For Training Purpose Only DETAILED TRAINING

VAR Part 7 – Aircraft Maintenance Basic Cat B

TRAINING MANUAL

M15

Issue: 01
Rev: 00
Date: 25/04/2014
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M15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE EJAMF
Gas Turbine Engine
MODULE 15

M15.01 JET ENGINES FOR AIRCRAFT - FUNDAMENTALS

FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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JET ENGINES FOR AIRCRAFT Gas Turbine Engine
MODULE 15

JET ENGINES FOR AIRCRAFT

INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT ENGINES
Controlled flight over long distances is only possible with a suitable aircraft
engine.
From the aerodynamics lesson you remember that the lift force, which keeps
an aircraft in the air, is only created when the aircraft moves through the
atmosphere fast enough.
It is clear that the main function of an aircraft engine is to create the necessary
movement of the aircraft.
In addition the aircraft engine also supplies hydraulic power, electric power and
bleed air for the pneumatic system.
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Figure 1 Main Tasks of Jet Engines

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Introduction to Aircraft Engines cont.

There are 2 different types of aircraft engines;
S piston type engines and
S gas turbine engines.
The first airplanes were powered by piston type engines that turned a propeller.
These engines are simple in design and more fuel efficient than gas turbine
engines, but piston type engines have some big disadvantages compared with
gas turbine engines.
The performance of piston engines decreases at higher altitudes and they
cannot be large for aircraft because the ratio of weight and power decreases
with the size of the piston engines. Therefore, piston type engines are only
used on very small aircraft.
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Figure 2 Advantages /Disadvantages of Piston Type Engines

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JET ENGINES FOR AIRCRAFT Gas Turbine Engine
MODULE 15

GAS TURBINE ENGINES IN AIRCRAFT

Gas turbine engines, however, can operate at very high altitudes.
They easily provide thrust, torque and bleed air and they let aircraft fly at high
speeds.
There are different types of gas turbine engines on aircraft:
S turbojet engines,
S turbofan engines,
S turboprop engines
S and auxiliary power units (APU)
The turbofan engine is usually used on modern aircraft. This engine is better
because it makes high aircraft speeds possible with good engine efficiency.
The turbofan engine was developed from the turbojet engine.
Turbojet engines were the first type of gas turbine engines used on aircraft.
These engines give very high aircraft speeds, but they are very loud because
of the extremely high exhaust gas velocities. They also need too much fuel.
Another type of engine, which was developed from the turbojet, is the
turboprop engine.
Turboprop engines are specially designed to produce shaft horsepower only,
which is used to drive a propeller. This engine type is usually installed on small
commuter aircraft. It is a good compromise between achievable aircraft speed
and fuel efficiency.
Another type of gas turbine engine that you will find on modern aircraft is the
auxiliary power unit. This small gas turbine engine is usually called APU. It is
used to supply the aircraft with electric and pneumatic power if engines are not
available. With the APU the aircraft is independent of airport equipment.
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Figure 3 Types of Gas Turbine Engines

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JET ENGINES FOR AIRCRAFT Gas Turbine Engine
MODULE 15

PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION

All aircraft engines work in the same way.
They create a propulsion force, which moves the aircraft.
If you hold a water hose, which is spraying water, you can feel that the hose
pushes in the opposite direction of the water which is spraying out of it.
Jet propulsion is the propelling force, which is generated in the opposite
direction to the flow of mass through the jet nozzle.
An engine which uses jet propulsion is called a reaction engine. These engines
use Newton’s law of motion, which states that for every force which acts on a
body there is an opposite and equal reaction.
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Figure 4 Jet Propulsion Principle

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Principles of Jet Propulsion cont.

A force is always created when a body of mass is accelerated.
This body can be any kind of matter such as fluids and gasses, or it can be a
solid mass.
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Figure 5 Force Equation

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Principles of Jet Propulsion cont.

