SECURE IMAGING IN 6D CHAOS: A DNA-

ENCODED APPROACH FOR ENHANCED

PRIVACY

submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

of bachelor of technology in electronics and communication
engineering

by

Romil Singh (2000970310140)

Shantanu Ranjan (2000970310155)
Shivam Sharma (200097010159)

2023-2024

Abstract. Images are encoded to prevent unauthorized access to sensitive data. Although chaos-based picture
encryption algorithm is being widely utilized in many industries, the widespread use of low-dimensional chaos
increases questions regarding the security of the encryption. The study suggests a framework for encrypting
pictures that uses DNA Encryption and a 6D high-dimensional chaotic system to handle this. First, random chaos
sequences are used to undergo diffusion and shuffling of the original image sequences, and then there is further
diffusion and shuffling at the DNA level. An encrypted image is then created by combining the encoded
sequences that are generated. The experiments' findings demonstrate that the recommended algorithm
performs better in terms of picture complexity (key space over 2300), pixels correlations and image entropy (close
to 8). Furthermore, in comparison to previous references, the algorithm demonstrates excellent encryption
quality.
SECURE IMAGING IN 6D CHAOS: A DNA-
ENCODED APPROACH FOR ENHANCED
PRIVACY
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
by
Romil Singh (2000970310140)
Shantanu Ranjan (2000970310155)
Shivam Sharma (200097010159)

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Deependra Sinha
(Assistant Professor)
Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering
(B. Tech ECE – Accredited by NBA),

Galgotias College of Engineering and Technology, Greater

Noida
(Affiliated to DR.A.P.J Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Lucknow)

2023-2024
ii
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the thesis entitled “Secure Imaging in 6D Chaos: A DNA-
Encoded Approach for Enhanced Privacy” submitted by Romil Singh, Shantanu
Ranjan and Shivam Sharma for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Electronics and Communication Engineering to Galgotias College of Engineering and
Technology, Greater Noida affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical
University, Lucknow is a record of bonafide work carried out by us under the
supervision of Mr. Deependra Sinha, Assistant Professor.

We further declare that the work reported in this thesis has not been submitted and
will not be submitted, either in part or in full, for the award of any other degree or
diploma in this institute or any other institute or university.

Place : Greater Noida

Date : Signature of the Candidate

ii
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Secure Imaging in 6D Chaos: A DNA-
Encoded Approach for Enhanced Privacy” Romil Singh, Shantanu Ranjan and
Shivam Sharma from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Galgotias College of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida affiliated to DR.
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University (AKTU), Lucknow, for the award of the
degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering, is
a record of bona fide work carried out by them under my supervision, as per AKTU
code of academic and research ethics.

The contents of this report have not been submitted and will not be submitted, either
in part or in full, for the award of any other degree or diploma in this institute or any
other institute or university. The thesis fulfils the requirements and regulations of the
University and in my opinion meets the necessary standards for submission.

Place: Greater Noida

Date: Signature of the Guide

This thesis is satisfactory/unsatisfactory

Internal examiner External examiner

Approved by

Head of the Department

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, we would like to express our gratitude to our beloved Chairman, Shri.
Suneel Galgotia and CEO, Shri. Dhruv Galgotia for providing necessary facilities
to carry out and finish the project successfully. We are grateful to our Director, Dr.
Mohd. Asim Qadri for his support and encouragement.
Our special thank goes to Head of the Department, Electronics and
Communication Engineering, Dr. R.V. Purohit for providing an environment that
encouraged us in working towards our goal and supported in completion of our
project. This project gave us an opportunity to apply creative and critical thinking
skills.
We would like to present our deep sense of gratitude to our project guide, Deependra
Sinha, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering who has always been a source of motivation and firm support for
carrying out the project. The supervision and support that he gave truly helped in the
progression of the project. His cooperation is much indeed appreciated. We are highly
obliged to her for her valuable advices and moral support during research period.
Finally, our greatest and special gratitude goes to our family for their love and
support.

Place : Greater Noida

Date : Signature of the Candidate

ii
 ABSTRACT

Images are encoded to prevent unauthorized access to sensitive data. Although chaos-
based picture encryption algorithm is being widely utilized in many industries, the
widespread use of low-dimensional chaos increases questions regarding the security
of the encryption. The study suggests a framework for encrypting pictures that uses
DNA Encryption and a 6D high-dimensional chaotic system to handle this. First,
random chaos sequences are used to undergo diffusion and shuffling of the original
image sequences, and then there is further diffusion and shuffling at the DNA level.
An encrypted image is then created by combining the encoded sequences that are
generated. The experiments' findings demonstrate that the recommended algorithm
performs better in terms of picture complexity (key space over 2300), pixels
correlations and image entropy (close to 8). Furthermore, in comparison to previous
references, the algorithm demonstrates excellent encryption quality.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Content Page

No. No.
Acknowledgement iv

Abstract v

Table of Content vi

List of Figure ix
List of Table x

List of Abbreviation xi
1 Introduction 1

1.1 Chaotic system 3

1.2 DNA Encoding 5

2 Literature Review 7

3 Methodology 16
3.1 Proposed Encryption and

Decryption System 16
3.2 Reference Encryption and
Decryption System 21

4 Experimental Result and Analysis 31

4.1 Proposed Result and Analysis 31

4.1.1 Histogram Analysis 31

4.1.2 Speed Performance 32

4.1.3 Key Space 33

4.1.4 Correlational Analysis 33

ii
 4.1.5 Information entropy analysis 38

4.1.6 Encryption Quality 40

4.1.7 Shear Attack 40

4.2 Reference Result and Analysis 42

4.2.1 Visual Analysis 42

4.2.2 Key space Analysis 42

4.2.3 Histogram Analysis 43

4.2.4 Correlation Analysis 45

4.2.5 Encryption Quality 46

5 Conclusion and Future Work 47

References

Publication Detail

Individual CV

Plagiarism Report

ii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page

No. No.
3.1 Image encryption scheme 17
3.2 Sample Images 21

3.3 Reference Encryption Scheme 23

3.4 Reference Sample image 29

4.1 Histogram Analysis 31

4.2 Correlation graph 34

4.3 Shear Attack 38

4.4 Noise Attack 39

4.5 Reference Histogram Analysis 41

4.6 Reference Correlational Analysis 43

ii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

No. No.
1.1 Coding Conditions 5
1.2 XOR Conditions 6
4.1 Correlation Index 35
4.2 Encrypted Lena Correlation with Different Algo. 36
4.3 Encrypted Data Entropy 37
4.4 Encrypted Lena Entropy with different Algo. 37
4.5 Quality Results 38
4.6 Reference Correlation Analysis 43
4.7 Reference Quality Analysis 44

ii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATION

Abbreviation Meaning
AES Advanced Encryption Standard

RSA Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (cryptosystem)

CBC Cipher Block Chaining (mode of operation)

DES Data Encryption Standard

GPU Graphics Processing Unit

CPU Central Processing Unit

IV Initialization Vector

RNG Random Number Generator

XOR Exclusive OR

ii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
In an era of ubiquitous surveillance and data breaches, ensuring the privacy and security
of sensitive information is paramount. One area where these concerns are particularly
acute is in medical imaging, where patient data must be protected from unauthorized
access and potential misuse. To address these challenges, researchers have proposed a
novel approach: Secure Imaging in 6D Chaos, a DNA-encoded method for enhanced
privacy.

The motivation behind this research stems from the need to protect sensitive medical
imaging data, such as MRI or CT scans, from unauthorized access and potential
exploitation. Traditional encryption methods, while effective, can be vulnerable to attacks
as computing power continues to increase. By leveraging the unique properties of DNA
and chaotic systems, this approach aims to provide a more robust and secure method for
encoding and protecting medical images.

One of the key advantages of the DNA-encoded approach is its potential to provide
enhanced privacy protection compared to traditional encryption methods. DNA has a high
information density, allowing for the storage of large amounts of data in a compact form.
Additionally, the use of chaotic systems adds an extra layer of security, as chaotic
systems are highly sensitive to initial conditions, making them difficult to predict or
reverse-engineer.

The primary objective of this research is to develop a secure and efficient method for
encoding medical images using DNA and chaotic systems. Specifically, the research aims
to achieve the following objectives:

1. Develop algorithms for encoding medical images into DNA sequences.

2. Investigate the use of chaotic systems for enhancing the security of the encoded
data.
3. Evaluate the performance of the proposed method in terms of security, efficiency,
and scalability.

1
 4. Demonstrate the feasibility of the approach through experimental validation.

