BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT

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 Table of Contents
Page
TSU VMGO 2
Chapter 1 The Set of Real Numbers 6
The Set of Real Numbers 6
Axioms 9
Post Test (Set of Real Numbers) 11
Chapter 2 Inequalities and the Absolute Value 12
Inequalities 13
Properties of Less Than (<) 15
Polynomial and Rational Inequalities 18
Post Test (Inequalities) 22
Equations and Inequalities involving absolute value 23
Post Test (Absolute value) 26
Chapter 3 Equations, Functions and their Graphs 27
Number Plane 27
Graphs of Equations 29
Post Test (Equations, Functions and their Graphs) 34
Chapter 4 Distance and Midpoint Formula 35
Distance Formula 35
Midpoint Formula 40
Post Test (Distance and Midpoint Formula) 42
Chapter 5 Equations of a Line 43
Slope of a Line 43
Point-Slope Form 44
Slope-Intercept Form 45
Standard Form and General Form 46
Shortest Distance from a Point to a Line 47
Intercept Form 48
Parallel Lines 49
Perpendicular Lines 51
Post Test (Equations of a Line) 53
Answer Key to Pre-tests 54
Answer Key to Post – Tests 55
References 58

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Calculus I with Analytic Geometry
M 106

Ezra Gil S. Lagman, LPT

BS Electronics and Communications Engineering Graduate
with 18 units Professional Education
Tarlac State University
Civil Service Examination Professional Level Passer
LET September 2018 Topnotcher (91.2%)
9th Placer Secondary – Math
Contact No. 09399215341
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Course Description: The course equips the students with knowledge and
skills needed to be able to determine limits of functions, to differentiate, and
to integrate algebraic, exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
in one variable. It also includes exposure to more challenging problems
covering continuity and areas of regions.

Course Outline:

I. : Course Introduction / Set of Real Numbers

II : Inequalities and the Absolute Value

III: Equations, Functions and their Graphs

IV: Distance and Midpoint Formula

V : Equations of a Line

VI: Conic Sections

VII:Functions, Limits and Continuity

VIII:Derivatives of a Function

IX :Integration

Purpose and Rationale

In line with the introduction of an alternative learning system, the College of

Teacher Education, as part of its commitment in supporting equity of access to
Higher Education for all students, has developed this module for use by both
teacher and students to support in building their skills needed to access quality
education, in addition to learning different algebraic concepts needed to pursue
higher learning.

The purpose of this module is to develop an understanding of various topics in

geometry, differential calculus and integral calculus.

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No copyright infringement was intended in the development of this module.

This learning module will enable the students to:

• Identify the different subsets of Real Numbers and its concepts

• Define what is absolute value and solve problems and equations
concerning absolute values and inequalities
• Plot graphs of the different types of functions and equations
• Apply the distance and midpoint formula in solving problems
• Identify the different equations of lines and use the equations in solving
mathematical problems
• Identify the different conic sections by the use of mathematical formula
and equations
• Discuss the different theorems on limits of functions and determine the
limit and continuity of functions
Differentiate the different functions and solve problems involving them
• Integrate the different function and apply the theorems in solving areas

Instruction to the User

This module consists of nine chapters and many subtopics. The lectures,
examples and solutions were taken from Louis Leithold’s The Calculus with
Analytic Geometry Book. Exercises are given at the end of each learning
unit/chapter. Practice solving each problem to test for understanding of the
previous lesson before proceeding to the next topic.

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CHAPTER 1
The Set of Real Numbers

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• Explain the set of real numbers

• Distinguish between Rational Numbers and Irrational Numbers
• Distinguish between Integers and Nonintegers
• Distinguish between Whole Numbers and Negative numbers
• Explain the difference between union and intersection

Pre-Test

Before starting try to answer the following questions

1. Is 6.7676… a rational number?

2. Is the number zero (0) a rational number?

3. What are field axioms?

4. Differentiate union from intersection

5. Define a null set

The Set of Real Numbers

Algebra, like arithmetic, involves numbers on which are performed operations such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. While arithmetic is concerned
with operations on specific numbers such as

3+4 6–4 18 x 9 121 ÷ 11

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In algebra we deal with operations on unspecified or unknown numbers that are
designated by symbols or letters such as x, y, a and b. So in algebra we consider

x–y y+x d.c z÷w

The word “algebra” originated from the Arabic word al-jabr, which appears in the
title ilm al-jabr w’al muqabalah (the science of reduction and cancellation) which is
an early 9th century work.

The idea of set is used extensively in mathematics which simply means a collection
of objects, and the objects in a set are called the elements of the set. Each
particular object must be either in a set or not in the set.

A pair of braces, { }, is used with words or symbols to describe a set. For example,
if W is the set of natural numbers less than 10, we can write set W as {1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9} or as {x, such that x is a natural number less than 10}.

In the first notation, we listed all the elements in the set while in the second notation
(called set builder notation), we have given the criteria for deciding whether an
object belongs to the set. The symbol x is called a variable because it is used to
represent any element of the given set. The given set is called the domain of the
variable.

Another way of writing the set W in set-builder notation is to use a vertical bar in
place of the words “such that”: {x|x is a natural number less than 10} which is read
as “the set of all x such that x is a natural number less than 10”. Two sets A and B
are considered to be equal, written A = B, if and only if A and B have identical
elements.

For example: {2, 4, 6} = {6, 2, 4}

The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B and read as “A union B”, is the
set of all elements that are in A or in B or in both A and B. The intersection of A
and B, denoted by A ∩ B and read as “A intersection B”, is the set of all elements
that are in both A and B. The set that contains no elements is called the empty set
and is denoted by ∅.

Example 1: Suppose A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, B {1, 4, 9, 16} and C = {2, 10}, Then

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 16} A ∩ B = {4}

B ∪ C = {1, 2, 4, 9, 10, 16} B∩C=∅

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If you will observe in the example above, the intersection of sets B and C is the
empty set. These two sets have no elements in common and they are called
disjoint sets.

The symbol ∈ indicates that a specific element belongs to a set. Hence for the set
C of the example above, we may write 2 ∈ C, which is read ad “2 is an element of
C”. The notation x, y ∈ S indicates that both x and y are elements of S. The symbol
∉ is read as “ is not an element of”. Therefore we read 2 ∉ B as “2 is not an
element of B}.