To accelerate air, the air pressure must be increased.
This can be done mechanically with a compressor or thermally by increasing
the volume of air when a fuel / air mixture is burned or heated. However, the
combination of both methods guarantees acceptable thrust for aircraft engines.
You see that the idea of using jet propulsion to move an aircraft is simple but
the application was difficult.
Until the late 1930s there was no compressor which could supply a continuous
and large enough airflow to produce suitable thrust.
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Figure 6 Air Acceleration Methods

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Principles of Jet Propulsion cont.

Centrifugal flow compressors driven by turbines finally made propulsion
engines for aircraft possible.
In 1937 Hans von Ohain built a gas turbine engine with a centrifugal flow
compressor driven by a radial turbine and in 1941 Frank Whittle built his first
engine which had a centrifugal flow compressor driven by an axial turbine.
Whittle’s and von Ohain’s engines became the base for all gas turbine engines.
Note that these engines were only possible after the development of materials
that were heat-resistant enough for continuous combustion.
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Figure 7 Compressors for Gas Turbine Engines

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MODULE 15

THE THRUST FORCE

Thrust force is generated by the acceleration of ambient air which is forced
through the engine.
This means that the thrust is determined by 2 parameters. One is the mass of
ambient air which is accelerated and the other parameter is the quantity of
acceleration itself.
The definition of mass is the quantity of matter in a body. In this example it is
the airflow through the engine in a given time and the acceleration of the airflow
is the difference between the outlet velocity of the air at the jet nozzle
compared with the inlet velocity of the air entering the engine.
The letter F is the thrust force. Today this force is measured in N (Newton) or
kN (Kilo Newton). 10kN for example are equal to a force of 1020kg or 2249lbs
(pounds) pushing down because of the gravity of the earth.
The letter m is the mass of air. The dot above the letter m shows that this is a
flow rate in kg/s.
V1 is the velocity of the air at the engine inlet.
V2 is the outlet velocity of the air at the engine jet nozzle.
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Figure 8 The Thrust Force

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MODULE 15

WHAT IS THRUST
On a test model we will explore what thrust is.
On the graphic you can see a small jet engine model which is free to move
forward and backwards.
The engine model is supplied with air by an external compressor. The quantity
of airflow to the engine can be changed by a control valve.
A pointer on the engine shows the generated thrust on a scale below.
If the airflow is constant and you change the diameter of the jet nozzle, the
outlet velocity changes.
If you install different jet nozzles on the engine model, you see what happens
to the thrust when the outlet velocity changes.
The nozzle with a small diameter creates a high outlet velocity and therefore a
high thrust.
A nozzle with a medium diameter creates a medium outlet velocity and
therefore a medium thrust.
The nozzle with a large diameter creates a low outlet velocity resulting in a low
thrust.
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MODULE 15

large diameter
small diameter
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Figure 9 Thrust Test Model

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What Is Thrust cont.

You can see here that if you put a deflector plate into the outlet airflow, the
thrust of the jet nozzle does not change.
This shows that the thrust is generated by acceleration of airflow and not by
pushing against the atmosphere or some other object.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 10 Deflector Plate in Outlet Airflow

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MODULE 15

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON THRUST

There are 4 main environmental parameters that cause a change in the thrust
of a jet engine:
S the ambient air pressure,
S the air temperature,
S the operating altitude
S and finally the air speed of the aircraft.
The most important factors that cause a change of the mass airflow, are air
temperature and air pressure because these factors determine the density of
air.
The density is the mass per unit of volume. In other words, it is the number of
molecules in a given volume.
Generally the density is measured in kg/m3 or lbs/ft3.
When the density of a gas increases, there are more molecules in a given
volume and vice versa.
A lower air density creates lower thrust because the airflow contains less mass
than a high density airflow.
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Figure 11 Environmental Effects on Thrust

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MODULE 15

Environmental Effects on Thrust cont.

The air temperature changes the density.
The thrust of a jet engine decreases when the temperature of the air increases.
Pressure changes of the ambient air also change its density and therefore the
thrust of an engine.
The higher the air pressure gets, the higher the resulting thrust is.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 12 Relation Thrust vs. Air Pressure and Air Temperature

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Environmental Effects on Thrust cont.

