AP Calculus

Notes

Mr. Anticona
TVT

AP Calculus AB/BC notes

Third Release, June 2022

 Contents

1 Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.1 Can Change Occur at an Instant? 11
1.1.1 The Tangent Line Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Defining Limits and Using Limit Notation 12
1.3 Estimating Limit Values from Graphs 14
1.4 Estimating Limit Values from Tables 15
1.5 Determining Limits Using Algebraic Properties of Limits 16
1.6 Determining Limits Using Algebraic Manipulation 18
1.6.1 Functions That Agree on All but One Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.2 Dividing Out Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.3 Rationalizing Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.6.4 Three Special Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7 Selecting Procedures for Determining Limits 20
1.8 Determining Limits Using the Squeeze Theorem 20
1.9 Connecting Multiple Representations of Limits 23
1.10 Exploring Types of Discontinuities 23
1.10.1 Limits That Do Not Exist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.10.2 Calculator Intermission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.10.3 Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.11 Defining Continuity at a Point 28
1.11.1 Testing for Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.12 Confirming Continuity over an Interval 30
1.13 Removing Discontinuities 32
1.14 Connecting Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes 33
1.14.1 Vertical Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.15 Connecting Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes 35
1.15.1 Horizontal Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.15.2 Infinite Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.16 Working with the Intermediate Value Theorem 39

2 Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1 Defining Average and Instantaneous Rates of Change at a Point 49
2.2 Defining the Derivative of a Function and Using Derivative Notation 52
2.3 Estimating Derivatives of a Function at a Point 55
2.4 Determining When Derivatives Do and Do Not Exist 57
2.5 Applying the Power Rule 61
2.6 Derivative Rules: Constant, Sum, Difference and Constant Multiple 64
2.7 Derivatives of cos x, sin x, ex , and ln x 65
2.8 The Product Rule 66
2.8.1 Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.9 The Quotient Rule 67
2.9.1 Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.10 More Derivatives 68
2.10.1 Higher-Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3 Differentiation II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1 The Chain Rule 73
3.2 Implicit Differentiation 77
3.2.1 Finding Second Derivative Implicitly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.3 Differentiating Inverse Functions 81
3.4 Differentiating Inverse Trigonometric Functions 82
3.5 Selecting Procedures for Calculating Derivatives 84
3.6 Calculating Higher-Order Derivatives 85

4 Differentiation Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.1 Interpreting the Meaning of the Derivative in Context 87
4.2 Straight-Line Motion: Connecting Position, Velocity, and Acceleration 88
4.2.1 Speeding up and slowing down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.3 Rates of Change in Applied Contexts Other Than Motion 92
4.4 Introduction to Related Rates 94
4.5 Solving Related Rates Problems 95
4.6 Approximating Values of a Function Using Local Linearity and Linearization97
4.7 Using L’Hospital’s Rule for Determining Limits of Indeterminate Forms 98
4.7.1 Indeterminate Form: 0/0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.7.2 Indeterminate Form: •/• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.7.3 Indeterminate Form: 0 · ±• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.7.4 Indeterminate Form: 1• , 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.7.5 Indeterminate Form: • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

5 Analytical Applications of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.1 Using the Mean Value Theorem 105
5.2 Extreme Value Theorem 107
5.2.1 Local (Relative) Extrema and Global (Absolute) Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3 Increasing and Decreasing Intervals 108
5.3.1 Critical Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3.2 Increasing and Decreasing Intervals of f , Using f 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.4 First Derivative Test (Local Extrema) 109
5.5 Using the Candidates Test (Global) 112
5.6 Determining Concavity 113
5.7 Second Derivative Test 115
5.8 Sketching Graphs of Functions and Their Derivatives 117
5.9 A Function, Its Derivative and Its Second Derivative 121
5.10 Introduction to Optimization Problems 126
5.11 Solving Optimization Problems 127
5.12 Exploring Implicit Relations 128

6 Integration and Accumulation of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

6.1 Exploring Accumulations of Change 131
6.2 Approximating Areas with Riemann Sums 133
6.3 Riemann Sums and Definite Integral Notation 135
6.3.1 Integrating with a Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and Accumulation Functions 138
6.5 Interpreting Accumulation Functions - Area 139
6.6 Applying Properties of Definite Integrals 140
6.7 FTC and Definite Integrals 142
6.7.1 Definite Integrals Involving Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.7.2 Using Calculators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.8 Finding Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integrals 144
6.8.1 Antiderivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.8.2 Initial Conditions and Particular Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.8.3 Vertical Motion Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.9 Integrals Using Substitution 151
6.9.1 Change of Variables with Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.9.2 Even and Odd Functions: A Retrospective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.9.3 Recognizing Quotient Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.10 Integrating: Long Divisions and Completing the Square 160
6.10.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions: Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.11 (BC) Integrations by Parts 162
6.11.1 Guidelines for Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.11.2 Repeated Use of Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.11.3 The Tabular Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.12 (BC) Integrating Using Linear Partial Fractions 165
6.12.1 Distinct or Nonrepeating Linear Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.13 (BC) Evaluating Improper Integrals 168
6.13.1 Improper Integrals with Infinite Limits of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.13.2 Improper Integrals with Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.14 Selecting Techniques for Antidifferentiation 172