If every element of a set X is also an element of set Y, the X is a subset of Y,

written X ⊆ Y. The symbol ⊈ is read “is not an element of” so we can write {1, 2,
3, 4} ⊈ {1, 2}

The Set of Real Numbers

➢ The number zero (0) is the number having the property that if it is added
to any number, the result is that number
➢ The set of natural number is also called the set of positive integers
➢ The set of numbers whose elements are the natural numbers and zero is
called the set of whole numbers
➢ The set of number whose elements are the positive integers, negative
integers and zero is called the set of integers
➢ Non integers are numbers that have digits after the decimal point
(numerical value of fractions)
➢ Rational numbers is the set whose elements are those numbers that
can be represented by the quotient of two integers. Every integer is a

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 rational number because every integer can be represented as the
quotient of itself and 1
➢ Any rational number can be written as a decimal. For example 3/10 can
be written as 0.3, ¾ can be written as 0.75. These decimals are called
terminating decimals.
➢ There are rational numbers whose decimal representation is
nonterminating and repeating. For example 10/3 has the decimal
representation of 3.333… where the digit 3 is repeated. It can be proved
that the decimal representation of every rational number is either a
terminating decimal or a nonterminating repeating decimal.
➢ Irrational numbers are numbers whose decimal representations are
nonterminating and nonrepeating and cannot be expressed as the
quotient of two integers. Example is the number √2 indicated by a
nonterminating nonrepeating decimal as 1.41421…
➢ The union of the set of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers
is the set of real numbers.
There are seven axioms that give laws governing the operations of addition and
multiplication on the set of the Real Number System. The word axiom is used to
indicate a formal statement that is assumed true without proof

Axiom 1 (Closure and Uniqueness Laws): If a, b ∈ Real Number System, then

a + b is a unique real number and ab is a unique real number

Axiom 2 (Commutative Laws): If a, b ∈ Real Number System, then a + b = b +

a and ab = ba

Axiom 3 (Associative Laws): If a, b ∈ Real Number System, then a + (b + c) =

(a + b) + c and a(bc) = (ab)c

Axiom 4 (Distributive Laws): If a, b ∈ Real Number System, then a(b + c) = ab

+ ac

Axiom 5 (Existence of Identity Elements): There exist two distinct real number
0 and 1 such that for any real number a, a + 0 = a and a⋅1 = a

Axiom 6 (Negative or Additive Inverse): For every real number a, there exists a
real number called the negative of a (or additive inverse of a), denoted by – a (read
“the negative of a”) such that a + (- a) = 0

Axiom 7 (Existence of Reciprocal or Multiplicative Inverse): For every real

number a, except 0, there exists a real number called the reciprocal of a (or
multiplicative inverse of a), denoted b a-1, such that a ⋅ a-1 = 1
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The axioms stated above are called field axioms because if these axioms are
satisfies by a set of elements, the set is called a field under the operations
involved. Hence, the set of real numbers is a field under addition and
multiplication. For the set of integers, each of the axioms is satisfied except
for the existence of reciprocal axiom (for instance, the integer 2 has no
multiplicative inverse in the set of integers). Therefore, the set of integers is
not a field under addition and multiplication.

If, a, b is an element of the set of real numbers, the operation of subtraction

assigns to 𝑎 and 𝑏 a real number, denoted by 𝑎 − 𝑏, where

𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 + (−𝑏)

If a, b is an element of the set of real numbers, and 𝑏 ≠ 0, the operation of

division assigns to 𝑎 and 𝑏 a real number, denoted by 𝑎 ÷ 𝑏, where

𝑎 ÷ 𝑏 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏−1
𝑎
Other notations for the quotient of 𝑎 and 𝑏 are and 𝑎/𝑏.
𝑏

Order Axiom

In the set of real numbers there exists a subset called the positive numbers such
that

➢ If a is an element of the set of real numbers, exactly one of the following

three statements holds:
a = 0, a is positive, - a is positive
➢ The sum of two positive numbers is positive.
➢ The product of two positive numbers is positive.
This is called the order axiom because it enables us to order the elements of the
set of real numbers.

The real number 𝑎 is negative if and only if −𝑎 is positive.

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Post Test

I. Insert either ⊆ or ⊈ to make the statement correct

1. Natural numbers ____ Real Numbers

2. Rational numbers ____ Integers

3. {√5, ᴨ, 9.65} ____ Irrational Numbers

4. { 0 } ____ Whole Number

5. Natural Numbers ____ Rational Numbers

II. List the elements of the given set if

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} D = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

a. A ∪ C

b. B ∩ D

c. A ∩ (B ∪ C)

d. B ∪ (C ∪ D)

e. (A ∩ B) ∪ (C ∩ D)

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CHAPTER 2
Inequalities and the Absolute Value

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• Compute the solutions set of inequalities

• Solve Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
• Explain the concept of absolute value
• Solve Equations and Inequalities Involving Absolute Value

Pre – Test

Before starting, try to answer the following problems

Find the solution set of the following inequalities

1. 6x + 3 > x – 5

2. (x + 4)(x – 7) > 0

3. x2 – 5x + 4 < 0

4. 2x – 8 < x + 8

5. (x + 2)(x + 6) > 0

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Inequalites
➢ If a, b are elements of the set of real numbers, then 𝑎 is less than 𝑏
(written 𝑎 < 𝑏) if and only if 𝑏 − 𝑎 > 0.
➢ If a, b are elements of the set of real numbers then 𝑎 is greater than 𝑏
(written 𝑎 > 𝑏) if and only if 𝑏 is less than 𝑎; with symbols we write
𝑎 > 𝑏 if and only if 𝑏 < 𝑎 such that 𝑎 − 𝑏 > 0
➢ The symbols ≤ (“is less than or equal to”) and ≥ (“is greater than or
equal to”) are defined as follows:
➢ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 if and only if either 𝑎 < 𝑏 or 𝑎 = 𝑏.
➢ 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏 if and only if either 𝑎 > 𝑏 or 𝑎 = 𝑏.
The statements 𝑎 < 𝑏 , 𝑎 > 𝑏 , 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 , 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏, and 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 are called
inequalities.

Take note of the following theorems!!!

➢ 𝑎>0 if and only if 𝑎 is positive.

𝑎<0 if and only if 𝑎 is negative.
𝑎>0 if and only if – 𝑎 < 0.
𝑎 < 0 if and only if −𝑎 > 0.
➢ If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑏 < 𝑐, then 𝑎 < 𝑐.
➢ If 𝑎 < 𝑏 , then 𝑎 + 𝑐 < 𝑏 + 𝑐 , and 𝑎 − 𝑐 < 𝑏 − 𝑐 if 𝑐 is a real
number.
➢ If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑐 < 𝑑, then 𝑎 + 𝑐 < 𝑏 + 𝑑.
➢ If 𝑎 < 𝑏, and 𝑐 > 0, then 𝑎𝑐 < 𝑏𝑐.
➢ If 𝑎 < 𝑏, and 𝑐 < 0, then 𝑎𝑐 > 𝑏𝑐.
➢ If 0 < 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 0 < 𝑐 < 𝑑, then 𝑎𝑐 < 𝑏𝑑
➢ If 𝑎 > 𝑏 and 𝑏 > 𝑐, then 𝑎 > 𝑐.
➢ If 𝑎 > 𝑏, then 𝑎 + 𝑐 > 𝑏 + 𝑐, and 𝑎 − 𝑐 > 𝑏 − 𝑐 if 𝑐 is a rational
number.
➢ If 𝑎 > 𝑏 and 𝑐 > 𝑑, then 𝑎 + 𝑐 > 𝑏 + 𝑑.
➢ If 𝑎 > 𝑏 and 𝑐 > 0, then 𝑎𝑐 > 𝑏𝑐.
➢ If 𝑎 > 𝑏 and 𝑐 < 0, then 𝑎𝑐 < 𝑏𝑐.
➢ If 𝑎 > 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑐 > 𝑑 > 0, then 𝑎𝑐 > 𝑏𝑑.

