Advanced Pilot Theory 2

Lecture 6
Upper-level meteorology, Upper-level weather charts, Synoptic charts
Contents
• Part 1: Upper-level meteorology
• Part 2: Upper-level weather charts
• Part 3: Synoptic chart
Objectives
• To understand the theory behind upper level weather phenomenon
• To develop fluency in reading upper level (SIGWX) weather charts,
with a particular emphasis on identifying potential threats
• How to read and interpret synoptic charts to identify weather
phenomenon, draw meteorological conclusions and determine the
season depicted
Need to know, need to do
Need to know​ Need to do​
The theory behind upper level weather Attend this lecture​
phenomenon
How to read upper level (SIGWX) weather Complete all practice questions​
charts, with a particular emphasis on
identifying potential threats
How to read and interpret synoptic charts to
identify weather phenomenon, draw
meteorological conclusions and determine
the season depicted
Advanced Pilot Theory 2
Lecture 6
Upper level Meteorology
 The ISA - Tropopause
Temperature
15°C
Pressure
1013.25 hPa
Density
ISA
1.225 kg/m3 pressure
ISA Temperature
Humidity
dry.
Tropopause
• Boundary between Troposphere and Stratosphere
• Temperature lapse rate ceases. Constant temp decrease with alt.
• Higher altitude over the Equator
• Lower altitude over the Poles
• Below the tropopause the proportions of atmospheric gases remain
fairly constant.
• Above the tropopause there is much less H2O than below and much
more ozone.
• Because of the stability of the lower part of the stratosphere, there is
very little mixing through the tropopause.
Variation in height of tropopause (N.H)

• In summary
• Tropopause is higher at Equator than pole
• Tropopause is higher in July than January
• Temperature near tropopause is higher at pole than equator
Variation of wind with height
• Wind speed increases with height from the surface to the
upper troposphere
• pressure gradient between the warm air and the cold air increases
with height
• friction is less with height above the ground
• air density decreasing with height
Thermal wind
• At the surface there is no pressure
difference between A and B -> PGF
=0
• Since cold air is denser than hot air
and as both columns are of equal
weight, column A will be higher
than column B.
• Pressure decreases at a slower
rate in A than B.
• As we go above ground level (e.g.
positions X and Y) there is a
pressure difference which causes a
wind to flow.
• This is called a thermal wind.
 Thermal wind
• Air flow blowing from hot
to cold (equator to pole)
• Red zone: Equator
• Yellow zone: Mid-latitude
• Blue zone: Poles
 Jet Stream
• Coriolis force deflects thermal
wind to the right (NH) or left
(SH) to produce a westerly
wind (from west to east) in
both hemispheres.
• Jet stream typically located at
the tropopause where
intensified temperature
gradient are found.
Jet Streams
• Jet streams are strong
narrow current of air in
the upper troposphere.
• Breaks in the tropopause
at the tops of large
global LOW and HIGH
pressure systems are a
common place for jet
streams
Jet streams: formation
Jet Streams - Characteristics
• Jet streams may differ in height and strength, but generally have the
following characteristics:
• Strong horizontal/vertical windshear
• Wind speeds > 60 knots (typically 100kts – 200kts)
• Length > 1000km
• Width > 100km
• Depth > 1km
• Often associated with Ci
• Dominant jet streams are westerly and occur at the tropopause
Jet Stream – Appearance
Appearance
• Theoretically, jet stream encircles the Earth in a continuous line. But
in reality, it is more broken up.
• This is because the differential heating of land/sea masses lead to
west-to-east temperature contrast as well as north-to-south.
• When warm air moves further north than normal, or cold polar air
moves further south, this causes the jet stream to ‘buckle’, driving
depressions towards different regions.
Jet Stream – Appearance

Source: https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/jet
Jet Stream – strength
Strength
• Stronger the temperature difference -> Greater the strength of jet
stream
• In winter, there is more of a temperature difference between the
equator and poles, so the jet stream is stronger than in summer.
Jet Stream –location
Location
• Seasons affect the position of the jet stream.
• In southern hemisphere, jet steam moves south in summer and north
in winter due to the tilt of the Earth.
Example Question
• At which time, if any, are polar front jet stream over the South Pacific
usually strongest?

