rates compared to other
wireless technologies like Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.

● Micro Waves: It involves the use of microwave signals to transmit data wirelessly over
long distances. Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with frequencies
typically ranging from 1 GHz to 300 GHz. This type of communication is widely used in
various applications, including satellite communications, cellular networks, and
point-to-point communication links.

Advantages:
● Supports high data rates, making it suitable for data-intensive applications.
● Can cover long distances with the use of repeaters or satellites.
● Offers stable and consistent communication, especially for line-of-sight links.
● Microwave frequencies are less crowded than lower frequency bands, resulting in
fewer interference issues.

Disadvantages:
● Requires a clear line-of-sight path between the transmitter and receiver, limiting
flexibility in some environments.
● Microwave signals can be affected by atmospheric conditions, such as rain, fog,
and humidity, leading to signal attenuation.
● Physical obstacles like buildings, mountains, and trees can block microwave
signals.
● Setting up microwave communication infrastructure, including antennas and
repeaters, can be expensive.
● Satellite: It involves the use of satellites to relay signals between different points on
Earth. This method of communication leverages the satellite's position in space to
provide long-distance communication links, often over vast geographical areas that are
challenging to cover with terrestrial communication methods.

Types of satellites:

1. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellites:

● Orbit at an altitude of approximately 35,786 kilometers.
● Remain fixed over one spot on the Earth's surface.
● Provide continuous coverage to a specific area.
● Commonly used for television broadcasting, weather monitoring, and
communications.

2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellites:

● Orbit at altitudes ranging from 2,000 to 35,786 kilometers.
● Cover larger areas than Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites but with lower
latency than GEO satellites.
● Often used for navigation systems like GPS.

3. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites:

● Orbit at altitudes of 160 to 2,000 kilometers.
● Provide low-latency communication and high-speed data transmission.
● Require a constellation of satellites to ensure continuous coverage.
● Used for satellite phones, internet services, and Earth observation.

Advantages:
● Capable of covering large geographical areas, including remote regions.
● Facilitates communication over vast distances without the need for extensive
terrestrial infrastructure.
● Ideal for broadcasting services to a wide audience.
● Supports communication with moving platforms like ships, aircraft, and vehicles.

Disadvantages:
● GEO satellites introduce significant latency due to the long distance the signals
must travel.
● High initial investment for satellite deployment and maintenance.
● Signal quality can be affected by adverse weather conditions like heavy rain or
storms.
● Requires clear line-of-sight paths between ground stations and satellites, which
can be obstructed by buildings or natural features.
Framing: Framing in computer networks is the process of dividing a continuous stream of data
into smaller, manageable units called frames. These frames are the basic units of
communication between network devices at the data link layer of the OSI model. Framing is
essential for several reasons:

● Error Detection and Correction: Framing allows the network to detect and correct
errors. Each frame can include error-checking information, such as a checksum or cyclic
redundancy check (CRC), which helps identify if any data has been corrupted during
transmission.

● Flow Control: Breaking data into frames makes it easier to manage the flow of data
between sender and receiver. Flow control mechanisms can be applied to ensure that
the sender does not overwhelm the receiver with too much data at once.

● Synchronization: Framing helps in maintaining synchronization between the sender

and receiver. It ensures that the receiver can accurately detect the beginning and end of
each frame, even if errors occur during transmission.

● Efficient Use of Resources: By framing data, networks can use their resources more
efficiently. Frames can be retransmitted individually if errors are detected, rather than
needing to retransmit the entire data stream.

Methods of Framing: There are several methods to frame data, each with its advantages and
challenges:

● Byte Count: This method includes a field in the header of each frame that specifies the
number of bytes in the frame. The receiver uses this byte count to determine where the
frame ends. However, if the byte count is corrupted, it can lead to synchronization
issues.

● Flag Bytes with Byte Stuffing: Frames start and end with special flag bytes. If the flag
byte appears in the data, an escape byte is inserted before it to differentiate it from
actual frame delimiters. The receiver removes these escape bytes.

● Flag Bits with Bit Stuffing: Similar to byte stuffing, but at the bit level. Frames are
delimited by a specific bit pattern (e.g., 01111110). If the same bit pattern appears in the
data, an extra bit (usually a 0) is inserted to prevent confusion. The receiver removes
these extra bits.

● Physical Layer Coding Violations: Some protocols use redundancy in the physical
layer's signal encoding to indicate the start and end of frames. Reserved signals that do
not occur in regular data are used as delimiters.
Question: Describe the need for switching and define a switch.
Answer: Switching is essential in network communication for several key reasons:

● Efficient Use of Resources: Switching allows multiple devices to share a single

communication medium efficiently. It helps manage the data traffic and ensures that the
network's bandwidth is utilized optimally.

● Scalability: As networks grow, direct connections between every pair of devices

become impractical. Switching provides a scalable solution by enabling the network to
expand without requiring an exponential increase in direct connections.