The technology involved in this research includes DNA sequencing, chaotic systems
theory, and image processing algorithms. DNA sequencing techniques will be used to
encode the medical images into DNA sequences, taking advantage of the high
information density of DNA. Chaotic systems theory will be applied to enhance the
security of the encoded data, leveraging the unpredictability and complexity of chaotic
dynamics. Image processing algorithms will be used to preprocess the medical images
before encoding and to reconstruct the images from the encoded DNA sequences.

Secure Imaging in 6D Chaos: A DNA-Encoded Approach for Enhanced Privacy is a

cutting-edge research topic that combines the fields of biology, chaos theory, and
computer science. By encoding medical images into DNA sequences and leveraging
chaotic systems for enhanced security, this approach has the potential to revolutionize the
way sensitive information is protected in medical imaging. The research aims to develop
algorithms for encoding and decoding medical images using DNA, investigate the use of
chaotic systems for enhancing security, and evaluate the performance of the proposed
method through experimental validation.

In conclusion, Secure Imaging in 6D Chaos represents a promising approach to

enhancing the privacy and security of medical imaging data. By leveraging the unique
properties of DNA and chaotic systems, this research has the potential to significantly
advance the field of secure image encoding and protect sensitive information from
unauthorized access and misuse.

The previously suggested approaches primarily focus on low-dimensional chaos systems,

which often lack sufficient complexity. Alternatively, some methods rely on DNA coding,
but they are frequently vulnerable to hacking. To overcome these limitations, we propose
a color picture method of encryption based on the encoding of DNA and a six-
dimensional hyper-chaotic system. The distinct role and novel advancements in this study
are delineated as following. Initially, we utilize a hyper-chaotic system with six-
dimensional of greater complexity as the source of randomized streams. The output
consists of six unique chaotic streams, which are described by the key and evaluation of
the raw image. Furthermore, this paper categorizes these streams into two distinct groups

2
to account for permutation and diffusion. In order to enhance the power and safety of the
permutation process, we employ pixel-level and DNA-level permutations, which result in
a substantially reduced correlation between the initial picture and the image that was
encrypted. Without a doubt, both of these permutation processes strengthen the
algorithm's ability. We perform diffusion operations at the pixel and molecular level to
the chaotic pictures after permutation. This paper evaluates the algorithm using key-space
evaluation, key sensitiveness, correlation evaluation, and other techniques. The outcomes
demonstrate that the algorithm we developed performs better than existing methods.

The report include; Chaotic System, DNA Encoding, Proposed Methodology, System
Parameters, Histogram Analysis, Efficiency Measurement, Key space Synthesis,
Correlation, Entropy Analysis and Encryption Quality.

1.1 CHAOTIC SYSTEM

Many academics nowadays have suggested using chaos-based picture encryption

methods. While some of them employ hyper-chaotic systems in the encryption system,
others use low-dimensional chaos to produce pseudo-random patterns for scrambling the
original picture. Formula 1 represents the Lorenz Chaos system formula, which was
developed in 1963 [27]. Formula 1 uses the Characters a, b, and c stand for initial
conditions, whereas characters x, y, and z stand for system values

𝑥𝑥̇ = 𝑎𝑎(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥)

𝐿𝐿(𝑥𝑥) �𝑦𝑦̇ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (1.1)
𝑧𝑧̇ = −𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

As time passed, the standard Lorenz chaotic system became unable to meet the ever-
increasing communication security needs. This resulted in the proposal. of using higher-
dimensional chaotic systems. The traditional Lorenz system was modified in 2009 to
incorporate both linear and non-linear feedback controllers, which resulted in the
development of the ensuing 5D hyper-chaos system [28].

𝑥𝑥̇ = 𝜎𝜎(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥) + 𝑢𝑢

⎧𝑦𝑦̇ = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝑣
⎪
𝐿𝐿(𝑥𝑥) 𝑧𝑧̇ = −𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (1.2)
⎨ 𝑢𝑢̇ = 𝑘𝑘 𝑢𝑢 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
⎪ 1
⎩ 𝑣𝑣̇ = 𝑘𝑘2

3
Five-dimensional hyper-chaos system is characterized from control parameters such as σ,
r, k1, B, and k2, where k1 and k2 are both positive. The system develops a hyper-chaotic
attractor featuring 3 positive Lyapunov coefficients alongside one equilibrium. In general,
a system of chaos that has greater hyper-chaotic attractors generally more complicated.
Therefore, it is comprehensible why the functioning of the five-dimensional hyper-chaos
system tends to be more sophisticated compared to standard Lorenz system.

Nonetheless, the desire for safety is relentless. To augment the complication and
unpredictability of in system, concept of six-dimensional hyper-chaos system was
introduced. This work utilizes the six-dimensional hyper-chaos system introduced by
[29]. It is produced by combining a one-dimensional linear system into a five-
dimensional hyper-chaos system stated in formula number 3.

𝑥𝑥̇ = 𝜎𝜎(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥) + 𝑢𝑢

⎧𝑦𝑦̇ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝑣
⎪
𝑧𝑧̇ = −𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝐿𝐿(𝑥𝑥) (1.3)
⎨ = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑢𝑢̇
⎪ 𝑣𝑣̇ = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
⎩ 𝑤𝑤̇ = ℎ𝑤𝑤 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

Thirteen terms make 6D hyper-chaotic system that consists of a total of seven different
factors. It also includes 6 system values. Among them, the constant parameters are a, b, c,
and h; the coupling parameter is l; and the two control factors that affect the behavior of
the system and its bifurcations are d and k. In contrast to the hyper-chaotic system in 5D,
there are six Lyapunov exponents in the 6D version. Positive results from four of them
indicate that the six-dimensional hyper-chaos system exceeds the 5D variant with respect
to of complication and unpredictable nature. In Qigui Yang's study [29], the possible
values of the other variables is given, and a, b, c, and h is identified as fixed variables.

1.2 DNA ENCODING

4
4 distinct base type i.e. adenine i.e. (A), thymine i.e. (T), cytosine i.e. (C), and guanine
i.e. (G)—and dually parallel to one another strands are involved to make up a typical
DNA molecule. With A connecting solely to T. Also, G is bonding only to C, these
strands/bases show a supportive link. Encryption dependent on the use of DNA is often
referred as biological encryption [30]. Since traditional biological encryption is bound by
expensive prices and tight scientific specifications, pseudo-DNA technology has come to
prominence as a crucial part of cryptography [31]. In Table 1. only eight of the four
pairings of the 24 encodings tries Watson-Crick supplementing criteria.

TABLE 1.1. Coding Conditions for DNA encoding

Coding One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight

Number
00 A A T T G G C C

01 C G G C A T A T

10 G C C G T A T A

11 T T A A C C G G

Several binary operations were performed by DNA nucleoid that are demonstrated in
Table 2. In this research, we apply simply the XOR operation. DNA encoding and
decoding features were adeptly implemented in the encryption and decryption stages. So
as the names of functions imply, DNA encoding converts a given picture data to closest
DNA base, while DNA decoding does the opposite.

5
TABLE 1.2. XOR Conditions

6
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

In light of technological progress in communication, an immense volume of images is

now circulated across public networks. Diverse sectors such as military image
repositories and medical imaging platforms require a more robust and expedient security
infrastructure to collect & transmit electronic pictures. [1-3]. Because of this, protecting
the safety of online photos has emerged as a critical priority. Consequently, three main
approaches have been suggested: steganography, encryption, and watermarking. [4].
Because of its high level of security, the encryption technique has emerged as a crucial
tool in this regard. Many different methods have been used to introduce a multitude of
image encryption techniques in recent decades. [5]. Numerous ciphers such as DES,
IDEA, AES, RSA, among others, have been employed for encryption purposes.
Nevertheless, most of these approaches are primarily suited for textual data and are ill-
suited for image encryption. This limitation arises mainly from the inherent vulnerability
of images, including inter-pixel correlation, extensive data volume, and redundancy. To
tackle this challenge, researchers have introduced a diverse range of encryption schemes.
[5–9]. Compared to traditional cryptologymethods, chaos-based encryption procedures
are more random, unpredictable, and non-periodic because of their susceptibility to the
starting conditions and system factors. [10, 11]. As a result, advances in chaos-based
algorithms for encryption have been made quickly. Diffusion operations in chaotic
sequences are a common technique in picture encryption. Chaotic cryptosystems
generally use sequences to reorganize the original pixel arrangement of an image.

Chaotic systems are classified as high-dimensional or low-dimensional.