A. July
B. January
C. October
D. April
Example Question
• At which time, if any, are polar front jet stream over the South Pacific
usually strongest?

A. July
B. January
C. October
D. April
Jet Stream around the globe
Polar Jet
• Also known as-
• Polar Jet
• Polar front Jet
• Mid-latitude Jet
• Formation: Caused by the great temperature gradient
between warm tropical maritime and cold polar maritime air
masses. Normally associated with occluded front.
Polar Jet
• Wind strength: Westerly, average speed
90 kt. Strongest polar jets is in the
northern hemisphere (over Japan).
• Height: 30 000 feet to 33 000 feet = FL
300 (300 hPa)
• Location: Lat 35°N to 65°N and 45°S to
55°S
• The Polar Front Jet is in the warm air,
below the tropical tropopause and above
or at the level of the polar tropopause.
Polar Jet
Polar Jet
• Low pressure systems occur on the polar side of the jet
stream, while more settled, warmer conditions are found on
the equatorial side
Sub Tropical Jet
• Formation: break between Hadley and Ferrell cells.
Associated with the sub-tropical high-pressure ridge. Not
associated with fronts
• Wind strength: Westerly, average speed 130 kt.
• Height: 38 000 feet, approximately FL 400 (200 hPa)
• Location: Lat around 30°S in winter (Southern Hemisphere)
(Lat 40°S to 45°S in summer). Lat 20°N to 30°N in winter
(North Hemisphere) (Lat 25°N to 35°N in summer).
Equatorial Easternly Jet*
• Equatorial jet stream that only occurs during summer ONLY in the
northern hemisphere.
• Formation: intense heating of the Tibetan Plateau in the summer
months. With cooler sea to the south, the usual north-south
temperature gradient reversed and so the jet flows from east–to-
west.
• Height: 15 km. It is high because tropopause near equator is higher
than the pole.
• Location: SE Asia over Southern India to central Africa.
• Wind strength: Around 60 kts, seldomly up to 100 kts.
Arctic Front Jet*
• Form along the arctic front where arctic air meets polar maritime air
• Maximum speed 200 kts
• Only formed at low altitude (FL 200- 250)
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)
• CAT is defined as “sudden severe turbulence occurring in
cloudless regions that causes violent buffeting of aircraft.”
• CAT should be anticipated when a sharp trough area aloft is
present, even though the wind speeds may be considerably
less than that of jet stream winds
• It typically occurs near jet streams
Clear Air Turbulence
• The cold side of the jet core and below the jet core is where CAT is
most common.
Clear Air Turbulence
• BUT the most severe CAT can be on the cold side and above the level
of the jet core.
Clear Air Turbulence
• If CAT is encountered:
• Reducing the aircraft speed reduces the risk of
structural damage and reduces vibration making
instruments easier to read.
• It will usually be several thousand feet thick only.
Climbing or descending approximately 4000 feet
would clear it
• Certain aircraft types recommend turning ignition
on to prevent the turbulent airflow from flaming
out engines.
• It is still important to know about en route CAT areas
and their severity by studying SIGWX charts before
the flight
Example Question
• In relation to the polar front jet stream, the greatest rate of
windshear is most likely to occur:

A. Below 15000 ft AMSL

B. 8000 ft or more above the core
C. On the polar side of the core
D. On the tropical side of the core
Example Question
• In relation to the polar front jet stream, the greatest rate of
windshear is most likely to occur:

A. Below 15000 ft AMSL

B. 8000 ft or more above the core
C. On the polar side of the core
D. On the tropical side of the core
Example Question
• Which area of a polar front jet stream in the southern hemisphere
has the highest probability of turbulence?