7 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

7.1 Modeling Situations with Differential Equations 173
7.2 Verifying Solutions for Differential Equations 175
7.3 Sketching Slope Fields 176
7.4 Reasoning Using Slope Fields 177
7.5 (BC) Approximating Solutions Using Euler’s Method 178
7.5.1 Euler’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.6 Differential Equations Separation of Variables 180
7.7 Particular Solutions with Initial Conditions 181
7.8 Exponential Models with Differential Equations 181
7.9 (BC) Logistic Models with Differential Equations 182
8 Applications of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.1 Finding the Average Value of a Function on an Interval 187
8.1.1 Integrating Functions with Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.1.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.1.3 The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.1.4 Average Value of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.2 Connecting Position, Velocity, and Acceleration of Functions Using Integrals
191
8.3 Using Accumulation Functions and Definite Integrals in Applied Contexts194
8.4 Finding the Area Between Curves Expressed as Functions of x 195
8.5 Finding the Area Between Curves Expressed as Functions of y 196
8.6 Finding the Area Between Curves That Intersect at More Than Two Points 197
8.7 Volumes with Cross-Sections - Squares and Rectangles 198
8.8 Volumes with Cross Sections - Triangles and Semicircles 199
8.9 Volume with Disc Method - Revolving Around the x- or y-Axis 199
8.10 Volume with Disc Method - Revolving Around Other Axes 201
8.11 Volume with Washer Method - Revolving Around x- or y-axis 202
8.12 Volume with Washer Method - Revolving Around Other Axes 204
8.13 (BC ONLY) The Arc Length of a Smooth, Planar Curve and Distance Traveled
206
8.14 (Skip) Volume: The Shell Method 211
8.14.1 The Shell Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

9 Parametric Equations and Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

9.1 Defining and Differentiating Parametric Equations 217
9.1.1 Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9.1.2 Sketching Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9.1.3 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.1.4 Drawing Parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
9.2 Second Derivatives of Parametric Equations 223
9.2.1 Slope and Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.3 Finding Arc Lengths of Curves Given by Parametric Equations 224
9.4 Defining and Differentiating Vector-Valued Functions 227
9.4.1 Vector-Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
9.4.2 Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.4.3 Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.5 Integrating Vector-Valued Functions 229
9.6 Solving Motion Problems 230
9.6.1 Displacement and Total Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.7 Defining Polar Coordinates and Differentiating in Polar Form 232
9.7.1 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
9.7.2 Coordinate Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
9.7.3 Polar Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.7.4 Sketching a Polar Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.7.5 Slope and Tangent Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.7.6 Special Polar Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
9.8 Finding the Area of a Polar Region 239
9.8.1 Area of a Polar Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.8.2 Finding the Area of a Polar Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
9.9 Finding the Area of the Region Bounded by Two Polar Curves 242
9.9.1 Arc Length in Polar Form (Skip, no longer covered) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

10 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.1 Sequences 247
10.1.1 Defining a Sequence Explicitly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.1.2 Defining a Sequence Recursively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
10.1.3 Finding the nth Term of a Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.1.4 Convergence and Divergence of a Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.1.5 Monotone Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.2 Series and Convergence 251
10.2.1 Convergence of a Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
10.2.2 Telescoping Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
10.2.3 Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
10.2.4 Repeating Decimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.2.5 nth-Term Test for Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.3 The Integral Test and p-Series 257
10.3.1 The Integral Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.3.2 The Harmonic and p-Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.4 Comparison of Series 260
10.4.1 Direct Comparison Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10.4.2 Limit Comparison Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
10.4.3 Using the Limit Comparison Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
10.5 Alternating Series 264
10.5.1 Verifying Alternating Series Test Applies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
10.5.2 Alternating Series Remainder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
10.5.3 Absolute and Conditional Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.5.4 Rearrangement of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
 9

10.6 The Ratio and Root Tests 270

10.6.1 The Ratio Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10.6.2 A Failure of the Ratio Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.6.3 The Root Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
10.6.4 Using the Root Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
10.7 Taylor Polynomials and Approximations 274
10.7.1 Polynomial Approximations of Elementary Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
10.7.2 Taylor and Maclaurin Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.7.3 Remainder of a Taylor Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
10.7.4 Determining Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10.7.5 Approximating a Value with Defined Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10.8 Power Series 279
10.8.1 Radius and Interval of Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.8.2 Finding the Radius of Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.8.3 Finding the Interval of Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
10.8.4 Differentiation and Integration of Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Z
10.8.5 Intervals of Convergence for f (x), f 0 (x) and f (x) dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

10.9 Representation of Functions by Power Series 285

10.9.1 Finding a Geometric Power Series at Different Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
10.9.2 Operations with Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
10.9.3 Finding Power Series by Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
10.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 289
10.10.1 Binomial Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
10.10.2 Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
 1. Limits and Continuity

Égofebra slope orAveragerate ofchange

a line through 2 points
1.1 Can Change Occur at an Instant? passing
Che slope or rateofchangeof a
1.1.1 The Tangent Line Problem
curve passingthrough 1 point
Suppose that you are given some graph on which you need to find the equation of the tangent line to
the curve at x = 2. 1

10 As secant line getscloser

fax to 52 it startsto
5
look like thetangerine

line
tangent
0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

5
f (x)
tangent

What does the expression below represent?

f (2 + x) f (2)
(2 + x) 2 Ayy
slope of secantline

Iko fifty slope oftarget lie

1
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 12 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

1.2 Defining Limits and Using Limit Notation

Definition 1.2.1 A limit is a y-value which a function approaches as x moves closer to some
other value.
⌅ Example 1.1 Consider the following

As x approaches
p 4, what y-value does the 4 p
function y = x approach? x Approwfight
3
As X approaches 4 y value 2
approaches to 2 1

What if we asked: as x approaches 3, what

y-value does the same function approach? 1 2 3 4 5

As x approaches 3 y value
approaches to 53 fu 2
⌅ Example 1.2 Now consider the function g(x) given below. F X 4
fG I
As x approaches 4, what y-value does the 4 4 4
function y = g(x) approach? g(x)
3

As X approaches 4 y value 2

1
Z
Ite
Was my use of the word: approach arbitrary?
1 2 3 4 5

g
Yes / No.

g4 I
(a) Does the limit need a point in order to exist?