The open interval from 𝑎 to 𝑏 denoted by (𝑎, 𝑏) is defined by:

(𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥|𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏}

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The closed interval from 𝑎 to 𝑏, denoted by [𝑎, 𝑏] is defined by
[𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥|𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}

The interval half-open on the left denoted by (𝑎, 𝑏] is defined by

(𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥|𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}

The interval half-open on the right denoted by [𝑎, 𝑏) is defined by

[𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥|𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏}

Important notes on infinity

(𝑎, +∞) = {𝑥|𝑥 > 𝑎}

(−∞, 𝑏) = {𝑥|𝑥 < 𝑏}

[𝑎, +∞) = {𝑥|𝑥 ≥ 𝑎}

(−∞, 𝑏] = {𝑥|𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}

(−∞, +∞) = set of real numbers

Trichitomy Property of Order

If a and b are real numbers, exactly one of the following three statements is true:

a<b b<a a=b

The geometric interpretation of the trichotomy property is that either one point, a
or b, on the real number line lies to the left of the other, or else they are the same
point.

Transitive Property of Order

If a, b and c are real numbers, and if a < b and b < c, then a < c

If point a is to the left of point b and point b is to the left of point c. then a is to the
left of point c

Example: If x < 5 and 5 < y, then by the transitive property it follows that x < y

The domain of a variable in an inequality is the set of real numbers for which the
members of the inequality are defined. Examples of linear inequalities having the

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 𝑥−7
set of real numbers as domain are: 3x – 8 < 7 4
≤x 2 < 4x +
6 ≤ 14

An example of a quadratic inequality having the domain of the set of real numbers
is

x2 + 2x > 15
3𝑥
The inequality < 5 is rational because the left side is not defined when x is –
𝑥+2
2, its domain is the set of all real numbers except – 2.

Any number in the domain for which the inequality is true is a solution of the
inequality, and the set of all solutions is called the solution set. An absolute
inequality is one that is true for every number in the domain. For instance, if x is
a real number,

x+1<x+2 and x2 ≥ 0

are absolute inequalities. A conditional inequality is one for which there is at

least one number in the domain that is not in the solution set. To find the solution
set of a conditional inequality we proceed in a manner similar to that used to solve
an equation; that is, we obtain equivalent inequalities (those having the same
solution set) until we have one whose solution set is apparent. The following
properties are used to get equivalent inequalities

Properties of <
If a, b and c are real numbers and

i. If a < b, then a + c < b + c (Addition Property)

ii. If a < b, then a – c < b – c (Subtraction Property)
iii. If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc (Multiplication Property)
iv. If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc (Multiplication Property)
These properties can be proved by using the definition of < and the fact that the
product of two positive numbers is positive.

Property (iii) states that if both sides of an inequality are multiplied by a positive
number, the direction of the inequality remains unchanged, whereas property (iv)
states that if both sides are multiplied by a negative number, the direction is
reversed.

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Examples:

1. Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the inequality

3x – 8 < 7

Solution: Transpose the constant to the right side of the equation to obtain

3x < 7 + 8

3x < 15
3𝑥 15
3
< 3

x<5

Therefore the solution set of the given inequality is {x|x < 5}, which is the interval
{- ∞ , 5}.
𝑥−7
2. Find the solution set of the inequality 4
≤x

Solution: Multiply both sides by 4 to simplify the equation

𝑥−7
(4) 4
≤ x (4)

x – 7 ≤ 4x

- 4x + x ≥ + 7

- 3x ≥ 7
−3𝑥 7
≥
−3 −3

7
x≥-3

7 7
The solution set of the given inequality is {x|x ≥ - 3} , which is the interval [- 3, +∞).

3. Find the solution set of the inequality

3 < 4x + 7 ≤ 15

Solution: A solution of the given inequality must be a solution of both of the

inequalities
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 3 < 4x + 7 and 4x + 7 ≤ 15

Solve each of these inequalities separately

3 < 4x + 7 4x + 7 ≤ 15

3 – 7 < 4x 4x ≤ 15 – 7

- 4 < 4x 4x ≤ 8

-1 < x x≤2

A value of x will be a solution of the given inequality if and only if

- 1 < x and x≤2

That is, if and only if

-1<x≤2

Therefore the solution set is the interval { - 1, 2 ]

The work can be shortened by performing the same computation with the given
continued inequality as shown below

3 < 4x + 7 ≤ 15

3 – 7 < 4x + 7 – 7 ≤ 15 – 7

- 4 < 4x ≤ 8
4 4𝑥 8
- < ≤
4 4 4

-1<x≤2

4. A company that build and sells desks has a weekly overhead, including salaries
and plant cost of $3400.The cost of materials for each desk is $40 and the desk is
sold for $200. How many desks must be built and sold each week so that the
company is guaranteed a profit?

Solution: Let x be the number of desks built and sold each week. Then the number
of dollars in the total revenue received each week is 200x and the number of
dollars in the total cost each week is 3400 + 40x. If P dollars is the weekly profit,
then because profit equals revenue minus cost, we have
P = 200x – (3400 + 40x)
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 = 160x – 3400

For profit we must have P > 0 that is

160x – 3400 > 0

160x > 3400

x > 211

Because x must be a positive integer, we conclude that the company must build
and sell at least 22 desks each week to have a profit.

Exercise

I. Find the solution set of the inequality and write it with interval notation
2𝑥−9
a. 20 ≤ 5x b. 5x + 1 ≥ 6x – 3 c. 4
>0
3𝑥+5
d. – 4 > 4
e. 11 < 4 – 3x < 20

Polynomial and Rational Inequalities

Before, we were concerned with finding solution sets of linear inequalities. We will
now discuss solving inequalities containing polynomials of degree greater than 1
as well as those containing rational expressions.

A quadratic inequality is of the form ax2 + bx + c < 0 (the symbol < can be replaced
by >, ≤ or ≥) where a, b and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0. To solve a quadratic
inequality we use the concepts of critical number and test number.

A critical number of the inequality above is a real root of the quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0.

Suppose r1 and r2 are critical numbers and r1 < r2. Then the polynomial ax2 + bx +
c can change algebraic sign only at r 1 and r2. Thus the sign (+ or -) of ax2 + bx + c
will be constant on each of the intervals ( - ∞, r1 ), (r1 , r2) and (r2 , +∞)

To determine the sign on a particular one of these intervals we compute the value
of ax2 + bx + c at an arbitrary test number in the interval. From the results we can
obtain the solution set of the inequality. The procedure is shown in the following
example.
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Example: To solve the inequality x2 – 8 < 2x

We first write an equivalent inequality having all the nonzero terms on one side of
the inequality sign giving us

x2 – 2x – 8 < 0

(x + 2)(x – 4) < 0

We observe that from the factored form of the inequality that x 2 – 2x – 8 = 0 has
the roots – 2 and 4 which are the critical numbers of the inequality. If you plot these
points in a number line, these points separate the line into the following three
intervals: ( - ∞, -2 ), (- 2 , 4) and (4 , +∞)

On each of these intervals the sign of (x + 2)(x – 4) is constant. To determine the

sign on an interval we choose an arbitrary test number in the interval and compute
the sign of each of the factors x + 2 and x – 4 at this test number. We select – 3 in
( - ∞, -2 ), 0 in (- 2 , 4) and 5 in (4 , +∞).