Multidimensional systems produce three or more chaotic streams, while low-dimensional
systems usually produce one or two. Habustu et al. described picture encryption
technique done on chaos theory in 1991 [12] This breakthrough ignited the proliferation
of numerous chaos-based encryption algorithms. As an example, Hua Z created an image
encryption method predicated upon the '2D Logistic-Sine coupling map'[13]. Pareek.N
created a method for encryption that leverages a single-dimensional chaos logistic map
that uses the encrypted key which is updated after encrypting every frame that consists of

7
16 image pixel[1]. Chanil Pak introduced a novel technique for encrypting colored
pictures using a newly developed single-dimensional chaos map[14], Majority of low-
dimensional chaos-based picture encryption methods were Outperformed by superior
outcomes of several picture encryption techniques [15–17].

However, because of security concerns, encryption techniques that operate in low

dimensions are unable to meet the requirements, which has led towards the faster
development for encryption methods that can operate in large dimensions. Guarnong
developed a novel picture encryption approach employing 3D chaotic Cat maps [2],
which is a noteworthy development in the area of picture-based encryption techniques
based on hyper-chaotic processes. Using a 3D baker map, Mao YB suggested a quick
photo encryption method [9, 10], demonstrating better temporal complexity in
comparison to the other techniques mentioned in his research. Adrian-Viorel Diaconu
proposed a technique for scrambling color images using Pixel Transposition Digital
Chaos and Knight's Moving Rules across RGB Channels [18].

Followingthe updated Henon map, Writer proposed a color picture encryption method
[19]. In comparison to the previous Henon map, this upgraded version shows richer
chaotic features and a greater degree of complexity, leading to better efficiency during
encryption. Apart from these, numerous other researchers have developed a plethora of
picture encryption techniques rooted on multidimensional chaotic systems [20–22].
Because DNA computing has some advantages over other computer platforms, including
big data spaces, exceptionally minimal energy usage, and massive scale concurrent
processing, encryption techniques centered on hyper-chaos and encoded DNA have
gained popularity in recent years [15–17, 22]. In addition, because of the unique
characteristics involving bit-level permutation, a lot of picture encryption methods
employ it to jumble the association among pixels [19, 23, 24]. In addition, certain
strategies matching a weak chaotic system with other ways can give excellent results.
[25] devised an approach in 2022 that incorporated a complex system with Sub-block
Spiral Scans. They also used Matrix Multiplication. Similarly, [26] put proposed a rapid
picture encryption technique built on one-channel cryptography and chaotic systems.

8
The proposed scheme for encrypting digital images utilizes chaotic logistic maps and an
80-bit external secret key to efficiently enhance security. Here's a breakdown of how the
scheme works and the security analysis it undergoes:

1.Chaotic logistic maps are utilized as a fundamental component of the encryption

process. These maps generate pseudorandom sequences that exhibit chaotic behavior,
making them suitable for encryption purposes due to their sensitivity to initial conditions.
By leveraging chaotic dynamics, the scheme introduces unpredictability into the
encryption process, enhancing its security.

2. An 80-bit external secret key is incorporated into the encryption scheme to provide an
additional layer of security. This secret key serves as a parameter for the chaotic logistic
maps, influencing the encryption process and ensuring that only authorized parties with
knowledge of the key can decrypt the encrypted images. The use of a sufficiently long
secret key helps to strengthen the security of the encryption scheme against brute-force
attacks.

3. The encryption scheme undergoes a comprehensive security analysis to evaluate its

effectiveness and resilience against various attacks. This analysis includes:

Statistical Analysis: Examining the statistical properties of the encrypted images to

ensure that they exhibit randomness and do not contain any discernible patterns or
structures that could be exploited by attackers.

Sensitivity Analysis: Assessing the sensitivity of the encryption scheme with respect to
changes in both the secret key and the plaintext. This analysis helps to ensure that small
modifications to the key or plaintext result in significant changes to the encrypted data,
thereby thwarting potential attacks.

Key Space Analysis: Evaluating the size and complexity of the key space to determine
the scheme's resistance against brute-force attacks. A larger and more complex key space
makes it exponentially more difficult for attackers to decipher the encrypted data through
exhaustive search.

9
4. Dynamic Key Modification: To further enhance the scheme's resistance against attacks,
the secret key is modified after encrypting each block of sixteen pixels. This dynamic key
modification ensures that even if an attacker manages to compromise a portion of the
encrypted data, subsequent blocks remain secure due to the updated key. By periodically
changing the key during the encryption process, the scheme maintains ongoing security
for the encrypted data.

In summary, the proposed encryption scheme combines chaotic logistic maps, an 80-bit
external secret key, and dynamic key modification to efficiently encrypt digital images
while undergoing thorough security analysis to ensure its effectiveness and resilience
against potential attacks.

The proposed approach aims to significantly enhance the quality of reconstructed 3D

images by addressing specific challenges commonly encountered in image
reconstruction. Here's an explanation of how the method achieves this goal:

1. Addressing Blur Problem Caused by CIIR: One of the challenges in image

reconstruction, especially in the context of 3D images, is the presence of blur caused by
Compton Imaging in Integral Radionuclide Imaging (CIIR). This blurring effect can
degrade the quality and clarity of reconstructed images, making it difficult to discern fine
details. To mitigate this issue, the proposed approach employs a pixel-averaging
algorithm. This algorithm works by averaging the pixel values in the vicinity of each
pixel, effectively reducing the impact of blur and enhancing the overall sharpness and
clarity of the reconstructed images. By minimizing the effects of CIIR-induced blur, the
method ensures that reconstructed 3D images exhibit improved visual quality and fidelity.

2. Utilization of Cellular Automata Transform (CAT): In the encryption process, the

method utilizes the Cellular Automata Transform (CAT), which proves to be an error-free
method. Cellular automata are computational models consisting of a grid of cells, each of
which can be in one of a finite number of states. The CAT applies a transformation to the
input data based on predefined rules, resulting in encrypted data that exhibits complex
and unpredictable patterns. By leveraging CAT in the encryption process, the method
ensures robust and reliable encryption without introducing errors or artifacts that could
compromise the quality of reconstructed images. This error-free encryption technique

10
helps preserve the integrity of the data throughout the encryption-decryption process,
ensuring that reconstructed 3D images maintain high quality and accuracy.

In summary, the proposed approach enhances the quality of reconstructed 3D images by

addressing the blur problem caused by CIIR through the use of a pixel-averaging
algorithm. Additionally, the method utilizes the error-free Cellular Automata Transform
(CAT) in the encryption process, ensuring the reliability and integrity of encrypted data.
By mitigating image blur and employing robust encryption techniques, the approach
ensures that reconstructed 3D images exhibit improved visual quality and fidelity,
meeting the requirements of various applications in fields such as medical imaging,
remote sensing, and computer graphics.

The introduction of a 3D bit-plane permutation technique represents a unique approach to

image encryption that enhances security and resilience against attacks. Here's an
explanation of how this technique works and its significance:

1. 3D Bit-Plane Permutation Technique: Bit-plane permutation involves rearranging the

binary bits of each pixel across multiple bit-planes in a three-dimensional space. This
technique scrambles the binary representation of pixel values in the image, making it
more resistant to attacks and improving overall security. By permuting the bit-planes in a
three-dimensional manner, the technique introduces additional complexity and
randomness into the encryption process, further enhancing its effectiveness in
safeguarding the image data.

2. Combination of Two 1D Chaotic Maps: To generate highly random chaotic sequences

for encryption key generation, the proposed approach combines two one-dimensional
chaotic maps. Chaotic maps are mathematical models that exhibit sensitive dependence
on initial conditions, resulting in seemingly random and unpredictable behavior. By
utilizing two chaotic maps in combination, the approach increases the complexity and
randomness of the generated sequences, making them suitable for use as encryption keys.
This ensures that the encryption process is robust against attacks attempting to exploit
patterns or predictability in the key sequences.

11
3. Multilevel Discretization Method for Key Matrices: The generated chaotic sequences
are then used in conjunction with a multilevel discretization method to generate key
matrices for encryption. Discretization involves dividing continuous chaotic sequences
into discrete values, which are then used to construct key matrices. This process ensures
that the key matrices are sufficiently randomized and provide a robust foundation for
encryption. By incorporating a multilevel discretization method, the approach enhances
the randomness and complexity of the key matrices, further strengthening the security of
the encryption scheme.

The introduction of a 3D bit-plane permutation technique, along with two one-

dimensional chaotic maps and a multilevel discretization method for key generation,
enhances image encryption's security and resilience against unauthorized access. These
techniques improve the encryption process, making it more effective in safeguarding
sensitive image data.