NG
(b) Is the limit at x = 4 the same as f (4)? (Circle One)
i. Always g

O
ii. Sometimes

iii. Never

(c) Let us come up with some notation for the limit.

limit of gas as x approaches 4 is 2

Ling gu 3

9647 1 gox evaluated at X 4 is 1

1.2 Defining Limits and Using Limit Notation 13

Let us explore more notation, by considering the function f (x) given below.

3
f (x)
2

2 1 1 2 3 4
1

Limit in words Limit Notation

1
i. The limit of f (x) as x approaches 3 is 1.
Insta
I 1
ii. The limit of f (x) as x approaches 2 from the right is:
Ligate
2 2
iii. The limit of f (x) as x approaches 2 from the left is:
ftp.fcx
DIVE DNE
LIFE
iv. The limit of f (x) as x approaches 2 is NONEXISTENT

sinceInstantiated
v. The limit of f (x) as x approaches infinity is 1
Iboofex p
vi. The limit of f (x) as x approaches negative infinity is 00

Lyfe
00
 14 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

1.3 Estimating Limit Values from Graphs

Consider the following graph and answer the questions below:

4
f (x)
3

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

(a) f ( 2) = 3 (h) lim f (x) =

x! 2 I
(b) f (2) = 0 (i) lim f (x) =
x!2 0
(c) f (1) = I (j) lim f (x) =
pre since fifth fig
4 1
x!1

is a vertical (d) lim f (x) = (k) lim f (x) =

x! 1+ 00 x! 1 00
asymptote
(e) lim f (x) =DIVE (l) lim f (x) =
x! 1 EFFEDFIELD x!1

(f) lim f (x) = (m) lim+ f (x) =

x! 2+
I x!1 O
(g) lim f (x) = (n) lim f (x) =
x! 2 x!•
 1.4 Estimating Limit Values from Tables 15

1.4 Estimating Limit Values from Tables

main Restriction
x3 1
Consider the function f (x) = . X
x 1
In particular, we are curious about what happens at the point x = 1. We would like to evaluate
what goes on here we can look at this equation from a numerical point of view.
X e x it
x 0.750 0.900 0.990 0.999 1 1.001 1.010 1.100 1.25

f (x) 2.313 2.71 2.9701

_o_
2.997 ? 3.003 3.0301 3.31 3.813

Answer the following:

(a) lim f (x) =
x!1 3
(b) lim+ f (x) =
x!1 3
(c) lim f (x) =
x!1 3
(d) What is f (1) undefined since XI 1 for fix

R There are four essential calculator skills you need to master in this course. The first one is
graphing, so let us take some time now to graph the function above and insert a picture of it in
your notes.
 16 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

1.5 Determining Limits Using Algebraic Properties of Limits

One can note that finding limits when pictures are provided can be quite simple, in fact, it can be
easier if we simply know the formula for the equation.
Example 1.3 lim x2 =
⌅
x!4 FCI
⌅ Example 1.4 lim (x2
x!1
2x + 1) =
prep 1 101
Theorem 1.5.1 — Direct Substitution. When finding limits you should always start by applying
this method.
lim f (x) =

Please note that this method works only sometimes.

x!c
HEnotalwaystrue
R If direct substitution yields something undefined, it means NOTHING.
Do not rely on this if the function is piecewise!

x(x 1)
8 Needto simplifyfirst
⌅ Example 1.5 Find lim
x!0
i x

ex is
III
⌅
O l
Example 1.6 Answer the questions below I
(
1, x 6= 2
f (x) = .
0, x=2

(a) lim f (x) =

x!2 I n
(b) lim+ f (x) = 21 0 7
x!2 I
7
(c) lim f (x) =
x!2 I 2 l
9I
⌅
Ca f 1.7
Example
2 0
Answer the questions below
8 2
<x + 1, x < 1
>
f (x) = x, x=1.
>
:
2x 4, x > 1

(a) f (1) =
l (c) lim+ f (x) =
x!1 154 2 4 20 4 0
(b) lim f (x) =
x!1
Im Xi it 42
(d) lim f (x) =
x!1 DNE
since

finite listen
1.5 Determining Limits Using Algebraic Properties of Limits 17

⌅ Example 1.8 Suppose lim f (x) = 10 and lim g(x) = 0. Answer the following.
x!4 x!4
(a) lim [g(x) f (x)] =
x!4
Yn94 Liffey o w tI
(b) lim [ f (x) + g(x)] =
x!4
limitedthing go b to ta
(c) lim 2 f (x) =
x!4 2 Imfex 2W 2A
(d) lim [ f (x) · g(x)] =
x!4 o e
f (x)
(e) lim =
x!4 2
f (x)

IEEE G
(f) lim =
x!4 g(x) IE
g(x)
(g) lim =
x!4 f (x)

(h) lim [ f (x)]3 =

x!4
p lyingfix co'sfood
(i) lim g(x) =
ra
Esa
x!4

4 4
f (x) g(x)
3 3

2 2

1 1

2 1 1 2 3 4 2 2 1 4
B
1 1

2 2

⌅ Example 1.9 Use the graphs above to evaluate the following limits.