Interval Test Sign of x + 2 Sign of x – 4 Sign of (x + 2)(x – 4) on

number k at k at k interval

( - ∞, -2 ) - 3 - - +

(- 2 , 4) 0 + - -

(4 , +∞) 5 + + +

The solution set of the inequality is the interval (- 2, 4) because if the results on
the table are plotted on a number line, you can see the points – 2 and 4 and the
intervals on which (x + 2)(x – 4) is positive or negative.

Example: Find the solution set of the inequality x 2 + 2x ≥ 15

Solution: The given inequality is equivalent to

x2 + 2x – 15 ≥ 0

(x + 5)(x – 3) ≥ 0

The critical numbers are – 5 and 3. The points corresponding to these numbers
and the intervals are determined: ( - ∞, - 5 ), (- 5 , 3) and (3 , +∞)

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Create a table to summarize the results obtained by choosing a test number in
each of these intervals and determining the sign of (x + 5)(x – 3) on the intervals.

Interval Test Sign of x + 5 Sign of x – 3 Sign of (x + 5)(x – 3) on

number k at k at k interval

( - ∞, - 5 - 6 - - +
)

(- 5 , 3) 0 + - -

(3 , +∞) 4 + + +

(x + )(x – 3) > 0 if x is in either ( - ∞, - 5 ) or (3 , +∞). Furthermore, - 5 and 3 are in

the solution set because (x + 5)(x – 3) = 0 if x is either of these numbers. Thus the
solution set of the given inequality is ( - ∞, - 5 ] ∪ [3, +∞)

Example: Find the solution set of each of the following inequalities

a. 5x2 – 2x + 1 < x2 + 2x b. – 6x2 – 8x + 1 ≤ 3x2 + 4x + 5

Solution

a. The inequality is equal to 4x2 – 4x + 1 < 0 =

(2x – 1)(2x – 1) < 0 = (2x – 1)2 < 0

Because there is no value of x for which (2x – 1)2 is negative, there is no solution.
Therefore, the solution set is ø.

b. The given inequality is equivalent to

- 9x2 – 12x – 4 ≤ 0

9x2 + 12x + 4 ≥ 0

(3x + 2)2 ≥ 0

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Because (3x + 2)2 is nonnegative for all values of x, the solution set is the set of
real numbers

Example: Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the inequality

(x + 1)(2x2 – 5x + 2) > 0

Solution: The given inequality is equivalent to

(x + 1)(2x – 1)(x – 2) > 0

1
The critical numbers are – 1, 2 and 2. These points determine the following
1 1
intervals: ( - ∞, - 1 ), (- 1 , 2 ), ( 2, 2), and (2 , +∞)

We compute the sign of (x + 1)(2x – 1)(x – 2) in each interval by selecting a test

number there

Interval Test Sign of x + Sign of 2x Sign of x – 2 Sign of

number 1 at k – 1 at k at k (x + 1)(2x –
k 1)(x – 2) on
interval
( - ∞, - 1 - 2 - - - -
)
1
(- 1 , 2 ) 0 + - - +

1
( , 2) 1 + + - -
2

(2 , +∞) 3 + + + +
1
(x + 1)(2x – 1)(x – 2) > 0 if x is either (- 1 , ) or (2 , +∞). The solution set of the
2
1
given inequality is - 1 , 2 ) ∪ (2 , +∞).

In the next example we have a rational inequality, one that contains a rational
expression involving the variable. We use the same method used for polynomial
inequalities

5𝑥
Example: We wish to find the solution set of the inequality 𝑥−1 < 4

21 | P a g e
Transpose 4 to the left side to have an inequality having zero on one side and
nonzero terms on the other. We obtain
5𝑥
𝑥−1
–4<0

5𝑥−4 (𝑥+1)
𝑥−1
<0
𝑥+4
𝑥−1
<0

A fraction can change sign only when either the numerator or denominator
changes sign. Therefore the critical numbers of the inequality are those numbers
for which either the numerator or denominator of the rational expression on the left
is zero.

x+4=0 x–1=0

after we solve the equations, we obtain the critical numbers – 4 and 1 and we
obtain the intervals:

( - ∞, - 4 ), (- 4, 1), and (1 , +∞)

We now choose test numbers in each of the intervals and determine the sign of
𝑥+4
𝑥−1

Interval Test number Sign of x + 4 Sign of x - 1 Sign of 𝑥+4

𝑥−1
k at k at k
on interval

( - ∞, - 4 ) -5 - - +

(- 4, 1) 0 + - -

(1 , +∞) 2 + + +

The solution set of the given inequality is the interval (- 4, 1)

Post test

I. Find the solution set of the given inequalities

3𝑥−1
a. 𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 < 2 b. (2x + 2)(2x – 9) > 0 c. x2 > 10 – 2x

d. 2x2 + x – 1 ≤ 0 e. x2 + 2x – 2 ≥ 0
22 | P a g e
Equation and Inequalities Involving Absolute Value
According to the definition in the early sections of the module, the absolute value
of a real number a denoted |a| is given by
𝑎, 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ≥ 0
|a| = {
−𝑎, 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 0

Note that on the number line |a| is the distance (without regard to direction left or
right) from the origin to the point a.

Properties of absolute value

➢ |𝑥| < 𝑎 if and only if −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎, where 𝑎 > 0.
➢ |𝑥| ≤ 𝑎 if and only if −𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, where 𝑎 > 0.
➢ |𝑥| > 𝑎 if and only if 𝑥 > 𝑎 or 𝑥 < −𝑎, where 𝑎 > 0.
➢ |𝑥| ≥ 𝑎 if and only if 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎 or 𝑥 ≤ −𝑎, where 𝑎 > 0.

Examples:

1. Find the solution set of the equation |3x + 5| = 9

Solution: The given equation will be satisfied if either

3x + 5 = 9 or - (3x + 5) = 9

3x = 4 - 3x – 5 = 9
4
x= - 3x = 14
3

14
x=- 3

4 14
The solution set is { , - }
3 3

2. Find the solution set of the equation

|2x – 3| = |7 – 3x|

Solution: The given equation will be satisfied if either

2x – 3 = 7 – 3x or 2x – 3 = - (7 – 3x)

23 | P a g e
 2x + 3x = 7 + 3 2x – 3 = - 7 + 3x

5x = 10 2x – 3x = - 7 + 3

x=2 -x=-4

x=4

The solution set is {2 , 4}

Suppose we have the inequality |x| < 3

This inequality states that on the real number line the distance from the origin to
the point x is less than 3 units; that is – 3 < x < 3. Therefore x is in the open interval
(- 3, 3) and the solution set of {x} < 3 is {x| - 3 < x < 3}.

By comparing the given inequality and its solution set, we conclude that the
inequality

|x| < 3 is equivalent to -3<x<3

More generally, if b > 0

|x| < b is equivalent to - b < x <b

IOf instead of x we have an e\algebraic expression E and b > 0, then the inequality

|E| < b is equivalent to -b<E<b

Example: Find the solution set of the inequality

|2x – 7| < 9

Solution: The given inequality is equivalent ti

- 9 < 2x – 7 < 9

- 9 + 7 < 2x – 7 + 7 < 9 + 7

- 2 < 2x < 16

-1<x<8

Therefore the solution set is the open interval (- 1, 8)

Consider the inequality

24 | P a g e
 |x| > 2

This inequality states that on the real number line the distance from the origin to
the point x is greater than 2 units; that is, either x > 3 or x < - 2. Therefore x is in (-
∞, - 2} ∪(2, + ∞).