A. Above the core in the boundary between warm and cold air
B. Looking downstream, the area to the right of the core
C. Looking downstream, the area to the left of the core
D. In the core of jet stream
Example Question
• Which area of a polar front jet stream in the southern hemisphere
has the highest probability of turbulence?

A. Above the core in the boundary between warm and cold air
B. Looking downstream, the area to the right of the core
C. Looking downstream, the area to the left of the core
D. In the core of jet stream
Example Question
• An aircraft is approaching a cold front from the warm air mass side at
FL270 and experiencing Moderate to Severe CAT. A jet stream is
forecasted to be at FL310. The shortest way to get out of this
turbulence is by:

A. Increase airspeed
B. Climbing
C. Changing course
D. Descending
Example Question
• An aircraft is approaching a cold front from the warm air mass side at
FL270 and experiencing Moderate to Severe CAT. A jet stream is
forecasted to be at FL310. The shortest way to get out of this
turbulence is by:

A. Increase airspeed
B. Climbing
C. Changing course
D. Descending
Jet streams: OAT variation
• By observing the change in OAT/TAT as the flight progresses, we can
avoid the worst of the CAT associated with jet streams:
• If the OAT drops when flying south in the southern hemisphere,
you are likely below the tropopause and will fly under a jet stream
• If the OAT rises when flying south in the southern hemisphere, you
are likely above the tropopause and will fly over a jet stream
• The opposite will apply when flying North in the southern hemisphere
for both cases.
Example Question
• An aircraft is flying from south to north above the westerly blowing
polar front jet stream, at FL400 in the southern hemisphere. What
change, if any, in temperature will be experienced?

A. Increase
B. Decrease
C. Unchanged
Example Question
• An aircraft is flying from south to north above the westerly blowing
polar front jet stream, at FL400 in the southern hemisphere. What
change, if any, in temperature will be experienced?

A. Increase
B. Decrease
C. Unchanged
Example Question
• An aircraft over western Europe is crossing a jet stream 3000ft below
its core at right angles. The pilot notices the outside air temperature
is decreasing. What would be the prevailing wind?

A. Left
B. Right
C. Head
D. Tail
Example Question
• An aircraft over western Europe is crossing a jet stream 3000ft below
its core at right angles. The pilot notices the outside air temperature
is decreasing. What would be the prevailing wind?

A. Left
B. Right
C. Head
D. Tail
Advanced Pilot Theory 2
Lecture 6
Upper level Meteorology
Advanced Pilot Theory 2
Lecture 6
Upper Level Weather Charts
SIGWX charts: Introduction
 SIGWX charts: Introduction
• Significant large scale weather is represented on SIGWX charts that are
produced for two level divisions:
• Medium level: 10000 feet to FL250
• High level: FL250 to FL630
• SIGWX charts are valid at times 00Z, 06Z, 12Z and 18Z
• High level available 16 hours prior to validity
• Mid-level available 15 hours prior to validity
• Charts may be used 3 hours before and 3 hours after the validity time
• A chart valid at time 00Z may be used between 21Z – 03Z
SIGWX charts: Interpretation
• Elements:
• Image
• Legend
SIGWX charts: Interpretation
• Legend:
• Mid level: 10000 feet to FL250
• Validity time 00Z
• Issued time and date

• Caution: The legend in exam questions

may be small
SIGWX charts: Interpretation
• Image – weather phenomena including:
• Tropical cyclones
• Moderate or severe thunderstorms
• Moderate or severe icing
• Fronts
• CB clouds
• Jet streams
• Volcanic eruptions
• Tropopause height
• Radioactive material
SIGWX charts: Interpretation
• Symbology:
http://www.bom.gov.au/aviation/data/education/sigwx.pdf
SIGWX charts: Clouds
• Cloud amount is indicated by the standard abbreviations:
• ISOL, OCNL, FRQ and EMBD for CB
• FEW, SCT, BKN and OVC for clouds other than CB
• The numerals following the cloud type abbreviation are the forecast height
of the top and base, respectively, of the cloud. If the top/base is
above/below the level of the chart coverage, XXX is used, e.g.