● Improved Performance: Switching helps in reducing network congestion by directing

data packets along the most efficient paths. This minimizes delays and enhances the
overall performance of the network.

● Network Management: Switches enable better network management by segmenting

traffic, isolating network faults, and implementing security policies. They allow for more
control over the flow of data and help maintain the network's health.

● Flexibility and Functionality: Switching technologies support various network

topologies and protocols, providing the flexibility to design and configure networks
according to specific requirements. They also offer advanced functionalities like VLANs
(Virtual Local Area Networks), QoS (Quality of Service), and load balancing.

A switch is a networking device that connects multiple devices (such as computers, servers,
printers, etc.) within a Local Area Network (LAN) and uses packet switching to forward data to
its destination.

Circuit-Switched Networks: A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected

by physical links, in which each link is divided into n channels.
 A trivial circuit-switched network

How Circuit-Switched Networks Work: In a circuit-switched network, communication involves

three phases: connection setup, data transfer, and connection teardown.

● Setup Phase: Before communication can begin, a dedicated circuit needs to be

established. This involves creating dedicated channels between switches. For example,
if system A wants to connect to system M, it sends a setup request to switch I, which
then finds a channel to switch IV, and so on, until switch III informs system M. An
acknowledgment from system M is then sent back to system A to confirm the
connection. End-to-end addressing, such as computer addresses in a TDM network or
telephone numbers in an FDM network, is required to establish this connection.

● Data Transfer Phase: Once the circuit is established, data can be transferred between
the two parties over the dedicated channels.

● Teardown Phase: When the communication session ends, a signal is sent to each
switch to release the dedicated resources, terminating the connection.

Advantages:
● Predictable Performance: Since the bandwidth is reserved, the performance is
predictable and stable.
● Minimal Delay: Ideal for real-time communication like voice calls due to the minimal
delay.
 ● Reliability: Once established, the connection is stable and reliable as long as the
network itself is functioning properly.

Disadvantages:
● Inefficiency: Resources are tied up for the duration of the connectio
● n, even if no data is being transmitted, leading to inefficient use of network capacity.
● Scalability: Scaling to accommodate a large number of users can be challenging and
expensive since each connection requires a dedicated path.
● Setup Time: Establishing the connection can take a noticeable amount of time, which is
a disadvantage compared to more modern packet-switched networks.

Question: What are the two approaches to packet-switching?

Answer: The two main approaches to packet switching are Datagram Packet Switching and
Virtual Circuit Packet Switching. Each approach handles the routing and delivery of packets
differently.

● Datagram Packet Switching: In datagram packet switching, each packet is treated

independently, with no predefined path. Packets are routed based on the destination
address contained within each packet.
○ Key Characteristics:
■ Independence: Each packet can take a different path through the network
to reach the destination.
■ Routing Decisions: Made dynamically at each router based on current
network conditions and routing algorithms.
■ No Setup Phase: There is no need to establish a connection before
sending data.
■ Flexibility: Adaptable to changing network conditions and link failures.
■ Potential for Reordering: Packets may arrive out of order and need to be
reassembled at the destination.
■ Examples: The Internet Protocol (IP) is a prime example of datagram
packet switching.
● Virtual Circuit Packet Switching:
○ Definition: In virtual circuit packet switching, a pre-established path (virtual circuit)
is set up before any data packets are transmitted. All packets follow this same
path to the destination.
○ Key Characteristics:
■ Connection-Oriented: A virtual circuit is established before data transfer
begins.
■ Fixed Path: All packets follow the same path, ensuring they arrive in
order.
■ Setup and Teardown Phases: Requires a setup phase to establish the
path and a teardown phase to release the path after communication.
 ■ Consistent Quality of Service (QoS): More predictable performance
compared to datagram switching.
■ Examples: Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Multi-Protocol Label
Switching (MPLS) are examples of technologies that use virtual circuit
packet switching.

Datagram Networks: Datagram networks are a type of packet-switched network where each
packet, called a datagram, is treated independently and autonomously. This means that each
datagram contains all the information needed for it to be routed from the source to the
destination without relying on prior exchanges of information between the sender and receiver.
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a prime example of a datagram network protocol.

A datagram network with four switches (routers)

How Datagram Networks Work:

● Packet Creation: Data from an application is divided into smaller chunks, forming
datagrams. Each datagram includes not only the data payload but also a header with
essential information such as source and destination addresses, sequence numbers,
and other control information.
● Transmission: Datagrams are sent individually across the network. They do not follow a
pre-established path but rather are routed dynamically based on current network
conditions.

● Routing: Each router or switch in the network examines the header of the datagram to
determine the next hop in its journey towards the destination. Routing decisions are
made independently for each datagram, based on algorithms and network state
information.
 ● Reassembly: Upon reaching the destination, the datagrams are reassembled into the
original message using the sequence numbers in their headers.