It appears that the solution set of |x| > 2 is {x|x >2} ∪{x|x < - 2}. Properties of
absolute value can be used to prove that this is the situation.

By comparing the given inequality and its solution set, we observe that the
inequality’

|x| > 2 is equivalent to x > 2 or x < - 2

More generally, if b > 0, |x| > b is equivalent to x > b or x < -b

If instead of x we have an algebraic expression E and b > 0, then the inequality

|E| > b is equivalent to E > b or E < -b

That is, the solution set of the inequality |E| > b is the union of the solution sets of
the inequalities E > b and E < -b.
2
Example: Find the solution set of the inequality | 3x – 5 | ≥ 3

Solution: The solution set of the given inequality is the union of the solution sets
of the inequalities
2 2
x–5≥3 x–5≤-3
3 3

2x – 15 ≥ 9 2x – 15 ≤ - 9

2x ≥ 24 2x ≤ 6

x ≥ 12 x≤3

The solution set is {x|x ≤ 3} ∪{x|x ≥ 12} or with interval notation (-∞ , 3] ∪[12, +∞)

The following theorems about absolute value can also be used in later chapters.

Theorem 1: If a and b are real numbers, then |ab| = |a| ⋅ |b|

𝒂 |𝒂|
Theorem 2: If a and b are real numbers and b ≠ 0, then |𝒃| = |𝒃|

25 | P a g e
The Triangle Inequality:

|𝑎 + 𝑏 | ≤ |𝑎 | + |𝑏 |
Corollaries:
➢ If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are any numbers, then |𝑎 − 𝑏| ≤ |𝑎| + |𝑏|.
➢ If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are any numbers, then |𝑎| − |𝑏| ≤ |𝑎 − 𝑏|

Post test

I. Find the solution set of the following equations

a. |x – 6| = 3 b. |2x + 5| = 9 c. |10 – x| = 2
𝑥+2 2𝑥+1
d. | 𝑥−2 | = 7 e. | 𝑥−1
|=6

II. Find the solution set of the following inequalities and write in interval notation

a. |x| ≤ 12 b. |x – 1| > 13 c. |3x – 5| ≤ 13

d. |4x – 3| - 11 > 26 e. |5x – 7| + 4 ≤ 16

26 | P a g e
CHAPTER 3
Equations, Functions and their Graphs

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• Explain the fundamental concepts of the Number Plane

• Graph an equation
• Graph a function
• Discuss the different theorems on equations

Pre – Test

Before starting, try to answer the following questions

1. What are ordered pairs?

2. What is the sign of x on the 3rd quadrant?

3. What are the signs of x and y on the second quadrant?

4. What is the other term for the x axis?

5. Who was credited with the invention of analytic geometry?

The Number Plane

Ordered pairs of real numbers will now be considered. Any two real
numbers form a pair, and when the order of the pair of real numbers is
designated, we call it an ordered pair of real numbers. If x is the first real
number and y is the second real number, we denote this ordered pair by
writing them in parentheses with a comma separating them as (x, y). Note
that the ordered pair (3, 7) is different from the ordered pair (7, 3).

The set of all ordered pairs of real numbers is called the number plane, and each
ordered pair(𝑥, 𝑦) is called a point in the number plane
27 | P a g e
Just as we can identify the set of real numbers with points on an axis (a one-
dimensional space), we can identify the number plane with points in a geometric
plane (a two-dimensional space). The method we use with the number plane is
the one attributed to the French mathematician Rene Descartes (1596-1650),
who is credited with the invention of analytic geometry in 1637.

A horizontal line is chosen in the geometric plane and is called the 𝒙-axis. A
vertical line is chosen and is called the 𝒚-axis. The point of intersection of the 𝑥-
axis and the 𝑦-axis is called the origin and is usually denoted by the letter 𝑂. A
unit of length is chosen. We establish the positive direction on the 𝑥-axis to the
right of the origin, and the positive direction on the 𝑦-axis above the origin.

We now associate an ordered pair of real numbers (𝑥, 𝑦) with a point 𝑃 in the
geometric plane. The distance of 𝑃 from the 𝑦-axis is called the abscissa (or 𝑥
coordinate) of 𝑃 and is denoted by 𝑥. The distance of 𝑃 from the 𝑥-axis is called
the ordinate (or 𝑦 coordinate) of 𝑃 and is denoted by 𝑦. The abscissa and the
ordinate of a point are called the rectangular Cartesian coordinates of the point.
There is a one-to-one correspondence between the points in a geometric plane
and the number plane; that is, with each point there corresponds a unique ordered
pair(𝑥, 𝑦), and with each ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) there is associated only one point.
This one-to-one correspondence is called a rectangular Cartesian coordinate
system.

The 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes are called the coordinate axes. They divide the plane into four
parts called quadrants. The first quadrant is the one in which 𝑥 and 𝑦 are both
positive, that is, the upper right quadrant. The other quadrants are numbered in
the counterclockwise direction.

Because of the one-to-one correspondence, we identify the number plane with the
geometric plane. For this reason we call an ordered pair (x, y) a point. Similarly,
we refer to a "line" in the number plane as the set of all points corresponding to a
line in the geometric plane

Consider the equation

y = x2 – 2

28 | P a g e
where (x,y) is a point in the number plane. We call this an equation in number
plane.

By a solution of this equation, we mean an ordered pair of numbers, one for x and
one for y, which satisfies the equation. For example, if x is replaced by 3 in the
equation, we see that y = 7; thus, x = 3 and, y = 7 constitutes a solution of this
equation. If any number is substituted for x in the right side of the equation, we
obtain a corresponding value for y.

x 0 1 2 3 -1 -2 -3
2
y=x - 2 -2 -1 2 7 -1 2 7

If we plot the points having as coordinates the number pairs (x,y) satisfying the
equation, we have a sketch of the graph of the equation.

Examples

1. Draw a sketch of the graph of the equation y2 – x – 1 = 0

Solving the equation will give us y = ± √𝑥 + 1 which is equivalent to the two

equations:

y = √𝑥 + 1 and y = - √𝑥 + 1

The table below gives us the values

29 | P a g e
 x 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 -1
y √1 - √1 √2 - √2 √3 - √3 2 -2 0

Note that for any value of x < - 1, there is no real value for y and also, for each
value of x > - 1, there are two values for y. The sketch of the graph is shown below

2. Draw a sketch of the equation y = | x + 2 |

From the definition of the absolute value of a number, we have

y=x+2 if x+2≥0

and y = - (x + 2) if x+2≤0

or equivalently, y=x+2 if x≥-2

and y = - (x + 2) if x<-2

The table below gives some values of x and y satisfying the equation

x 0 1 2 3 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
y 2 3 4 5 1 0 1 2 3 4

The sketch of the graph is shown below

30 | P a g e
3. Draw a sketch of the graph of the equation (x – 2y + 3 )(y – x2) = 0

By the property of real numbers that ab = 0 if and only if a = 0 or b = 0, we obtain

x – 2y + 3 = 0 and y – x2 = 0
𝑥+3
x – 2y + 3 = 0  y=
2

x 0 1 2 3 -1 -2 -3 -4
y 2 3 1 0

y – x2 = 0  y = x2

x 0 1 2 3 -1 -2 -3
y 0 1 4 9 1 4 9

The graphs of the equations is shown below

31 | P a g e
4. Draw a sketch of the graph of the equation xy = 1

If x is replaced by – x and y is replaced by – y, an equivalent equation is obtained;

hence the graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. The table below gives
some values of x and y satisfying the given equation.
x 1 2 3 4 1/2 1/3 1/4 -1 -2 -3 -4 -1/2 -1/3 -1/4
y 1 1/2 1/3 1/4 2 3 4 -1 -1/2 -1/3 -1/4 -2 -3 -4

From the equation, we obtain y = 1/x. We can observe that as x increases through
positive values, y decreases and gets closer to zero. As x decreases, y increases.