(a) lim f (g(x)) =

x!0 l (d) lim f (g(x)) =
x!5 l
(b) lim g( f (x)) =
x!• 2 (e) lim g(x) =
x!3 2
(c) lim f (g(x)) =
x! • l (f) Challenge. lim f (g(x)) =
x!3 l
Iimofgas
gx
 18 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

1.6 Determining Limits Using Algebraic Manipulation

Exercise 1.1 Algebra Review

TO
(a) ln(ex ) = x Ine
x III (d) ln(e) =
1
(b) ln(e10 ) = 10 (e) (a b)(a + b) =
a b
(c) ln(1) = o (f) ln(ab ) =
b ina

⌅ Example 1.10 Solve the following

a) lim tan x = 5
x!0 Igo 4 4 a
b) lim sin2 x =
x!0 limo six o D
c) lim xex =
x! 1 Ié
d) lim ln(x3 ) = Ines 3
x!e

as
e) lim+ ln(x) =
x!0

1.6.1 Functions That Agree on All but One Point

(
x2 + x + 1, x 6= 1
⌅ Example 1.11 Find lim f (x), where f (x) = .
x!1 1, x = 1.
Does direct substitution work in this example?

fifty Xx H it 1 1 1370

f I II Directsubstitution doesnotwork

1.6.2 Dividing Out Technique

⌅ Example 1.12 Find lim

x2 + x 6 f simplify first
. Does direct substitution work in this example?
x! 3 x+3

R Graph the equation in your graphing calculator and discuss.

15h É 32 51
 1.6 Determining Limits Using Algebraic Manipulation 19

1.6.3 Rationalizing Technique

Note that the following problem is slightly different but simplifying remains the goal.
p
x+1 1
⌅ Example 1.13 Find lim .
x!0 x

1 E
Is ÉÉ L Ifi I
1.6.4 Three Special Limits
Theorem 1.6.1 — Special Limits. The following limits are quite important to keep in mind due
to its recurrent presence.
sin x
(a) lim
x!0 x
=
p
1 cos x
(b) lim = o
x!0 x
✓ ◆
1 x
(c) lim 1 + = e
x!• x

tan x sin 4x
⌅ Example 1.14 Find lim ⌅ Example 1.15 Find lim .
x!0 x x!0 x

Is sing I Ys4 17
limosingkings
Isosing Is 4tinysing
4.1 47
I I D

Can you generalize the following?

sin(kx)
(a) lim =
x!0 x
sin(ax)
(b) lim =
x!0 bx
✓ ◆
1
sin
x
What would be the answer to lim
x!• 1
? I
x
let U
Asx oo u

him sing D
 20 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

1.7 Selecting Procedures for Determining Limits

i. Test direct substitution
ii. Simplify if possible to find an almost equivalent expression that will provide an answer.
iii. Learn to verify your answer numerically and graphically (with or without a calculator).

R Remember the answer to a limit is never undefined. If direct substitution leads you to something
like 0/0 or any other undefined expression, this only means you have to try something else.

x 9

i
(a) lim p
x!9 x 3

Em ra 3 67
x2 + 7x + 6 02 7
(b) lim
x!0 x+3 1 3 127

8
< sin x , x 6= 0
(c) lim f (x), where f (x) = x
x!0 :1, x=0

differ lim stg II

x o

1.8 Determining Limits Using the Squeeze Theorem

Theorem 1.8.1 — The Squeeze Theorem. If f  g  h for all x in some open interval around c
and
lim f (x) = L = lim h(x), fex s gex shes
x!c x!c
Liketen edgesasclinches
then
lim g(x)
2 ElyingSW E L
x!c L
Bysqueezetheorem
ya god
R It is important that you recognize the preamble of theorems as the AP will constantly use that
to indicate what you need to use in a problem. You will note this in the review assignment for
this chapter.
1.8 Determining Limits Using the Squeeze Theorem 21

⌅ Example 1.16 Suppose 4 x2  f (x)  4 + x2 . Although you do not know the exact function
f (x). Can you find lim f (x)?
x!0

4
If 4 42
By squaretheorem to
limfex 4
44 4
II no

⌅ Example 1.17 Find lim |x| sin x

x!0

✓ ◆
1
2
⌅ Example 1.18 Find lim x sin
x!0 x

We know
Is sin E SI
YI Is in E Ex
ImoCx2 2 limoYsiuct
slimy
O e limox'sin E so
By squeeze theorem lyingx'son E 0
22 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

R From now on, anytime you see blue questions in my notes it will be an indicator that the
questions are styled after the AP exam.

Exercise 1.2 Let g and h be the functions defined by g(x) = 2x2 + 4x + 1 and
1 11
h(x) = x2 x+ . If f is a function that satisfies g(x)  f (x)  h(x) for all x, what is
2 2
lim f (x)?
x!1

(A) 3

(B) 4

(C) 5

(D) The limit cannot be determined from the information given.

⌅

⇣p ⌘
Exercise 1.3 Let g and h be the functions defined by g(x) = sin (x + 2) + 3 and h(x) =
2
1 3 3 2 9
x x x + 3. If f is a function that satisfies g(x)  f (x)  h(x) for 2 < x < 0, what
4 2 4
is lim f (x)?
x! 1

(A) 3

(B) 3.5

(C) 4

(D) The limit cannot be determined from the information given.

⌅
 1.9 Connecting Multiple Representations of Limits 23

1.9 Connecting Multiple Representations of Limits

We should now be able to combine our understanding of limits and its various representations in
different contexts.
⌅ Example 1.19 If h is a piecewise linear function such that lim h(x) does not exist, which of the
x!3
following could represent the function h?
liyzC2xD
(
2x + 1, x<3 Ling.hu
IYsthex mI
(A) The algebraic expression h(x) =
10 x, x>3
fiigCw x y
(B) The table
133ha 13440 4

y
x 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

h(x) 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.6

simeyghu 43hu

F 1ivgho
(C) The picture below

7
6

43447 3
4

simeygghotss.to 2
y
IY3hW DNE h(x)

2 4 6

1.10 Exploring Types of Discontinuities

1.10.1 Limits That Do Not Exist
Let us explore other circumstances under which a limit might or might not exist.
|x|
⌅ Example 1.20 Show that the limit lim does not exist. Provide a sketch as well.
x!0 x
|x|
1. lim
x!0 x
Tim 4 5 Read
20
11
1
|x|
2. lim+
x!0 x
L II V20
Sime
Yo
40
É
E
 24 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

R On the AP exam, be aware that a limit that does not exist is usually referred as nonexistent.
This is quite a common choice on their multiple choice problems.