Advantages:
● Scalability: Easily scalable to accommodate more users and devices without the need
for significant changes to the network infrastructure.
● Efficiency: Network resources are used more efficiently since there is no need to
establish and maintain connections. Multiple datagrams can share the same network
paths.
● Robustness and Flexibility: The network can adapt to changes, such as link failures
and congestion, by routing datagrams through alternative paths.

Disadvantages:
● Variable Delays: Due to dynamic routing and varying network conditions, datagrams
may experience different delays, leading to variable latency.
● Packet Loss: Datagrams can be lost due to congestion, errors, or failures in the
network. Retransmission and error correction must be handled by higher-layer protocols.
● Order Not Guaranteed: Datagrams may arrive out of order, requiring the receiving end
to reorder them correctly.

Repeater: A repeater is an analog hardware device used to extend a LAN. The repeater
amplifies and sends all incoming signals to the other side.

For example, consider the infrared receiver for a cable television controller located in a different
room than the controller. A repeater can extend the connection. The repeater does not need to
understand the commands; it merely transmits a copy of the signals that arrive at the remote
sensor.

Bridge: A bridge is a mechanism used to connect two LAN segments and forward frames from
one segment to another; computers cannot tell whether they are on a single segment or a
bridged LAN.
Frame Filtering: An adaptive bridge uses the source MAC (Media Access Control) address in a
packet to record the location of the sender, and uses the destination MAC address to determine
whether to forward the frame.

Question: Why does bridging work well?

Answer: Once a bridge learns the locations of all computers, a bridged network can exhibit
higher overall performance than a single LAN. To understand why, it is important to know that a
bridge permits simultaneous transmission on each segment. For example, computer A can
send a packet to computer B at the same time computer X sends a packet to computer Y.
Although it receives a copy of each packet, the bridge will not forward either of them because
each packet has been sent to a destination on the same segment as the source. Thus, the
bridge merely discards the two frames without forwarding them.

Because a bridge permits simultaneous activity on attached segments, a pair of computers on

one segment can communicate at the same time as a pair computers on another segment.

Multiplexing: Multiplexing is a set of techniques that allow the simultaneous transmission of

multiple signals across a single data link. This approach is used when the bandwidth of a
medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the individual devices.
Instead of wasting the excess bandwidth, it is efficiently utilized to carry multiple signals. This is
especially valuable in data communications, where high-bandwidth media like optical fiber and
microwave links are common.
Multiplexed System: In a multiplexed system, multiple (n) lines share the bandwidth of one
link. Here’s how it works:

● Multiplexer (MUX): On the transmitting end, the MUX combines the transmission
streams from multiple lines into a single stream. This process is called many-to-one.

● Link and Channels: The combined stream travels over a single physical path, known as
the link. The link is divided into multiple channels, with each channel carrying a
transmission between a specific pair of lines.
 ● Demultiplexer (DEMUX): On the receiving end, the DEMUX separates the combined
stream back into its original component transmissions. This process is called
one-to-many, directing each transmission to its corresponding line.

By using a multiplexed system, network efficiency is maximized, making optimal use of available
bandwidth and reducing the need for additional individual links.

Frequency-Division Multiplexing: It is an analog technique used when the bandwidth of a link

(in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted. Here's how
FDM works:

● Modulation of Carrier Frequencies: Each sending device generates a signal that

modulates a different carrier frequency.

● Combination of Signals: These modulated signals are combined into a single

composite signal that can be transported by the link.

● Channels and Guard Bands: Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth
to prevent overlap. The bandwidth ranges allocated to each signal are known as
channels. Channels are separated by strips of unused bandwidth called guard bands,
which prevent signals from interfering with each other.

● Non-Interference with Original Data Frequencies: Carrier frequencies are carefully

chosen so that they do not interfere with the original data frequencies.

Multiplexing Process in Frequency-Division Multiplexing: Each source generates a signal of

a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulate different carrier
frequencies (f1, f2, and f3). The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal that is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate
it.
Demultiplexing Process in Frequency-Divsion Multiplexing: The demultiplexer uses a
series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent component signals. The
individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers and
passes them to the output lines.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): It is a technique designed to exploit the

high-data-rate capabilities of fiber-optic cables. Fiber-optic cables offer significantly higher data
rates compared to metallic transmission cables. Using a fiber-optic cable for a single
communication line would waste its available bandwidth. WDM addresses this by combining
multiple signals onto a single fiber-optic line. Here’s how WDM works:
● Combining Light: A multiplexer combines several narrow bands of light, each from a
different source, into a single output beam. This is achieved by bending beams of light
based on their angle of incidence and frequency, often using a prism.

● Splitting Light: At the receiving end, the demultiplexer separates the combined light into
its original narrow bands, again using the principles of light refraction through a prism.