The graph of the equation is shown below

5. Draw a sketch of the graph of the equation y = log x (remember that because it
is a logarithm, the value of x must be greater than 0)

The table below shows values of x and y satisfying the given equation

x 1/4 1/3 1/2 1 2 3 4

y -0.602 -0.477 -0.301 0.000 0.301 0.477 0.602

The sketch of the graph is shown below

32 | P a g e
6. Draw a sketch of the graph of the equation y = 3x

The table below shows values of x and y satisfying the given equation

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 1/27 1/9 1/3 1 3 9 27

The graph of the equation is shown below

7. Draw a sketch of the graph of x2 = y2

We must first solve for the factors of the equation.

Since this is a difference of two squares, the factors are (x + y) and (x – y) = 0

For x + y = 0  y=-x
33 | P a g e
 x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -3
y 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 3

For x – y = 0  y=x

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

The graph of the equation is shown below

Post Test

Draw a sketch of the graph of the following equations

1. y = 3x + 4 5. y = 4 9. y = 5x - 3

2. x = -5 6. y = |x – 3| 10. y = √𝑥 + 1

3. y = - |x + 1| 7. y = 2x3

4. y2 = x + 4 8. 3x2 – 13xy – 10y2 = 0

34 | P a g e
CHAPTER 4
Distance Formula and Midpoint Formula

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• Explain the concept of distance and midpoint

• Compute the distance between two points
• Compute the midpoint of two sets of points
• Apply the distance and midpoint formula in solving problems

Pre – Test

Before starting, try to answer the following problems

Compute the distance between two points

a. A = (1 , 2), B = (3, 6)

b. A = (-2, 4), B = (0, 0)

c. A = (6, 1), B = (- 2, -3)

Compute the midpoint of the given points

a. A = (-1, 4), B = (5, - 3)

b. A = (0, -6), B = (2, -6)

Distance Formula

If 𝐴 is the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦) and 𝐵 is the point (𝑥2 , 𝑦) (i.e., 𝐴 and 𝐵 have the same
ordinate but different abscissas), then the directed distance from 𝐴 to 𝐵, denoted
̅̅̅̅, is defined as 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 .
by 𝐴𝐵

35 | P a g e
If A is the (2, 4) and B is the point (7, 4), then ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 = 7 – 2 = 5

If C is the point (x, y1) and D is the point (x, y2), then the directed distance from C
to D, denoted by ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 = |y2 – y1|

̅̅̅̅ = 2 – (- 3) = 5
If C is the point (2, 2) and D is the point (2, -3), then 𝐶𝐷

We consider a directed distance ̅̅̅̅

𝐴𝐵 as the signed distance travelled by a particle
that starts at 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦) and travels to 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦). In such a case, the abscissa of
the particle changes from 𝑥1 to 𝑥2 , and we use the notation Δ𝑥 (“delta 𝑥”) to
denote this change; that is:

Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

36 | P a g e
 ̅̅̅̅ = Δ𝑥
Therefore, 𝐴𝐵

It is important to note that the symbol Δ𝑥 denotes the difference between the
abscissa of 𝐵 and the abscissa of 𝐴, and it does not mean “delta multiplied by 𝑥.”

Similarly, if we consider a particle moving along a line parallel to the 𝑦 axis from a
point 𝐶(𝑥, 𝑦1 ) to a point 𝐷(𝑥, 𝑦2 ), then the ordinate of the particle changes from
𝑦1 to 𝑦2. We denote this change by Δ𝑦 or

Δ𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1

̅̅̅̅ = Δ𝑦
Thus, 𝐶𝐷

Now let 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be any two points in the plane. We wish to
obtain a formula for finding the nonnegative distance between these two points.
We shall denotes this distance by |𝑃 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
1 𝑃2 |. We use absolute value bars because
we are concerned only with the length, which is a nonnegative number, of the line
segment between two points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 . TO derive the formula, we note that
̅̅̅̅̅̅
|𝑃 1 𝑃2 | is the length of the hypotenuse of ⊿𝑃1 𝑀𝑃2 . This is illustrated below:

Using the Pythagorean theorem, we have

|̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 |2 = |Δ𝑥|2 + |Δ𝑦|2

|̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 | = √|Δ𝑥|2 + |Δ𝑦|2

37 | P a g e
That is,

|̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

or

𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

Examples:

1. Find the distance between (2, 4) and (3, 6)

𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

𝑑 = √(3 − 2)2 + (6 − 4)2 = √12 + 22 = √1 + 4 = √𝟓

2. Show that the triangle with vertices at A (4, 0), B(-1, -1) and C (3, 5) is isosceles

̅̅̅̅ | = √(3 + 1)2 + (5 + 1)2 = √52

|𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅ | = √(3 − 4)2 + (5 − 0)2 = √26
|𝐴𝐶
̅̅̅̅| = √(−1 − 4)2 + (−1 − 0)2 = √26
|𝐵𝐴

Therefore:
̅̅̅̅ | = |𝐵𝐴
|𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅|

The triangle is isosceles

38 | P a g e
3. Prove analytically that the lengths of the diagonals of a rectangle are equal.

Draw a general rectangle. Because we can choose the coordinate axes

everywhere in the plane, and because the choice of the position of the
axes does not affect the truth of the theorem, we take the origin at one
vertex, the 𝑥 axis alone one side, and the 𝑦 axis along another side. This
procedure simplifies the coordinates of the vertices on the two axes.

Now the hypothesis and the conclusion of the theorem can be stated.

Hypothesis: 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a rectangle with diagonals 𝑂𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 .

Conclusion: |̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅|.
𝑂𝐵| = |𝐴𝐶

Proof:

|̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐵| = √(𝑎 − 0)2 + (𝑏 − 0)2 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2
|̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 | = √(0 − 𝑎 )2 + (0 − 𝑏)2 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2

Therefore,

̅̅̅̅| = |𝐴𝐶
|𝑂𝐵 ̅̅̅̅|

39 | P a g e
Midpoint Formula

Let 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be the endpoints of a line segment. We shall

denote this line segment by 𝑃1 𝑃2. This is not to be confused with the notation
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2, which denotes the directed distance from 𝑃1 to 𝑃2 . That is, midpoint of the
line segment 𝑃1 𝑃2 is a line segment. Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be the midpoint of the line
segment 𝑃1 𝑃2. Refer to the figure below.