1
⌅ Example 1.21 Discuss the existence of the limit lim 2 . Provide a sketch as well.
x!0 x

Imo DIVE

⌅ Example 1.22 What can you say about the following lim sin x?
x!•

lyingSint DNE

mmmm
and I as yooo
✓ ◆
1
⌅ Example 1.23 Discuss the existence of the limit lim sin . Provide a sketch as well.
x!0 x

I sink we
jaunt

R One should note that these serve as the types of behaviors that make a limit nonexistent.
• f (x) approaches different numbers on the left and right side of c.
• f (x) increases or decreases without bound as x approaches c.
• f (x) oscillates without approaching particular y value, as x approaches c.
 1.10 Exploring Types of Discontinuities 25

1.10.2 Calculator Intermission

A. Radians. Make sure that your calculator is set to radian mode for all the problems in this
class.
(a) go to mode and make sure that radian is selected.

B. Graph the following. Access the graph screen on your calculator.

(a) Y1 = X 2

1
(b) Y2 =
X 5
(c) Y3 = sin(|X|)

R Some calculators have an alpha shortcut for fractions, windows, graphing and even
absolute values.

C. Window. Make sure to know how to set the parameters to window

(a) Define Xmin and Xmax as the domain of your graph.

(b) Define Ymin and Ymax as the range of your graph.

(c) If you ever need to default the window of your graph you can press zoom > 6:standard .

R Please note that for some calculators the minus is different from the negative symbol.
 26 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

1.10.3 Discontinuity
What does the word discontinuous mean to you?

4 4

2 2

1
10
2
1 2

f (x)
3 1

2
1 2

g(x)
3

(a) lim f (x) =

x!1 I (a) lim g(x) =
x!1 1
(b) f (1) = (b) g(1) = Mmw
4
g9É
undefined
(c) Is lim g(x) = g(1)?

fisdisontinuousat x!1

s 100
Igt 80
4
60
2
40

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 20
g(x)
2 f (x) 1 1 2 3

g (a) lim f (x) =

x!3 DNE 43370 Iste (a) lim g(x) =
x!1

(b) f (3) = (b) If a limit yields • or •, does the limit

exist?
fisdiscontinuousatxed NolimitDIVE because gex
incwithutbounds as x 91
1.10 Exploring Types of Discontinuities 27

⌅ Example 1.24 There are two types of discontinuities: removable and nonremovable. Discuss
the continuity of each of the functions presented below.

10 infinite discontinuity

5 nonrenewable

2 2
5
1
x 2
10

Removable
2 2

4 x2 4
x+2

is
2
JumpDiscontinuity

2 4

2
f (x)

In general, the AP differentiates between removable and nonremovable discontinuities. However,

you will find textbooks list the following.
(a) Removable Discontinuities at x = a.
This means the limit at x = a exists but either f (a) does not exist or f (a) is not equal to the
limit.
(b) Nonremovable Discontinuities at
• Jump Discontinuity. The one-sided limits exists but lim f (x) 6= lim+ f (x).
x!a x!a
• Infinite Discontinuity. Occurs if either lim f (x) or lim+ f (x) approach • (or •).
x!a x!a
 28 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

1.11 Defining Continuity at a Point

Informally, continuity implies no interruptions.

O
Definition 1.11.1 A function f is continuous at some point c if the following conditions are
met.

i. f (c) exists
ii. lim f (x)
x!c exists

ftp.fex fcc
iii.

Alternatively, we could rephrase the above using the following

lim f (x) lim f (x) f (c)

x!c+ x!c

Definition 1.11.2 A function is continuous on an open interval (a, b) if the function is continu-
ous at each point in said interval.

⌅ Example 1.25 Discuss the continuity of

1 Ezo
a
for
Fd.tcxs Fa or p
f (x) = 1 x2 . Exel
or
yiy.io cheek
continuityat
theendpoints
Gyfun for or

omine
iscontinuousatx 1

⌅
Into15Mt or
EM FI it L CD oV
Example 1.26 Discuss the continuity of f (x) =
cost O
x2 + 1
cos x
. Quotient
Coleendenominator
f is continuous on
X I 312,512 s
X Iztnit n is aninteger EE Cz3E ISI
⌅ Example 1.27 Discuss the continuity of the following functions
i. f (x) = ln(3x)

p
3 70
x o tiggy
ii. g(x) = x2 + 1

120
x2 1 Trueforall x rednumber
giscontinuousoncd
 1.11 Defining Continuity at a Point 29

Theorem 1.11.1 — Continuity of Composite Functions. If g is continuous at g(c), then the

composite function given by ( f g)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at c.