Hybrid encryption algorithms aim to improve security and efficiency by combining

spatial domain encryption (fidelity encryption) and frequency domain encryption
(efficient encryption). Spatial domain encryption works directly on pixel values, focusing
on maintaining the visual quality of the encrypted image while ensuring robust security.
This approach ensures that the encrypted image closely resembles the original, making it
suitable for applications where image quality is crucial.

2. Frequency Domain Encryption (Efficient Encryption): Frequency domain encryption

techniques, on the other hand, operate on transformed representations of the image, such
as the Fourier transform. These techniques exploit the frequency components of the
image to achieve efficient encryption and decryption processes. By working in the
frequency domain, these encryption methods can offer advantages such as faster
processing and more efficient use of computational resources.

3. The authors proposed an enhanced version of the classical two-dimensional Henon

map (2D-ICHM) for image encryption. The Henon map is known for its chaotic and
unpredictable behavior, ideal for generating cryptographic keys. The improved 2D-ICHM
offers even more complex chaotic behavior, making it more suitable for image

12
encryption. This complexity enhances encryption strength and resistance against
decryption attacks.

Hybrid encryption algorithms combine spatial domain encryption for fidelity and
frequency domain encryption for efficiency. They provide a balanced approach, ensuring
robust security and efficient processing. The use of the improved 2D-ICHM strengthens
these algorithms by offering a more complex and unpredictable chaotic map for key
generation, ensuring the integrity and confidentiality of encrypted image data.

Block-based encryption schemes involve dividing the image into smaller blocks of pixels
for encryption. This approach offers several advantages, including ease of
implementation and the ability to apply encryption techniques specifically tailored to
blocks of pixels. Here's an explanation of the key aspects of block-based encryption
schemes and their significance:

1. Pixel Block Encryption: In block-based encryption schemes, pixels are grouped into
blocks, typically of fixed sizes such as 8x8 or 16x16 pixels. This block-based approach
allows for the application of encryption techniques to individual blocks, rather than the
entire image at once. By encrypting smaller blocks, the encryption process becomes more
manageable and efficient.

2. Techniques for Block Encryption: Various techniques are utilized within block-based
encryption schemes to ensure effective encryption of the pixel blocks. For example,
rotating blocks involves rotating the pixels within each block by a certain angle before
applying encryption algorithms. This rotation introduces additional complexity and
randomness, enhancing the security of the encryption process. Additionally, XOR
operations may be applied to pixel blocks, where each pixel value is XORed with a
corresponding value from a generated key. XOR operations provide a simple yet effective
method for introducing randomness into the encrypted data.

3. Repetitive Instructions and Parallel Processing: Repetitive instructions, such as those

involved in rotating blocks or applying XOR operations, can be customized to enable
parallel processing. Parallel processing involves performing multiple computational tasks
simultaneously, thereby improving speed and efficiency. By designing encryption

13
schemes with repetitive instructions that can be executed in parallel, the encryption
process can be accelerated, leading to faster encryption and decryption times. This is
particularly beneficial for handling large images or real-time encryption requirements.

In summary, block-based encryption schemes offer a structured approach to encrypting

images by dividing them into smaller blocks of pixels. Various techniques, such as
rotating blocks and applying XOR operations, are employed within these schemes to
ensure effective encryption of pixel blocks. Furthermore, the use of repetitive instructions
allows for customization for parallel processing, enhancing speed and efficiency in the
encryption process. Overall, block-based encryption schemes provide a flexible and
efficient solution for securing image data while enabling customization for specific
encryption requirements.

The initial step in encrypting the color image involves creating pseudo-random key
streams with two hyper-chaotic systems, known for their highly complex and
unpredictable behavior. Here's how it works:

1. Pseudo-Random Key Stream Generation: The hyper-chaotic systems produce

pseudo-random key streams used to encrypt the color image. These streams
are deterministic sequences that mimic randomness due to the systems'
chaotic nature. The key streams exhibit properties like sensitivity to initial
conditions and long-term unpredictability, making them suitable for
cryptography.
2. 256-bit External Secret Key: To ensure key stream security and uniqueness, a
256-bit external secret key is utilized. This key initializes the hyper-chaotic
systems and undergoes algebraic transformations to generate their initial
conditions. These transformations manipulate the key to influence the systems'
behavior, producing distinct pseudo-random key streams for encryption.
3. Algebraic Transformations: Mathematical operations, such as bitwise
operations or modular arithmetic, are applied to the secret key to change its
structure and properties. These transformations ensure the systems' initial
conditions are securely and deterministically derived from the key.

14
 Incorporating the secret key into the systems' initialization process enhances
encryption security and unpredictability.
4. In summary, the first step of color image encryption involves generating
pseudo-random key streams with two hyper-chaotic systems, using a 256-bit
external secret key to initialize them through algebraic transformations. This
process leverages the chaotic nature of hyper-chaotic systems and the security
features of the external secret key to achieve robust encryption.

15
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This paper introduces a new color image encryption algorithm to overcome the
limitations of prior methods. Existing approaches either use low-dimensional chaotic
systems, which are not complex enough, or rely on DNA coding, which is vulnerable to
cracking. In contrast, the proposed algorithm is based on a 6D hyper-chaotic system and
DNA encoding, offering a more secure and complex encryption method.

The key contributions and innovations of this work are outlined as follows. Firstly, we
employ a more intricate 6D hyper-chaotic system to generate six distinct chaotic streams
using the image characteristics and a key. Subsequently, the algorithm divides these
streams into two groups for permutation and diffusion operations. To ensure efficient and
secure permutation, we implement both pixel-level and DNA-level permutations,
ensuring a weak relationship between pixels in the original and encrypted images. These
permutation processes effectively safeguard the algorithm against shear attacks.
Furthermore, since permutation operations do not alter pixel distributions,After
permuting chaotic images, we apply diffusion at both the pixel level and the DNA level.
To validate the algorithm, we analyze key space, key intensity, histograms, and
correlations. The results demonstrate that our algorithm outperforms existing methods.

3.1 PROPOSED IMAGE ENCRYPTION AND DECRYPTION

SYSTEMS.
Colour picture encryption method made in this study combines DNA encoding with a six-
dimensional hyper chaos system. Three primary colour matrices make up the digital
colour image: Red, Green, and Blue. As a result, all primary colour must be encrypted
independently during the encryption process (encrypting R, G, and B). Fig. 1 shows the
process diagram for the encryption scheme.

16
Figure 3.1 Image encryption scheme

17
3.1.1 ENCRYPTION AND DECRYPTION ALGORITHM SYSTEM

Algorithm (1): Picture Encryption

An M * N * 3 matrix, designated as P, represents a plain colour image at the start of the

procedure for encrypting data, as shown in Fig. 1. The encryption algorithms matrix A1
and this matrix match. The following is a breakdown of the encryption steps:

1. Matrix Size Calculation (Step 1): Determine the dimensions of matrix A1 by

calculating its length (M) and width (N).
2. Initialization of System Values (Step 2): Set the starting settings for system
parameters (x, y, z, u, v, w) & key components, considering distortion from the
system and sensitivity. Generate the system's values i.e. a, b, c, d, h, k, l utilising
an unpredictable number generator inside the Monte Carlo approach, assuring
unpredictability using the UNIX timestamp as the seed.
3. Chaotic Sequence Generation (Step 3): Transform the A1 dimensions and the key
into a six-dimensional hyperchaos system. Repeat procedure to construct
sequences of chaos by repeating (threshold + max(M, N)) times, creating
interference for boosting complexity.
4. Chaos Sequence Derivation (Step 4): Compute six chaotic sequences using a
specific formula, resulting in values x(t), y(t), z(t), u(t), v(t), and w(t).

5. Matrix Segmentation and Transformation (Step 5): Segment the chaotic

sequences into two matrices (S1 and S2) and convert their data type from double to
uint8. The resulting matrices S1 and S2 have dimensions M*N*3.

18
6. Decimal Permutation Operation (Step 6): Perform decimal permutation
operations on matrix A1 using chaotic matrix S1. This operation involves
segmenting S1 into three parts (S11, S12, and S13) to perform scrambling
operations on each dimension (R, G, B) of the plain matrix A1.

7. Decimal Diffusion Operation (Step 7): Apply decimal diffusion by carrying out
bit XOR operation in the matrix A2 and chaotic matrix S2.