In the figure above, we see that triangles 𝑃1 𝑅𝑃 and 𝑃𝑇𝑃2 are congruent.
Therefore, |̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅|, and so 𝑥 − 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥, giving us
𝑃1 𝑅| = |𝑃𝑇

𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑥=
2
̅̅̅̅| = |̅̅̅̅̅
Similarly, |𝑅𝑃 𝑇𝑃2 |. Then 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦, and therefore

𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑦=
2

Hence, the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment are, respectively, the
average of the abscissas and the average of the ordinates of the endpoints of the
line segment.

40 | P a g e
Examples:

1. Find the midpoint between (2, - 8) and (6, 4)

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 2 + 6
𝑥= = =4
2 2
𝑦1 + 𝑦2 −8 + 4
𝑦= = = −2
2 2
The midpoint is (4, -2)

2. Find the midpoints of the diagonals of the quadrilateral whose vertices are

A (- 1, - 1), B (- 5, 6), C (0, 8) and D (4, 1)

Get the midpoint of BD:

−5 + 4 1
𝑥= =−
2 2
6+1 7
𝑦= =
2 2
1 7
The midpoint is ( - 2 , 2 )

OR, get the midpoint of AC

41 | P a g e
 −1 + 0 1
𝑥= =−
2 2
−1 + 8 7
𝑦= =
2 2
1 7
The midpoint is also ( - 2 , 2 )

Post Test

Find the distance and midpoint of the following

a. A (2, 10), B (-3, -7)

9 3
b. A (0, 6), B ( , )
2 4

5
c. A (- 2, ), B (13, 0)
2

d. A (6, -12), B (-5, - 4)

7
e. A (0, 0), B ( 2, √2 )

Solve the following problems

a. Prove that the Points A(6, - 13) , B(-2, 2), C(13, 10), and D(21, -5) are the
vertices of a square. Find the length of a diagonal.

b. The abscissa of a point is −6, and its distance from the point (1,3) is √74.
Find the ordinate of the point.

c. Find the length of the medians of the triangle having vertices A(2,3), B(3,-3),
and C(-1,-1).

42 | P a g e
CHAPTER 5
Equations of a Line

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• Explain the concept of slope

• Solve the slope of points
• Identify the different forms of lines
• Apply the different forms of lines in solving problems
• Determine the equations of parallel and tangent lines
Pre Test

Find the slop of the following

a. (6, 3), (2, 5) b. (0, 4), (-2, -3) c. (4, 7), (1, 1) d. y = 6x – 5
e. 2y = 4x + 10

Slope of a Line
Let 𝑙 be a non-vertical line and 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be any two distinct
points on 𝑙. The figure below shows the line. In the figure, 𝑅 is the point (𝑥2 , 𝑦1 ),
and the points 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , and 𝑅 are vertices of a right triangle; furthermore, ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑅 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , and ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑅𝑃2 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1.

The number 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 gives the measure of the change in the ordinate from 𝑃1 to
𝑃2 , and it may be positive, negative, or zero. The number 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 gives the
measure of the change in the abscissa from 𝑃1 to 𝑃2 , and it may be positive or
negative.

The number 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 may not be zero because 𝑥2 ≠ 𝑥1 since the line 𝑙 is

not vertical. For all choice of the points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 on 𝑙, the quotient
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
is constant; this quotient is called the slope of the line.
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If 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are any two distinct points on line 𝑙, which is not
parallel to the 𝑦 axis, the slope of 𝑙, denoted by 𝑚, is given by

Δ𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= =
Δ𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Example:

Find the slope of the line that passes through the points (4, 2) and (7, 5)

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 5 − 2 3
𝑚= = = =1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 7 − 4 3

Point – Slope Form

The point-slope form of an equation of a line, which is given below,

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )

gives an equation of the line if a point 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) on the line and the slope 𝑚 of
the line are known.

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Example:

Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (2, 4) and has a slope
of 3
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

𝑦 − (4) = 2(𝑥 − (2))

𝑦 − 5 = 2(𝑥 − 4)

y – 5 = 2x – 8

- 2x + y – 5 + 8 = 0

- 2x + y + 3 = 0  2x – y – 3 = 0

Slope – Intercept Form

If we choose the particular point (0, 𝑏) (the point where the line intersects the 𝑦
axis) for the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), we have

𝑦 − 𝑏 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 0)

or, equivalently

𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃

The number 𝑏, which is the ordinate of the point where the line intersects the 𝑦
axis, is called the 𝒚 intercept of the line. Consequently, the equation above is
called slope-intercept form of an equation of the line. This form is especially
important because it expresses the 𝑦 coordinate explicitly in terms of the 𝑥
coordinate.

Example: Find the slope of the line having the equation 2x + 5y = 7

Transform the equation to the slope – intercept form

5y = - 2x + 7
5𝑦 −2𝑥 7
5
= 5
+5

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 2 7
y=- x+
5 5

2 7 𝟐
You can observe that m = - 5 and b = 5. Thus, the slope is - 𝟓

Standard Form

The equation of the line is in standard form if it is the in the form:

𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 = 𝑪

Where 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are constants, 𝐴 and 𝐵 should not be zero and 𝐴 is positive.

Example: Find the equation of the line in standard form that passes through (1,6)
and having a slope of - 2

First, use the point – slope form

y – y1 = m (x – x1)

y – 6 = - 2 (x – 1)

y – 6 = - 2x + 2

Then follow the standard form

2x + y = 2 + 6

2x + y = 8 (standard form)

General Form

The equation of the line is in general form if it is the in the form:

𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑪 = 𝟎

where 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are constants, 𝐴 and 𝐵 should not be zero and 𝐴 is positive.

Example:

Find the equation of a line in general form that passes through (3, - 4) and has a
1
slope of
2

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First, use the point – slope form

y – y1 = m (x – x1)
1
y – (- 4) = (x – 3)
2

1
y + 4 = 2 (x – 3)

Then simplify the equation

1
2 ( y + 4 )= [ 2 (x – 3)](2)

2y + 4 = (x – 3)

- x + 2y + 4 + 3 = 0

- x + 2y + 7 = 0

Since A must always be positive, multiply both sides of the equation by ( - 1)

The equation of the line in general form is x – 2y – 7 = 0

If 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is a point and if the equation of the line is in general form, we can solve
the shortest distance (perpendicular distance) between these point and line.

Shortest distance form a Point to a Line

|𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑪|
𝒅=
√𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐

Example:

Find the distance between 3x + 2y + 2 = 0 and the points (2, 5)

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 |𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶| |3(2) + (2)(5) + 2| 18 𝟏𝟖√𝟏𝟑
𝑑= = = =
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 √32 + (2)2 √13 𝟏𝟑

Intercept Form

Another form of an equation of a line is the one involving the intercepts of a line.
We define the 𝑥-intercept of a line as the abscissa of the point at which the line
intersects the 𝑥-axis. The 𝑥-intercept is denoted by 𝑎. If the 𝑥 intercept 𝑎 and the
𝑦 intercept 𝑏 are given, we have two points (𝑎, 0) and (0, 𝑏) on the line. Solving
for the slope of this, we have

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑏 − 0 𝑏
𝑚= = =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 0 − 𝑎 −𝑎

Now, use the point-slope form:

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

𝑏
𝑦−0= (𝑥 − 𝑎)
−𝑎
𝑏
𝑦= (𝑥 − 𝑎)
−𝑎

−𝑎𝑦 = 𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑎)

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 −𝑎𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑎𝑏

𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏

Dividing by 𝑎𝑏, if 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 0, we obtain

𝒙 𝒚
+ =𝟏
𝒂 𝒃

This is called the intercept form of an equation of the line. Obviously it does not
apply to a line through the origin, because for such a line both 𝑎 and 𝑏 are zero.