• A similar convention is employed to indicate the forecast height of icing

and turbulence.
SIGWX charts: Jet Stream
• Jet streams are indicated by a solid line with
• pennants ( ) to show wind speeds of 50 knots,
• feathers ( ) to show 10 knots,
• and half feathers ( ) to show 5 knots.
• A 20-knot change is indicated by two parallel lines across the jet
stream ( ).
• The tropopause is indicated at various points by a rectangular box
framing the flight level of the tropopause.
Example Question
Over Tasmania, at what flight level would you expect to find the
tropopause according to the map?

A. FL300
B. FL350
C. FL450
D. FL500
Example Question
Over Tasmania, at what flight level would you expect to find the
tropopause according to the map?

A. FL300
B. FL350
C. FL450
D. FL500
Example Question
What is the height of CB cloud base near Perth?

A. FL300
B. FL250
C. Below FL 250
D. No cloud detected
Example Question
What is the height of CB cloud base near Perth?

A. FL300
B. FL250
C. Below FL 250
D. No cloud detected
Example Question
Approximately, what is the strength of jet stream over Perth?

A. 70 kt
B. 120 kt
C. 160 kt
D. 200 kt
Example Question
Approximately, what is the strength of jet stream over Perth?

A. 70 kt
B. 120 kt
C. 160 kt
D. 200 kt
RSWT forecasts: Introduction
RSWT forecasts: Introduction
• Data is derived from ICAO World Area Forecast System (WAFS)
• Three sets: covering eastern, central and western regions
• Provides winds for major airline sector routes: e.g. YMML – YSSY for 6
flight levels
• Issued: 05Z and 17Z each day
• Time points: 00Z, 06Z, 12Z, 18Z
• Validity: +/- 3 hours either side of time point
 RSWT forecasts: Interpretation

• Example: 2309064, where 23 = 230 degrees true, 090 = 90 knots, 64 = -64C

Grid Point Wind and Temperature (GPWT)
forecast charts
Grid Point Wind and Temperature (GPWT)
forecast charts
• GPWT charts give Wind Direction / Speed as well as Temp for 6
levels across 9 different regions in Australia.
• The information presented is only correct for the centre of the box.
• Forecasts are available for
• Low Level (1,000 – FL140)
• Mid Level (FL050 – FL240)
• High Level (FL180 – FL450)
• Validity period: 3 hours from the ‘valid’ time
GPWT – interpretation
GPWT – interpretation: example

14,000 feet Wind 310 deg T at 47 kts, Temp is -15 deg C

10,000 feet Wind 310 deg T at 32 kts, Temp is - 9 deg C
7,000 feet Wind 310 deg T at 29 kts, Temp is 1 deg C
5,000 feet Wind 300 deg T at 27 kts, Temp is 5 deg C
2,000 feet Wind 290 deg T at 20 kts, Temp is 14 deg C
1,000 feet No data

If wind speed is 000, winds are calm.

Winds from True North are expressed as ‘36’ (360 degrees)
Satellite observations
Infra-red image
• Deliver a temperature image of a surface in a clear sky or the cloud
tops
• IR images are available 24 hours per day because temperatures can
always be measured.
• The colder the temperature of a depicted structure, the brighter its
colour on the IR satellite image. Hottest surface will be shown in
black.
• Low clouds and fog can be hard to see with IR satellite (when
ground/sea being warm)
Satellite observations
Visual image
• Simple picture taking from high above
• Only available during daytime
• Clouds are represented in white. Higher clouds look brighter then low
clouds because high clouds contain more ice particles.
• Brighter white indicates thicker clouds, translucent layers are likely
thin clouds or a layer of fog
Example Question
On an infrared satellite image, a large, bright white areas is clearly
shown. On a visible satellite image of that same area at the same time,
a translucent whitish layer is observed. The most likely conclusion from
both images is that this formation is