8. DNA Encoding (Step 8): Encode the diffused matrix A3 into a DNA matrix A4
using predefined coding rules from Table 1.

9. DNA Scrambling (Step 9): Implement DNAscrambler on the DNA encoding

matrix, utilizing iterative keystreams (flip(u), flip(v), flip(w)) to scramble the
position of DNA bases.

10. DNA Diffusion (Step 10): Conduct DNA level diffusion between matrix A5 and
DNA diffusion sequence S4, applying defined XOR rules from Table 2.

19
 11. Decoding (Step 11): Transform the distributed DNA matrix A6 into A using the
decoding criterion and the decimal matrix generated by the chaotic sequence w.
The encrypted picture is represented as Take C, where wi stands for the eight rules
of permissible combinations. In the end, the function yields the encrypted image's
decrypted decimal sequence or matrix.

Algorithm (2): Image Decryption

The phases of the procedure for encryption are mirrored in the decryption process. To
create chaotic sequences, the key is first fed into the hyperchaotic system. The decimal
matrix is then created by encoding the cypher image into a DNA sequence using
diffusion, permutation, and decoding operations. The plain image P is then recovered by
performing the inverse operations known as decimal diffusion and decimal permutation.

3.1.2SYSTEM PARAMETERS

We have chosen the following crucial parameters, which have undergone thorough
experimental validation: Key: [x = four y = four z = three u = four v = five w = -2, a =
ten b = 8/3, c = twenty-eight, d = two, h = 8.8]. .Furthermore, the level of interference
has been set to 0.02, the initial number is 982451653, and the cutoff value is set to 700.
Fig. 2 shows both the decryption and encryption procedures for colour images that are
512 By 512 pixels in size.

20
 FIGURE 3.2. a). Baboon (Plain& Cipher), b). Black (Plain &
Cipher), c). Lena (Plain & Cipher), d). Peppers (Plain & Cipher), e).
White (Plain & Cipher).

3.2 REFERENCE IMAGE ENCRYPTION AND DECRYPTION SYSTEMS

This section looks at encryption schemes that are similar to the reference scheme. These
schemes are divided into three main classes: (1) schemes that use multidimensional
chaotic systems on colour image data; (2) schemes that combine SHA and digital DNA
operations with high-dimensional chaotic systems; and (3) schemes that use s-boxes in
conjunction with either of the two previous classes. Numerous areas, including biology,
ecology, robotics, cryptography, and communication systems, use chaotic systems. It is
important to confirm the chaotic behaviour of a higher-dimensional nonlinear system
before using it for data encryption. Non-linear conventional equations with temporal
derivatives, pseudo-randomness, aperiodicity, ergodicity, and sensitive reliance on
starting states are characteristics of chaotic systems. Hyperchaotic systems, on the other
hand, have bigger key spaces, more unpredictability, and more complicated dynamical
behaviour. Lyapunov exponents (LEs) may be used to mathematically differentiate
between chaotic and hyperchaotic systems. If there is just one positive LE in a non-linear
differential equation, it is deemed chaotic; if there are two or more positive LEs, the
system is deemed hyperchaotic. The exponential separation rate for 2 adjacent trajectories
of a dynamical system is represented by LE, which is computed using equation (1).

21
 (3.11)

Positive Lyapunov Exponents (PLEs) of two or more in nonlinear systems imply

hyperchaotic behaviour, which is more complicated than chaotic behaviour. In
cryptanalysis, multidimensional chaotic systems have proven useful. One colour picture
encryption approach, for instance, first examines the characteristics of a four-dimensional
hyperchaotic permissive map before encrypting colour images. In order to fulfil S-box
security requirements and differential analysis, an alternative technique achieves maximal
nonlinearity equivalent to AES by using a unique replacement box based on Gaussian
distributions. These methods, however, only encrypt grayscale photos with 125 grey
values, or they do not define colour image sizes.
Similar to this, a chaos S-box for wireless networks of sensors combines a Linear
Congruence Generator (LCG) and a Baker map for picture scrambling with complex
random patterns and sinusoidal chaotic sequences to provide stronger security while
using fewer resources. An alternative method creates approximately 20,000 S-boxes with
distinct values from 4 time-varying chaotic systems by generating S-boxes from chaos
entropy sources. The beginning variables and control parameters of these chaotic systems
are found using optimisation methods.

Another encryption system, which has a bigger key space, quicker encryption speed, and
an entropy value closer to 8, resists statistical and differential assaults by permuting and
diffusing the pixels of the R, G, and B components. This scheme is based on hyperchaotic
sequences. However, when used on grayscale photos, this technique could be vulnerable.
A four-dimensional hyperchaotic system, external keys, dynamic DNA encodings, and
SHA-384 hashing of the plain picture are utilised to improve security and lower hazards
in low-dimensional chaotic systems. This technique has high key sensitivity and is
resistant to brute-force assaults, but it takes longer since it needs extra formatting
operations during the encoding and decoding processes.

22
Following the traditional chaos-based design, many enhancements have been made to
permutation-substitution and permutation-only structures. Chaotic or hyperchaotic
systems are used by encryption designs such as substitution-permutation networks
(SPNs) to create encryption keys. Confusion and diffusion are key concepts in a strong
method for encrypting both colour and grayscale images, which is essential for data
security.

FIGURE3.3. A flowchart of SbDCE-Encryption algorithm.

23
We present bDCE (S-box based DNA and Chaotic Encryption), a computationally
feasible encryption technique intended to improve information security. The four primary
parts of the algorithm are as follows:
1. Key, Chaos Picture, and S-box Generation: In this stage, the initial chaotic image, S-
box, and key needed for encryption are created.
2. Actual and Chaos Picture Division: For further processing, the initially captured and
chaos pictures are split up into n sub-blocks.
3. DNA-Based Operations, Decoding, and Dynamic DNA Encodings: This section
improves encryption via the use of flexible DNA encoded information, DNA-based
processes, and decoding methods.
4. S-box Configuration: Certain techniques are used in the S-box's implementation to
enhance encryption performance.
An encrypted picture is decrypted using the SbDCD decryption method, yielding the
decrypted image. Equation (2) describes a four-dimensional hyperchaotic system that is
used in the encryption process to increase security.

(3.12)
Hyperchaotic behaviour with two positive Lyapunov exponents is shown by system (2)
when the control parameters a = 21.7, b = 7.3, c = 6.6, d = -2, r = 0.1 and k = -9.5 are
used with the starting circumstances x; y; z and w. We calculate the starting conditions in
section III-A. Given in (3), the logistic map is also related to the encryption procedure:

(3.13)

When variables x(i) and y(i) are limited and coefficients c1, c2, c3, and c4 lie between
certain ranges, the Logistic map displays chaotic behaviour. With the help of these

24
coefficients and beginning values, pseudo-random sequences—which are essential for
both picture encryption and decryption—are produced with an accuracy of 10^-15 for
every step.
The following stages are involved in the encryption process:
1. Hash Synthesis and Chaos Picture Production: SHA-512 is used to create a hash, and
the Logistic map is used to generate key ko in order to build a chaotic image (Ic). The
size of Ic and the simple image (Ip) are same. SHA-512 hashing Ic results in k1. Another
key, kI, is created by concatenating keys ko and k1 and running them through SHA-512.
This key is utilised to find the seeds and starting conditions.
2. Construction of RGB S-boxes: Equation (1) is the basis for the creation of RGB S-
boxes.
3. Sub-block Decomposition: n sub-blocks are formed from the breakdown of Ip and Ic.
4. Encryption: To create the first-stage encrypted picture, sub-blocks go through
dynamical DNA encoded DNA processes, DNA decoding, and reshaping. The values of
the Logistic map dictate the DNA encoding and processing.
5. Final Substitution: To create the final encrypted colour picture, RGB S-boxes are used
to replace the first stage encrypted image.

3.2.1 REFERENCE IMAGE ENCRYPTION AND DECRYPTION ALGORITHMS

A. GENERATION OF INITIAL KEY, FAKE IMAGE AND S-BOX

1. Take the plain image (IP) and hash it with SHA-512 to generate the original
key ko.

(3.14)

2. Set r1= D 3.99. Initial parameter x1 of the (3) can be computed as:

25
 (3.15)

where sum (R,G) is the sum of pixel values of red and green channel, pmaxis
the maximum pixel value and size(I p) is the size of plain image.

3. Generate the fake image ( Ic) by using (3). The size of ( Ic) is kept equal to the
size of ( I p) . By hashing ( Ic) with SHA-512 we get k1.

(3.16)
4. Now combine the koand k1and hash it with SHA-512 again to get initial key
(k1).