Example:

The x – intercept and y – intercept of a line are 2 and 4 respectively. Find the
equation of the line using the intercept form

a=2 b=4
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
2 4

Parallel Lines

If 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are two distinct non-vertical lines having slopes 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 ,

respectively, then 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are parallel if and only if 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 .

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Example:

Find the equation of a line parallel to 4x + 2y = 3 that passes through (2, 4)

Find the slope of the line first

4x + 2y = 3

2y = - 4x + 3
3
y = - 2x + 2 the slope m = - 2

Because we are looking for the equation of a line which is parallel to the given,
their slopes should be equal. Hence

y – y1 = m (x – x1)

y – (4) = - 2 (x – 2)

y - 4 = - 2x + 4

2x + y = 4 + 4

2x + y = 8

The equation of the line parallel to 4x + 2y = 3 that passes through (2, 4) is

2x + y = 8

As an alternate solution, we can use the form

Ax + By = C

Since the lines are parallel, their slopes are equal so Ax + By in both equations
are the same

4x + 2y = C

4(2) + 2(4) = C

16 = C

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Then substitute C to the equation

4x + 2y = 16

And simplify

2x + y = 8

Perpendicular Lines

If neither line 𝑙1 nor line 𝑙2 is vertical, then 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are perpendicular if and only
if the product of their slopes is −1. That is, if 𝑚1 is the slope of 𝑙1 , and 𝑚2 is the
slope of 𝑙2 , then 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are perpendicular if and only if 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1.

Example:

Find the equation of a line perpendicular to 3x + 5y = 8 that passes through the

points (1, 2)

First, find the slope of the line

3x + 5y = 8

5y = - 3x + 8
3 8
y=- x+
5 5

3
The slope m is - 5

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Because we are looking for the equation of a perpendicular line to the given line,
the slope should be the negative reciprocal of the given line

Slope of perpendicular line = negative reciprocal of the given line

5 5
M of perpendicular line = - (- ) =
3 3

5
y–2= 3
(x – 1)

5
3 (y – 2) = (x – 1) (3)
3

3y – 6 = 5x – 5

- 5x + 3y = - 5 + 6

- 5x + 3y = 1

5x + 3y = - 1

As an alternate solution, we can use the form

𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐶

Because the products of the slopes of the two lines is – 1, Ax + By will be replaced
by Bx – Ay.

The substitute the values to the equation to find C

5x – 3y = C

5 (1) – 3 (2) = C

5–6=C

-1=C

Then substitute the value of C obtaining:

5x – 3y = - 1

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Post Test:

Find the equation of the line which passes through the following given points. Final
answer must be in general form.

a. (3, 7) and (- 2, 5)

b. (- 4, 1) and (- 7, 4)

c. (2, 0) and (10, 10)

d. (3.5, 4.5) and (2.2, - 5.2)

e. (7, - 5) and (- 4, 8)

Find the equation of the line satisfying the following given conditions. Final answer
must be in general form.

a. The slope is – 2 and passes through the points (4, 9)

b. Parallel to the x – axis and passes through the points (- 2, - 5)

c. Perpendicular to the line with an equation of 4x + 5y – 12 = 0 and passes through

the points (3, 7)

d. Parallel to the line 3x + 8y = 13 and passes through the points (- 3, 5)

e. x – intercept is 5 and y – intercept is – 8

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 Pre – Test Answer Keys
Chapter 1

1. Yes, because it has non-terminating, repeating decimals

2. Yes, 0 is a whole number which is a subset of the set of real numbers
3. Field axioms are axioms that are satisfied by a set of elements
4. Union of two sets are when the set of all elements that are in Set A or in
Set B or in both A and B. Intersection is the set of all elements that are
both in A and B.
5. Null set is the set that contains no elements (other term is empty set)
Chapter 2

1. x > - 8/5
2. x < - 4 or x > 7
3. 1<x<4
4. x < 16
5. x < - 6 or x > - 2
Chapter 3

1. When the order of the pair of real numbers is designated, it is called an

ordered pair
2. Negative
3. X is Negative, Y is Positive
4. Abscissa
5. Rene Descartes
Chapter 4

Distance between two points Midpoint

a. 4.47 a. (2, ½ )
b. 4.47 b. (1, - 6)
c. 8.94
Chapter 5

a. – ½ c. 2 e. 2
b. 7/2 d. 6
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 Post Test Answer Keys
The Set of Real Numbers

Test I Test II

1. ⊆ a. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9}
2. ⊈ b. {6, 8, 10}
3. ⊈ c. {1, 3, 5}
4. ⊆ d. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
5. ⊆ e. Ø
Inequalities

5−√113 5+√113
a. x < - 2 or < 𝑥 < 3 or 𝑥 >
4 4
b. x < - 1 or x > 9/2
c. 𝑥 < − √11 − 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > √11 − 1
d. –1≤x≤½
e. 𝑥 ≤ − √3 − 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ √3 − 1
Absolute Value

Test I Test II

a. x = 3 or x = 9 a. – 12 ≤ x ≤ 12
b. x = - 7 or x = 2 b. x < - 12 or x > 14
c. x = 8 or x = 12 c. – 8/3 ≤ x ≤ 6
d. x = 3/2 or x = 8/3 d. x < - 17/2 or x > 10
e. x = 5/8 or x = 7/4 e. – 1 ≤ x ≤ 19/5
Equations, Functions and their graphs

1. 2.

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3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8.

9. 10.

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Distance and Midpoint Fomula

Test

a. d = √314, midpoints (- ½ , 3/2)

3√85
b. d = 4
, midpoints (9/4, 27/8)
5√37
c. d = 2
, midpoints (11/2, 5/4)
d. d = √185, midpoints (1/2, - 8)
√57 √2
e. d = , midpoints (7/4, )
2 2

Equations of a Line

Test I Test II
2 29
a. 𝑦 = 5 𝑥 + 5
a. 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 17
b. 𝑦 = −𝑥 − 3 b. 𝑦 = −5
5 5 5 13
c. 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 − 2 c. 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 + 4
3 31
d. 𝑦 = 7.46𝑥 − 21.62 d. 𝑦 = − 8 𝑥 + 8
13 36 𝑥 𝑦
e. 𝑦 = − 11 𝑥 + 11 e. . 5 − 8 = 1

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 REFERENCES
Leithold, L. (1976). The Calculus with Analytic Geometry. New York, NY: Harper
& Row, Publishers.

Leithhold, Louis. College Algebra and Trigonometry. 2001. Pearson Education

Asia Pte. Ltd

Clyde E. Love and Earl D. Rainville (1969). Differential and Integral Calculus 6 th
Edition

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