1
⌅ Example 1.28 Given that f (x) = p and g(x) = x 1. Discuss the continuity of h(x) = f (g(x)).
x
guy i g is ant on w'd Findcontinuity of
innetast
h h ft h h is ont on 00 timity of
Fifteen

⌅
H 47,0 1
Example 1.29 Given that f (x) = x2 and g(x) = p . Discuss the continuity of h(x) = f (g(x)).
taketheintersection

x
gex s g is cont on Co o
had f E t h iscont on C00,07ooo
hiscontinuousonk
1.11.1 Testing for Continuity

0
⌅ Example 1.30 Determine if the functions below are continuous at x = 0. You may use a calculator

if you need to.8 ✓ ◆

<sin 1 , x 6= 0
a) g(x) = x
:
0, x=0

glo D
X lyingsin G DNE
X
Iggy
Lying.ge glo
9isnotontinmasatVX 8 ✓ ◆
<x sin 1 , x 6= 0
b) h(x) = x
:
0, x=0

Uco o YEalculat

Limohcxl fingox.sin I or

Em ha ha or

hiscontinuousatXX
 30 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

Exercise 1.4 Consider f to be the piecewise function defined below:

8
>
> 2x + 3, x<1
>
>
>
<5,
> x=1
f (x) = 4x + 9, 1<x<3
>
>
>
>4, x=3
>
>
:
x 6, x>3

Which of the following statements is false?

ÉII.euas sY
Lingtw Czxs r r
t
lying

(A) f is continuous at x = 1. r
Lipfo fo s

XL (B) f is continuous at x = 2.

(C) f is continuous at x = 3. y
g iscommon ate

MISS.IS
4 9 3
5tm E
(D) f is continuous at x = 4.
Lingfex lying
X ⌅

1.12 Confirming Continuity over an Interval IimFU f3 X

f is discontinuous at X
Exercise 1.5 Which of the following functions is not continuous on the interval ( •, •)?
3

(A) f (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 are cont on 0000

All polynomials
1
(B) g(x) =
x3 + x2 + x + 1
p
(C) h(x) = sin x
X 2
1
six is cont on fo o

c y é
(D) k(x) =
1+e x
é o ⌅

What can you say about the continuity of polynomial functions?

 1.12 Confirming Continuity over an Interval 31

Find the interval of continuity for the following functions, provide a quick sketch to guide your
reasoning.

cont
(a) sin x

I
(b) cos x
Goooo
HII
conto.com TIEN
(c) ex
cont
yet
on food
(d) ln x

FY
cont
1
on 6,00
(e)
x
Cont on
1
(f) 2
00,0 10,00 Is
x

I
cont on C ooo Como

MEEEE
Exercise 1.6 Which of the following functions are continuous on the interval 0 < x < 5?
x 3

X
I. f (x) =
s X 3,3
ne f at
x2 9
is discontinuous
x 3
CE
OII. g(x) = 2
x +9
g is cont on 1 00,00
III. h(x) = ln(x 3)
h is discontinuous
when Coo3
(A) II only

(B) I and II only

(C) I and III only

(D) II and III only

⌅
 32 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

1.13 Removing Discontinuities

Let us put these concepts together now and work on some problems.
Exercise 1.7 8
< sin(5x)
, x 6= 0
f (x) = 8x
:c, x=0
The function f is defined above, where c is a constant. For what value of c is f continuous at
x = 0?
flo
Infix twÉEh
atx

Is sing
E e
⌅

Exercise 1.8 (
x 2 + b2 , x < 2
f (x) =
bx + 2b, x 2
Let f be the function defined above, where b is a constant. For what values of b, if any, is f

lying f4
continuous at x = 2?
b 46 4 0
⌅

Liffey b 2 Cb23 0
4 24 b 2 0
2445 43 best
4 63 26
4 5 46
26
fulefnnwsatX
Exercise 1.9 (
a2 + x2 , x < 3
f (x) =
a(x + 3), x 3
Let f be the function defined above, where a is a constant. For what values of a, if any, is f
continuous at x = 3? ⌅
 1.14 Connecting Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes 33

1.14 Connecting Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes

In this section we explore the unbounded cases where the limit does not exist.
⌅ Example 1.31 This behavior is quite common to see in reciprocal functions (although it is not
exclusive to them). Determine the following limits
1
(a) lim+
x!1 (x 1)2
=
00

Ill
1
(b) lim =
x!1 (x 1)2

Algebraic Approach: Graphical Approach:

II Is go
t
w

Now consider the following

1
(a) lim+ =
x!1 (x 1) OO
1
(b) lim =
x!1 (x 1) OO

Algebraic Approach: Graphical Approach: Use tables on your

notlysine
graphing calculator.

Itt I

1
cool
amnesative

It Is egg
 34 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

Exercise 1.10 The function g is continuous at all x except x = 2. If lim g(x) = •, which of the
x!2
following statements about g must be true?

(a) g(2) = •

(b) The line x = 2 is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of g.

(c) The line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote to the graph of g.

O
(d) The line y = 2 is a vertical asymptote to the graph of g.
X ⌅

✓ ◆
|x 5| x+5
Exercise 1.11 The function g is defined by g(x) = ln . At what values of x does
x 5 x2
the graph of g have a vertical asymptote?

(a) x = 5 only

(b) x = 0 only

(c) x = 5 and x = 0 only

(d) x = 5, x = 0 and x = 5

1.14.1 Vertical Asymptotes

Definition 1.14.1 We say that x = c is a vertical asymptote for f (x) if

x!
o O
lim f (x) = ±• or lim f (x) = ±•.
x!
e Eventassmoted
x2 + 2x 8
Example 1.32 Determine all vertical asymptotes of the graph of f (x) = .
XI 2,2
⌅
x2 4

Int Fox É Y
Therefore 4 2 is a V A f has a removable discontinuity
at X z
G y is nota d

R Although this is the formal definition of the vertical asymptote, please do not hesitate to find
them by looking for the x-values that make the denominator zero (after simplification).