(3.17)
5. Next, derive the initial parameters for Equation (2) [57] using Equation (7).
Begin by dividing the 512 bits of kI into 64 blocks (b0, b1 ... b63), each
consisting of 8 bits. Then, further divide these blocks into 16 groups (g0, g1 ...
g15), with each group containing 4 blocks. For instance, g0 = {b0, b1, b2,
b3}, g1 = {b4, b5, b6, b7} ... g15 = {b60, b61, b62, b63}. Calculate 16
random seeds from these 16 groups. For example, seed 1 (s1) can be
calculated as

(3.18)
Here, PC represents the 128-bit passcode obtained from true random noise or
entered by the user. The remaining seeds s2, s3 ... s16 can be calculated using
the same passcode. These seeds are used to generate the initial parameters x1,
y1, z1, and w1 for the 4D hyperchaotic system (2). The initial parameters are
computed as follows: x1 = s1 + s2 + s3 + s4, y1 = s5 + s6 + s7 + s8, z1 = s9 +
s10 + s11 + s12, and w1 = s13 + s14 + s15 + s16.

26
 1. In this step three S-boxes (Red, Green and Blue)are generated. Following are the
steps of S-box generation: Set S-box (K)=k; k ∈[0-255]. Here, S-box,denotes the
substitution box.(2) is iterated 300 times by using the initialconditions computed
with a =21.7, b =7.3,c =6.6, d =-2, r =0.1 and k =-9.5 to obtain fourdouble
300 300 300
precision sequences i.e., 𝑋𝑋 = �𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 �𝑗𝑗=1, 𝑌𝑌 = �𝑦𝑦𝑗𝑗 �𝑗𝑗=1, 𝑍𝑍 = �𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 �𝑗𝑗=1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
300
�𝑤𝑤𝑗𝑗 �𝑗𝑗=1.

Generate a temporary supporting sequence𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = [𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡]300

𝑗𝑗=1 by using (7)

(3.19)
where, g represents gain factor. The gain factor g ∈ {1014; 1015; 1016} is used
to get best randomness performance.

2. The pseudo-code for s-box generation is presented below

i = 256 , j = 0
while i≥ 2
j=j+1
if mod(tss , i)≠ 0
swap (s – box (i) , s – box (mod (tssj , i )))
i = i -1
end
end
Above mentioned pseudo-code is repeated by using differentinitial conditions of (2) to
generate 3 s-boxes (red, green, and blue) each of size 16 *16. Refer to (8), input the
different 128-bit PC for modifying the initial conditions.

B. DYNAMIC DNA ENCODING, DNA OPERATIONS AND DECODING

27
 1. Divide Ip and Ic into n sub-blocks, each with a size divisible by n to ensure the
total number of pixels in all sub-blocks matches the total number of pixels in Ip or
Ic.
2. Convert all sub-blocks of Ip and Ic into DNA sequences based on Table 1. Use a
Logistic map to transform a random sequence into integers from 1 to 8, which are
then used to select DNA mapping rules for encoding.
3. Apply DNA operations on the sub-blocks of Ip and Ic, selecting operations based
on the Logistic map.
4. Decode DNA sequences using the same rules as in encoding.
5. Reshape the decoded sub-blocks to obtain the stage 1 encrypted image (Ie1).

C. S-BOX IMPLEMENTATION

1. Decompose the stage 1 encrypted image Ie1 into its red, green, and blue channels.
2. Perform S-box substitution as follows: Select a pixel value from each channel,
convert it to binary, and use the first 7 bits as the row number. Left shift the pixel
value by 2 bits and use the first 7 bits of the result as the column number.
Substitute the pixel value in the S-box using the generated row and column
numbers. Repeat this process for each channel to obtain the encrypted Red (eR),
Green (eG), and Blue (eB) channels.
3. Combine the encrypted Red, Green, and Blue channels (eR, eG, eB) to obtain the
final encrypted image (Ie). The proposed S-box exhibits an average non-linearity
and strict avalanche criterion of 111.83 and 0.4978, respectively, which is
considered superior.

D. DECRYPTION PROCEDURE

In order to retrieve back the plain image the steps of SbDCE i.e., 3.2.1 C, B, A. are
executed from bottom to top in the reverse order.

3.2.2 SYSTEM PARAMETERS

The experiments are conducted using MatlabR2015a on Windows 8. The PC

specifications include 8 GB RAM, Intel Core i7-1165G7 processor (up to 4.7 GHz,

28
12MB L3 cache, 4 cores), and Intel Iris Xe Graphics. Standard test images like Lena,
Peppers, Baboon, and Female are utilized in the simulations.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

FIGURE 3.4. SbDCE-SbDCD performance: (a)-(d) the original images, Lena

(256 * 256), Baboon (512 * 512), Peppers (256 *256) and female-4.1.03
(256 * 256). (e)-(h) are encrypted-images.

CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
29
4. 1. PROPOSED RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1.1. HISTOGRAM ANALYSIS

The cypher picture's graphical representation shows the variation of pixel information,
that constitutes an essential way to ascertain if the method for encryption is capable of
withstanding an attempt of statistical evaluation. A threat utilising statistical evaluation is
one in which the attacker uses statistical evaluation to obtain the statistical features of
encrypted pictures. It is the statistics of unique information that enable the chosen
ciphertext attack. The three smoother histogram elements (R, G, and B) of the cypher
picture in Fig. 5 indicate that it’s unlikely for an intruder to decipher the data of the
encrypted picture. Consequently, this makes the cypher picture less vulnerable to
statistical attacks and more homogeneous. Three unique photos—"Lena," "Baboon," and
"Pepper"—were chosen by the paper to be encrypted. Figure 5 illustrates the
experimental findings. Taking into account the results, it is clear that each plain photo's
initial histogram is erratic prior to encryption, as well as the related histogram illustrating
the encrypted picture appears planar.

(a)

30
 (b)

(c)

FIGURE 4.1.(a) RGB histograms for plain and Cipher picture Lena, (b) RGB histograms
for plain andcipher PictureBaboon, (c) RGB histograms for plain and cipher picture
Peppers.

4.1.2 PERFORMANCEANALYSIS

indicate that the data transfer rates for the proposed technique are 117.028 and 193.502
kilobytes per second (KB/s) correspondingly. The cost of the suggested approach on
picture arrays of size 512x512 is 149.304 KB/s. Given the complexity of the technique
presented in this study, together with other objective criteria such as computer setup, it is
very unlikely that the approach can consistently yield a significant improvement in image
security. The algorithm's speed demonstrates its ability to achieve an appropriate
equilibrium between safety and effectiveness.

31
4.1.3 KEY SPACESYNTHESIS

The term "key space" said to be a collection of valid and unique keys used in a certain
encryption system. The level of security provided by an encryption system is closely
correlated with the key space's size. An attacker attempting to forcibly unlock the data
with every possible combination of keys will find it more difficult to compromise a
monitored interaction with a larger value. The key space consists of all possible secret
key combinations. There are six initial settings and seven system parameters in the
concealed key of the picture encryption system. Since there are 10–15 details using a
dependable laptop, equation (14) represents the first key space.

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = ∏13 15
𝑡𝑡=1 10𝑡𝑡 (4.1)

The outcome of equation (14) is 10195, meaning it's substantially bigger than 2300. Its key
space is sufficient for picture encryption approach, and it is more effective than several
methods [19, 33, 34], namely 2160, 2256, and 1070. Hence, the recommended approach's
key space is sufficient to repel a thorough attack.

4.1.4 CORRELATION ANALYSIS

Each of the pixels in a picture have a significant connection, and this relationship causes
a picture to be simpler to break. More precisely, when adjacent pixels are correlated, it
means that there is a connection. It should be imperative that the encrypted picture
disrupt the relationship between neighbouring pixels in the original picture. Although it's
not usually possible, in an ideal scenario there would be zero correlation within the
encrypted image.