A. Shallow fog
B. A cumuliform cloud
C. A thin layer of stratus
D. A thin layer of cirrostratus
Example Question
On an infrared satellite image, a large, bright white areas is clearly
shown. On a visible satellite image of that same area at the same time,
a translucent whitish layer is observed. The most likely conclusion from
both images is that this formation is

A. Shallow fog
B. A cumuliform cloud
C. A thin layer of stratus
D. A thin layer of cirrostratus
Advanced Pilot Theory 2
Lecture 6
Upper Level Weather Charts
Advanced Pilot Theory 2
Lecture 6
Synoptic charts
Synoptic chart – typical exam questions
• What is the pressure at... ?
• What is the pressure at the centre of …. system?
• What is the wind direction at... ?
• Identify the Warm front
• Identify a Col
• Identify the Cold front
• What season/quarter are we in?
Synoptic chart – identifying features
• Identify the following features:
• Isobars
• High Pressure Systems
• Low Pressure Systems
• Centre of pressure
• Warm front
• Cold front
• Trough (of low pressure)
• Ridge (of high pressure)
• Col
Synoptic chart – identifying features
• Identify the following features:
• Isobars
• Hight Pressure Systems
• Low Pressure Systems
• Centre of pressure
• Warm front
• Cold front
• Trough (of low pressure)
• Ridge (of high pressure)
• Col
Synoptic chart – cold fronts
• Left: Weather associated with cold fronts
• Right: The depiction of a cold front on a synoptic chart and its velocity
Synoptic chart – warm fronts
• Left: Weather associated with warm fronts
• Right: The depiction of a warm front on a synoptic chart
Synoptic chart – high pressure ridge
• Associated weather:
• Subsiding Air
• Very Clear
• Hot and Dry in Summer
• Clear and Cool in Winter
• Distinct change in wind direction.
Synoptic chart – low pressure trough
• Associated weather:
• Cloud / Rain / Wet Weather
• Distinct change in weather.
• More distinct point = larger
trough = more severe
weather.
• Deep troughs will turn to cold
front.
Synoptic chart – col
• Pressure at a Col:
• Lowest Pressure between
two highs
• Highest Pressure between
two lows.
• It is the intersection
between a ridge and a
trough
Synoptic chart - seasons
Concept check – question 1
• Identify:
• The weather
phenomenon at ‘B’
• The weather
phenomenon at ‘D’
• The weather
phenomenon at ‘F’
• The air pressure at ‘I’
Concept check – question 1
• Identify:
• B = low pressure system
• D = cold front
• F = col
• I = 984 hPa. Each isobar
represents 4 hPa change
in pressure
Concept check – question 2
• What season is Australia in?
Concept check – question 2
• What season is Australia in? Summer
Concept check – question 3
• What season is Australia in?
Concept check – question 3
• What season is Australia in? Winter
Advanced Pilot Theory 2
Lecture 6
Synoptic charts
Objectives covered
• To understand the theory behind upper level weather phenomenon
• To develop fluency in reading upper level (SIGWX) weather charts,
with a particular emphasis on identifying potential threats
• How to read and interpret synoptic charts to identify weather
phenomenon, draw meteorological conclusions and determine the
season depicted
Need to know, need to do
Need to know​ Need to do​
The theory behind upper level weather Attend this lecture​
phenomenon
How to read upper level (SIGWX) weather Complete all practice questions​
charts, with a particular emphasis on
identifying potential threats
How to read and interpret synoptic charts to
identify weather phenomenon, draw
meteorological conclusions and determine
the season depicted
 Advanced Pilot Theory 2
Lecture 6
Upper-level meteorology, Upper-level weather charts, Synoptic charts