⌅ Example 1.33 Find each of the following limits

 1.15 Connecting Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes 35

x2 3x

8
a) lim 00
x!1 x 1
x2 3x
b) lim+ oo
x!1 x 1
⌅ Example 1.34 Find the following limits
✓ ◆
1
a) lim 1 + 2
x!0 x I too I
x2 + 1
b) lim
x!p sin x
I 8out0
c) lim+ 3 ln x
x!0
✓ ◆
2 1
d) lim x + o o
x!0 x

1.15 Connecting Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes

We can observe the “end behavior” of a function by taking limits, but rather than taking them at a
point we can analyze them at infinity.

3 y 3 is a horizontal
x oo
x o
asymptote ofgraph f
y 3 2 y 3
1

3x2
20 15 10 5 5 10 x15
2 +4
20

From the graph alone we can evaluate the following limits:

H.A.isaty
3x2
lim =
x!• x2 + 4

3x2
lim =
x! • x2 + 4
 36 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

1.15.1 Horizontal Asymptotes

2x + 5
Exercise 1.12 Let f be the function defined by f (x) = x for x > 0. Which of the following
e +1
is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f ?

É
H
O f y
(a) y = 0 o
2
(b) y =
e
ex 2 as x o
(c) y = 1

(d) There is no horizontal asymptote to the graph of f .

⌅

Exercise 1.13 Algebra Review. List the following numbers in ascending order: 2, 3, p, e.

2 13,1T
022.718 ⌅

IT 3.14 3x + 2

O
Exercise 1.14 Let f be the function defined by f (x) = for x > 0. Which of the following
e2x + 1
is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f ?

III Nothing
(a) y = 0

3
(b) y = 2
II 00
e
(c) y = 1 3 et as x o

o
(d) There is no horizontal asymptote to the graph of f .
⌅

Definition 1.15.1 The line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f whenever

thf
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L .

H.gg
x! • x!•

How many distinct horizontal asymptotes could you have?

ID
1.15 Connecting Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes 37

⌅ Example 1.35 Find the horizontal asymptote(s) for the graph given below.

0.3
x
0.2 + e · sin(x)
0.2

0.1

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Effort sinx
4,6 549
0.1

0.2

0.3 Xo
0.2
0.4 yo
⌅ Example✓1.36 Solve
◆ the following limits
3
a. lim 10
x!•
✓ 10
x3
◆
=
W O El
5

I
b. lim =
x!• ex

⌅ Example 1.37 Find the limits of the rational functions given below
2x + 7

D
optionalAlgebra
a) lim
D 1 y
x!• x2 4x

or 1 EE j.tE eo
Eo 9 A

i
2x2 + 7

8
b) lim
x!• 7x2 4x
e

0 É
3x5 + 7
c) lim
x!• x2 4x 01 e e

R The conclusions you draw from the above examples only work for rational functions!
 38 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

Looking at these past problems one might feel inclined to see that graphs can only have one
horizontal asymptote, but this is not the case.
⌅ Example 1.38 Find the horizontal asymptotes for the following function:

10

Em Eero
f (x) =
1 + ex

1674 fo w nf
f 1

⌅
1
Example 1.39 Find the following trigonometric limits.
a) lim sin x
Ig
x!•
sin x
b) lim
x!• x

1.15.2 Infinite Limits at Infinity

⌅ Example 1.40 Find the limits below

Yih
a) lim x3
x!• 00
b) lim x3 00
x! •
sin x
c) lim O
x! • x
x
d) lim
x!• sin x DNE signalternates between at
2
2x 4x
e) lim
x!• x + 1

f) lim
2x2 4x

J
x! • x + 1 Is.EE E e I ta
5 + 3 · 2x
⌅ Example 1.41 Find all asymptotes for the function f (x) = .
1 2x

Hit Be awarethey

II 5,137 5,30 9 5,37

5 1 2 0 00
y OR
1 5,87 3 3 4 5,31
yg
0

n
9
 1.16 Working with the Intermediate Value Theorem 39

1.16 Working with the Intermediate Value Theorem

Exercise 1.15 Calculator. Let f be the function defined below

x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
f (x) =
x2 + 1
380 ln
2
If f is continuous on the interval [10, 12] and 10 < c < 12, what is true about f (c)?

(a) f (c) = 0 f is continuous on IW 12

(b) f (c) = 27.372 WL c 212

(c) f (c) = 42.421 f Cio Fcc 2 62
(d) f (c) = 67.205

Theorem 1.16.1 — Intermediate Value Theorem. If f is continuous on the closed interval

[a, b], and c is a number in (a, b), then
there is a k between fca andfcb
such that fcc K

Express this theorem with a graphical representation.

l
seas
le
ga
Intermediate ValueTheorem
R Note that this theorem only tells us a solution exists but it does not give you a method to find it.
These are called existence theorems! You should also note that there could be several values
that satisfy MVT.
 40 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

Exercise 1.16 Algebra Review.

A function has a zero at x = c whenever f c 0.

⌅

⌅ Example 1.42 Can you prove that the polynomial function f (x) = x3 + 2x 1 has a zero in the
interval [ 1, 1].

f is continuous on 5 1,1 441 1 4

Icca
gtfo

i
4 fee egg

betweenGiDsuc4thetfeo
therthee.BA
O.I
Exercise 1.17 The table below gives values of a function g at selected values of x. Which of
the following statements, if true, would be individually sufficient to conclude that there exists a
number c in the interval [ 2, 2] such that g(c) = 6?
c
x 2 1
d
0 1 2

Fa
g(x) 4 1 4 11 20

I. g is defined for all x in the interval [ 2, 2]. o

II. g is increasing on the interval [ 2, 2].

oIII. g is continuous on [ 2, 2].