Random selections were made among 10,000 pairs of adjacent pixels for this purpose. We
picked all 3 orientations and acquired encrypted photos. The mathematical equation is
used to compute the coefficient of correlation in the following manner:

1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑁𝑁 ∑𝑁𝑁
𝑖𝑖=1(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝐸𝐸(𝑥𝑥))(𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 − 𝐸𝐸(𝑦𝑦)) (4.2)

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑋𝑋,𝑌𝑌) 𝐸𝐸[(𝑋𝑋−𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽)(𝑌𝑌−𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽)]
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌, 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑋𝑋, 𝑌𝑌) = 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃
= 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃
(4.3)

32
 1
𝐸𝐸(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑁𝑁 ∑𝑁𝑁
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 (4.4)

1
𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑁𝑁 ∑𝑁𝑁
𝑖𝑖=1(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝐸𝐸(𝑥𝑥))
2
(4.5)

1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑁𝑁 ∑𝑁𝑁
𝑖𝑖=1(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝐸𝐸(𝑥𝑥))(𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 − 𝐸𝐸(𝑦𝑦)) (4.6)

Fig. 6 demonstrate the relationship in the plain photo pattern & the encrypted photo
pattern. The correlation coefficient values between the two adjacent pixels are shown in
Table 3. indicating that there is almost no association between the pixels that are adjacent
to one another.

(a)

33
 (b)

(c)

FIGURE 4.2.(a) Correlation graph for Plain and Cipher Lena, (b) Correlational graph for
Plain and Cipher Baboon, (c) Correlation graph for Plain and Cipher Pepper

34
 TABLE 4.1 Secured Images Correlation Index

Images Position Plain Image Encrypted Image

Red Green Blue Red Green Blue

Lena Hori. 0.9891 0.9813 0.9564 0.0014 0.0012 0.0057
Vert. 0.9793 0.9694 0.9330 0.0011 0.0097 0.0062
Diag. 0.9713 0.9546 0.9174 -0.0019 0.0045 0.0046
White
Hori. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.0015 0.0015 0.0051

Vert. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.0030 0.0016 0.0048

Diag. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.0036 0.0079 0.0042
Black Hori. 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.0045 0.0036 0.0011
Vert. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.0184 0.0038 0.0017
Diag. 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.0189 0.0071 0.0046
Baboon Hori. 0.8563 0.8005 0.8845 0.0067 0.0011 0.0019
Vert. 0.9304 0.8950 0.9363 0.0090 0.0005 0.0056
Diag. 0.8472 0.7702 0.8629 -0.0023 0.0015 0.0002
Pepper Hori. 0.9760 0.9891 0.9739 -0.0091 0.0039 0.0073
Vert. 0.9770 0.9884 0.9759 -0.0059 0.0010 0.0067
Diag. 0.9630 0.9819 0.9601 -0.0011 0.0079 0.0047

The correlation scores between different encryption techniques for "Lena" photographs
are displayed in Table 4. Prior to applying encryption, the pixel correlation of every
image is readily apparent, as Table 3 shows in Fig. 4. However, after encryption is
applied, the result is almost equal to 0. This illustrates that our method of encryption
drastically breaks the link between pixels. Table4. shows that the values obtained with
our method have a higher median than the values produced from [18, 35, 36],
demonstrating that our strategy is more reliable. Particularly at horizontal green portion
as well as diagonal red part, the suggested technique possesses the greatest effectiveness
in upsetting the pixel correlation. As a result, the outcome suggests the low similarity in
the next-to pixels in the cypher picture across the horizontal plane.

TABLE 4.2. Encrypted Lena Correlation Comparison with various Methods

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 Positions Primary [18] [19] [35] [36] Our
Color Result
Horizontal Red 0.0063 0.0007 0.0060 -0.0052 -0.0015
Green 0.0110 -0.0035 0.0060 -0.0052 -0.0011
Blue 0.0104 0.0015 0.0060 -0.0052 -0.0054
Vertical Red 0.0004 -0.0004 -0.0209 0.0086 0.0011
Green -0.0064 0.0023 -0.0209 0.0086 -0.0095
Blue 0.003 0.0028 -0.0209 0.0086 0.0063
Diagonal Red -0.0020 0.0039 0.0055 -0.0020 -0.0018
Green 0.0166 -0.0079 0.0055 -0.0020 -0.0047
Blue 0.0049 0.0010 0.0055 -0.0020 -0.0045

4.1.5 ENTROPY ANALYSIS

The entropy of data is a very significant measurement of unpredictability which assesses
the randomness of random variables in theories of information. If encrypting does not
generate sufficient chaos when it produces output, the encryption system may be the
target of entropy attack. In an ideal world, the sufficient entropy of data of each RGB
element picture is 8. With N being the total amount of bits in the message m, 2N being
every one of the potential values, p(mi) denoting a likelihood of mi, log2, & value of
entropy represented by bits, the description for the entropy H(m) for a picture m might be
found as such.

2 −1 𝑁𝑁
𝐻𝐻(𝑚𝑚) = − ∑𝑖𝑖=0 𝑝𝑝(𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 log 2 (𝑝𝑝(𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 ))) (4.7)

The entropy of simple pictures is provided in Table 5. Table 6 shows Encrypted Lena
Entropy Comparison with various Methods.

TABLE 4.3. Encrypted Data Entropy Analysis

Pictures Lena Pepper Baboon White Black

Encrypted 7.999 7.999 7.997 7.994 7.993

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 RedChannel 7.994 7.999 7.993 7.994 7.994

GreenChannel 7.993 7.999 7.999 7.993 7.994

BlueChannel 7.995 7.999 7.999 7.994 7.994

Naturally, via calculation of data entropy, the mean value for the data entropy readings of
these 6 picked RGB photos is extremely near to the perfect 8. Thus, the suggested
technique is resistant towards the entropy exploit. The value of the final cypher picture,
as shown in Table 5, is 7.999, meaning it's greater than [23, 35, 36].

TABLE 4.4. Encrypted Lena Entropy Comparison with various Methods

Pictures [19] [23] [35] [36] This paper

Encrypted 7.998 7.981 7.992 7.996 7.999

Data
RedChannel 7.997 7.979 7.993 7.996 7.993

GreenChannel 7.997 7.980 7.992 7.995 7.992

BlueChannel 7.996 7.982 7.990 7.996 7.994

4.1.6 ENCRYPTION QUALITY

Modifications made to the input image are immediately reflected in the cipher picture,
making the plain and cipher versions of the picture clearly correlated. This sensitivity
guarantees that harm in the plaintext result in observable variations in the ciphertext,
making differential attacks ineffective. The differentiation of a 1-pixel shift on the
encrypted picture is evaluated using two widely-used metrics: the Number of Pixel
Change Rate (NPCR) & Unified Average Change in Intensity (UACI). These values help

37
to quantify the degree to which encryption algorithms distribute changes throughout the
ciphertext, thereby strengthening their defenses against attacks.

TABLE 4.5. Quality Results

Pictures NPCR UACI

Lena 99.663 36.256
Baboon 99.611 34.707
Peppers 99.596 33.306
Black 99.597 0.000

4.1.7 SHEAR ATTACK

The encrypted image can suffer information loss due to cutting attacks during
transmission, making it challenging to restore to the original image. The paper includes
simulation shear tests on Lena images with occlusions of 15%, 25%, and 50%, as
depicted in Fig. 7. The results demonstrate the algorithm's robustness against shear
attacks.

Figure4.3. Shear attacks were conducted on the encrypted image, cutting 15%, 25%, and
50% of the image, as well as on the original image for comparison.

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The encryption algorithm's ability to withstand noise attacks is vital. Salt and Pepper
noise of different intensities was introduced to the encrypted image, which was
subsequently decrypted to reconstruct the original image. The results, depicted in Fig. 8,
indicate that the proposed encryption algorithm successfully withstands noise attacks, as
the original image can be largely recovered from the decrypted cipher image.

Figure 4.4. Noisy attack analysis: Decrypted images for noise densities of 0.1, 0.2, and
0.3 added to the original Lena image are displayed from left to right in (a), (b), and (c).
Likewise, (d), (e), and (f) show decrypted images after adding noise densities of 0.1, 0.2,
and 0.3 to the original White image.

4. 2. REFERENCE RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.2.1 VISUAL ANALYSIS

Encryption was applied to four color images, rendering them visually unrecognizable to
the human visual system. Table 4 displays the Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratios (PSNRs) for
decrypted images, showing no discernible differences between the decrypted and original
images when no noise is present. The PSNR between the original plain image (M x N)
and the encrypted image (M x N) [64] can be calculated as follows.

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 2
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 10 log10 �𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 ,𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷)� (4.8)

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Here, m and n stand for the width and height of a colour picture, and MAX is the highest
intensity value that a pixel in the plain colour image IP may have. The decrypted picture
with noise is called Id, and the mean squared error is represented by MSE.

4.2.2 KEYSPACE ANALYSIS

With an acceptable bit count of 2100, SbDCE has a large keyspace that is resistant to
brute force assaults. The starting inputs of the four-dimensional hyperchaotic system, x1,
y1, z1, and w1, coefficient r1, and the starting state x1, all with floating-point accuracy of
10^-15, make up the hidden keys for SbDCE-SbDCD. To further prevent brute force
assaults, a 128-bit passcode is also used, yielding an overall keyspace of (10^15)^6 =
10^90 ≈ 2^300.2128 = 2^428, effectively.

4.2.3. HISTOGRAM ANALYSIS

The histogram of the cipher image provides insight into the distribution of pixel values,
crucial for assessing an encryption algorithm's resilience against statistical analysis
attacks. These attacks involve attackers analyzing encrypted images statistically to
perform selective ciphertext attacks. Comparing the histograms of the R, G, and B
components of the cipher images before and after encryption reveals a smoother
distribution after encryption. This indicates that the encrypted image's characteristics are
harder for attackers to discern, resulting in greater uniformity and resistance to statistical
attacks. Three images, "Lena," "White," and "Pepper," were chosen for encryption. The
results show that the histograms of the original images are uneven before encryption,
whereas those of the encrypted images become more uniform.

40
41
Figure 4.5. Histograms are displayed for the three primary colors of the original Lena
image (a, b, c) and its encrypted counterpart (d, e, f), as well as for the original White
image (j, h, k) and its encrypted version (g, k, l). The histograms for the original Pepper
image (m, n, o) and its encrypted form (p, q, r) are also shown.

4.2.4. CORRELATION ANALYSIS

The correlation between pixels in an image can simplify decryption, especially when
adjacent pixels exhibit strong correlations in horizontal, vertical, or diagonal directions.
Breaking this correlation is crucial in encrypted images, although achieving a correlation
of zero is challenging. In this study, 10,000 pairs of adjacent pixels were randomly
chosen in all three directions to generate encrypted images. The correlation coefficient
was computed using a mathematical formula.

(4.9)

where x and y are rgb-scale values of two adjacent pixels in the image. The following

discrete formulas were used:

(4.10)

Figure 4.6 shows the correlation distributions of the plain and encrypted images, with
Table 5 presenting the correlation coefficient values between adjacent pixels, indicating

42
nearly zero correlation. Table 6 displays the correlation values of "Lena" images
encrypted using different algorithms.

Figure 4.6. Correlational Analysis

Table 4.6. Correlational Values

43
 4.2.5. ENCRYPTION QUALITY ANALYSIS

An encryption quality measure (EQlty) is the difference in the number of pixels

comparing normal and encoded pictures; a larger change signifies a better quality. EQlty
may be expressed as the mean amount of changes made to each grey level or as the
overall change in picture pixels. The number of pixels with j grey levels in the ith channel
within a plain picture is represented by Hpi;j, whereas the number in the ith channel of
the image that has been encrypted is represented by Hei;j. Here, j is a range of 0 to 255
(representing the grey levels) and i is a range of one to three (representing the colour
channels). Consequently, a colour image's encryption quality may be stated as follows:

(4.11)

Table 4.7. Quality Analysis

No of color Dimension AvgEnct AvgDect AvgEncth AvgNCPB

images

10 265*265 110 109 0.37642 11907.61

10 512*512 190 191 3.21 3135.50

44
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

In the past few years, several picture encryption techniques utilizing chaos systems have
been presented. Simultaneously, the pseudo-DNA innovation has been advancing rapidly
in the field of cryptosystems. However, the bulk of these models depend upon low-
dimensional chaos system, that fails to meet the needs in unpredictability and resilience.
The research proposes a digital colour picture encryption technique that utilizes a six-
dimensional hyper-chaos system with encoded DNA technique to tackle this issue. The
six-dimensional hyper chaos system demonstrates hyper chaos solution characterized by
4 positive Lyapunov coefficients throughout a broad range of values for k. This
encryption technique is achieved by means of DNA-level permutation and pixel-level
diffusion. By applying permutations at both the pixel level along with DNA level, the
original picture's location is scattered. Additionally, through a process known as
diffusion, the connection between the initial picture and the encrypted version becomes
extremely faint. This study conducts a variety of tests to evaluate the encryption method,
including analysing the size and complexity of the key space, assessing the uniformity of
key distribution, measuring the randomness of encrypted data, examining frequency
distributions, checking for correlations between input and output, testing encryption
quality and evaluating overall performance. The experimental outcomes reveal that the
proposed method for encrypting coloured images demonstrates strong performance.
Additionally, chaotic systems exhibit impressive capabilities in analysing bifurcation and
assessing stability. In essence, the six-dimensional hyper chaos proves to be well-suited
for integration into cryptographic systems.

This study introduces a novel approach to encrypting digital colour images, leveraging a
six-dimensional hyper-chaos system alongside DNA encoding. While the proposed
encryption system finds applicability across diverse domains, there remains scope for
enhancing the efficiency of the six-dimensional hyper-chaotic algorithm within
cryptographic contexts. Due to limitations in hardware resources and MATLAB

45
efficiency, the encryption process currently lacks optimization for speed. Current efforts
are focused on improving the algorithm's speed and intricacy.

Future research will prioritize the development of efficient techniques to counter attacks
from supercomputers and quantum computers, as well as optimizing algorithmic
performance.

Of course! Let's delve deeper into the key components and implications of your research
on digital image encryption using a six-dimensional hyper-chaos system and DNA
encoding.

Traditional chaos systems have been used in encryption for their sensitivity to initial
conditions, making them unpredictable. However, your research introduces a more
complex six-dimensional hyper-chaos system. This system offers even greater
unpredictability due to its higher dimensionality and hyper-chaotic behavior,
characterized by multiple positive Lyapunov coefficients. This complexity makes it
particularly suitable for cryptographic applications, where robustness against attacks is
essential.

The integration of DNA encoding in encryption techniques adds an extra layer of

security. By applying permutations at both the DNA level and pixel level, the original
image's spatial information is scattered, making it difficult for unauthorized users to
reconstruct the image without the proper decryption key. DNA-level permutation
enhances the overall security of the encryption process by introducing biological-level
randomness into the encryption scheme.

Diffusion is vital in spreading the influence of each pixel across the entire image, greatly
reducing the discernible relationship between the original and encrypted images. This
mixing process effectively eliminates any localized changes or patterns in the original
image, thereby enhancing the security and resilience of the encryption scheme.

Your research employs a comprehensive set of evaluation metrics to assess the

performance of the encryption technique. These metrics include analyzing the size and
complexity of the key space, assessing key distribution uniformity, measuring
randomness of encrypted data, examining frequency distributions, checking for input-

46
output correlations, testing encryption quality, and overall performance evaluation. This
rigorous evaluation ensures that the proposed encryption method meets the required
security standards and performs effectively across various scenarios.

While the proposed encryption technique demonstrates strong performance, there is room
for optimization, particularly in terms of speed and efficiency. Optimizing the algorithm's
performance would enhance its practical applicability in real-world scenarios.
Additionally, future research will focus on developing efficient techniques to counter
potential attacks from supercomputers and quantum computers, ensuring the continued
security of encrypted data in the face of evolving computational capabilities.

By combining advanced chaos theory, DNA encoding, and rigorous evaluation, our
research contributes significantly to the advancement of digital image encryption
techniques, addressing the growing need for robust security measures in an increasingly
digital world.

The image encryption system presented in this paper has wide applicability but requires
enhancements in the performance of the 6D hyper-chaotic system to improve
cryptographic operations. The current encryption speed is suboptimal due to hardware
limitations and MATLAB performance constraints. Our current focus is on enhancing the
algorithm's speed and complexity. Future efforts will include optimizing the algorithm to
improve its overall performance and researching effective methods to defend against
attacks from supercomputers or quantum computers. Acknowledging the need for further
improvement demonstrates our commitment to enhancing the encryption technique's
effectiveness and efficiency.

Optimizing the algorithm to improve its performance is a crucial step in ensuring its
practical applicability. By enhancing the efficiency of the algorithm, you'll not only make
the encryption process faster but also increase its overall effectiveness in securing digital
data.

Furthermore, your focus on researching effective methods to resist potential attacks from
supercomputers or quantum computers reflects a forward-looking approach to
cybersecurity. As these computational capabilities continue to advance, it's essential to

47
stay ahead in terms of encryption techniques and countermeasures to safeguard against
emerging threats.

Overall, your dedication to optimizing the algorithm's performance and researching

effective security measures against advanced computational attacks demonstrates a
proactive approach to addressing the evolving challenges in data encryption and
cybersecurity.

48
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PUBLICATION DETAILS

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INDIVIDUAL CV

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PLAGIARISM REPORT

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