(a) II only

O
(b) III only

(c) I and III only

(d) I, II and III

⌅
1.16 Working with the Intermediate Value Theorem 41

Exercise 1.18 The amount of money raised during a fund-raising campaign is modeled by the
function F defined below, where F(t) is measured in US dollars and t is the time in days since
the campaign began. 8
<2t+1 2, 0t <7
F(t) = 800t 4800
: , t 7
t 4
1. Find lim F(t). Explain the meaning of lim F(t) in the context of the problem.
t!• t!•

2. Is the function F continuous at t = 7? Justify your answer.

⌅
42 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

Exercises
Exercise 1.19 Consider continuous functions g and h where g(x)  h(x) along the interval
1 < x < 3. Furthermore, we know that g(2) = h(2) = 4. Let k be a function satisfying g(x) 
k(x)  h(x) along the same interval 1 < x < 3. Is k continuous at x = 2? Justify your answer.

Exercise 1.20 What is the limit of h(x) = x as x approaches p?

(A) 0

(B) 3

(C) p

(D) nonexistent
⌅

10
Exercise 1.21 Find the limit lim 4 .
x!0 x
(A) 0

(B) 1

(C) 10

(D) nonexistent
⌅
1.16 Working with the Intermediate Value Theorem 43

e3x ex
Exercise 1.22 Calculator. What is the limit of f (x) as x approaches 0, where f (x) = ?
x
(A) 0

(B) 2

(C) 4

(D) nonexistent
⌅

Exercise 1.23 Consider the function

(p
x 2, x>3
f (x) =
6 2x, x  3. Typo
Which of the
p following statements is true?
I. lim+ x 2 = 1
x!3
II. lim (6 2x) = 0
x!3
III. The limit lim f (x) does not exist.
x!3

(A) None

(B) I and II only

(C) III only

(D) I, II and III

2
Exercise 1.24 On which interval is the graph of f (x) = p not continuous?
x 1

(A) [2, •)

(B) (1, •)

(C) [1, •)

(D) (1, 2)

⌅
44 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

Exercise 1.25 Given 8 3

<x 3x2 + 2x
, x 6= 1
f (x) = x 1 .
:
c, x=1
for what constant c is the graph of f continuous on the entire real number line?

(A) 1

(B) 0

(C) 1

(D) 2
⌅

Exercise 1.26 Free Response. The function f is defined as

8
< x + 3, x2
f (x) = x 1 .
: , x>2
2 2
Find the value of each limit, or explain why the limit does not exist

(a) lim+ f (x)

x!2

(b) lim f (x)

x!2

(c) lim f (x)

x!2

(d) lim f (x)

x!0
⌅

Exercise 1.27 Free Response. The function p is defined as

8
<2,
> x 1
p(x) = ax + b, 1<x<3.
>
:
2, x 3

(a) Find the constants a and b, such that p is continuous on the entire real number line.

(b) Use a graph to verify your results in part (a).

(c) Find lim p(x)

x!0
⌅
1.16 Working with the Intermediate Value Theorem 45

Exercise 1.28 What are the vertical asymptotes of the graph of

5(x2 4)
f (x) =
2x2 5x + 2
1
(A) x =
2
1
(B) x = and x = 2
2
1
(C) x = and x = 2
2
1
(D) x =
2
⌅

Exercise 1.29 Find the limit

⇣ px ⌘
lim sec + 2x
x! 1 2
(A) •

(B) 1

(C) 2

(D) •
⌅

Exercise 1.30 Which of the following limits do not exist?

x3 + 1
I. lim
x!1 x 1
|x|
II. lim
x!0 x
(
3, x2
III. lim f (x), where f (x) =
x!2 0, x > 2.

(A) None

(B) I and II only

(C) III only

(D) I, II and III

⌅
46 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

Exercise 1.31 The graph of f is shown. The line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote.

1 2 3 4 f (c)

Which of the following statements about f is true?

(A) lim f (x) = •
x!1

(B) lim f (x) < lim+ f (x)

x!3 x!3

(C) lim f (x) = 1

x!3

(D) lim+ f (x) = lim+ f (x)

x!0 x!3
⌅

2x2 3x + 1
Exercise 1.32 Find lim
x!2 2x3 25
1
(A)
3
1
(B)
25
(C) 1

(D) 2
⌅

x4 81
Exercise 1.33 Find lim
x!3 x 3
(A) 0

(B) 81

(C) 108

(D) nonexistent

⌅
1.16 Working with the Intermediate Value Theorem 47

Exercise 1.34 For x 0, the horizontal line y = 10 is an asymptote of the graph of the function
f . Which of the following statements must be true?

(A) f (10) is undefined

(B) lim f (x) = •

x!10

(C) lim f (x) = 10

x!•

(D) f (x) 6= 10 for all x 0.

⌅

x3 + x 5
Exercise 1.35 What is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f (x) = ?
4x2 + 8 5x3

(A) y = 1

1
(B) y =
5
1
(C) y =
4
(D) none
⌅

Exercise 1.36 Find the following limit

4x 3
lim p
x!• x2 + 6

2
(A)
3
(B) 3

(C) 4

(D) •
⌅
48 Chapter 1. Limits and Continuity

Exercise 1.37 Let 8 2

< x + 4x 32
, x 6= 2, 4
f (x) = x2 2x 8
:
8, x=4
Which of the following statements about f are true?
I. f is not continuous at x = 4
II. lim f (x) = 4
x!•
III. x = 4 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = f (x)

(A) I only

(B) I and II only

(C) I and III only

(D) I, II and III

⌅