A much bigger effect on air pressure changes can be seen when the altitude
changes.
With increasing altitudes, the ambient pressure decreases and the temperature
decreases continuously until 36000ft (10973m) is reached.
From 36000ft up to 65000ft (19812m), the air temperature stays constant at
approximately -70° F (-57°C).
The colder air temperatures at higher altitudes give a small increase in thrust
but the decrease in thrust is much bigger because the decrease of air density
is much bigger.
The thrust which results from the 2 opposite conditions is shown by the
highlighted curve on the diagram.
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Figure 13 Relation Thrust vs. Altitude

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Environmental Effects on Thrust cont.

One factor that changes the thrust, is the quantity of the acceleration of the
airflow because of the speed of the aircraft.
When the speed of the aircraft increases, the thrust decreases. You can see
this in the downward slope of the thrust curve. This happens because the
difference between the outlet velocity and the inlet velocity of the airflow
decreases when the speed of the aircraft increases.
Another factor of the airspeed causes an opposite change on the generated
thrust.
When the aircraft moves through the air, the airflow that is rammed into the
engine inlets increases the airflow through the engine. This increases the thrust
of the engine.
Therefore, the net effect of the airspeed on the thrust is a combination of thrust
decrease from acceleration effect and thrust increase from the ram effect.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 14 Relation Thrust vs. Aircraft Speed

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MODULE 15

THRUST ON TYPICAL AIRCRAFT ENGINES

The gas turbine engine, turbofan engine and turboprop engine produce thrust
by accelerating of ambient air.
However, the difference between them is how they do it.
A turbojet engine is designed for one purpose and this is to produce high
velocity gases. On these engines, all the gas energy which is not used to drive
the compressor and the accessories is converted into thrust.
The high outlet velocity of these engines give high aircraft speeds, but turbojet
engines are extremely loud and not very efficient.
All other engines shown earlier have been based on the turbojet engine with
the primary reason to improve efficiency.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Turbo Jet Engine

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Figure 15 Thrust of a Turbojet Engine

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Thrust on Typical Aircraft Engines cont.

Turboprop engines produce their thrust by a small acceleration of a large
quantity of air with a propeller. The propeller can be driven directly from the
compressor shaft or by a free turbine and a long center drive shaft.
A reduction gear is always required to reduce the high gas turbine engine
rotation to speeds that can be managed by the propeller.
Turboprop engines convert almost all the gas energy into torque. They are very
efficient, but the propeller does not permit high aircraft speeds.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 16 Thrust of a Turboprop Engine

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Thrust on Typical Aircraft Engines cont.

The turbofan engine combines the best advantages of turbojet and turboprop
engines.
The turbofan engine is very much like a turboprop engine, but instead of the
propeller this engine has a fan, which is enclosed in a casing. Turbofan engines
are usually twin or triple spool engines. The fan is always driven by a turbine
via a drive shaft. Normally these engines do not have a reduction gear to
reduce the speed of the fan.
Turbofan engines convert a large part of the gas energy into torque to drive the
fan and the engine compressors. The remaining hot gas energy from the
airflow, which discharges from the so-called core engine, is directly converted
into thrust.
The total thrust of the turbofan engine is the sum of the thrust developed by the
core engine and by the fan.
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Turbofan Engine
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Figure 17 Thrust of a Turbofan Engine

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Thrust on Typical Aircraft Engines cont.

On the turbofan engine the fan accelerates a high airflow to a relatively low
outlet velocity. At the same time the core engine accelerates a small quantity of
air to a high outlet velocity.
Because of the high fan airflow, the fan can produce more than 80% of the total
thrust. This is primarily dependent on the bypass ratio.
The bypass ratio is the ratio of air that passes through the fan duct compared
with the air that passes through the core engine.
On modern turbofan engines the bypass ratio is between 4:1 and 9:1.
In future this ratio will increase further.
Older turbofan engines like the Pratt & Whitney JT8D engines have a bypass
ratio of about 1:1.
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Figure 18 Bypass Ratio

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Thrust on Typical Aircraft Engines cont.

Turbofan engines can be either short ducted, which is correct for most of the
high bypass engines, or long ducted with combined or separate exhausts.
In conclusion, you can say that the turbofan engine combines the good
efficiency and high thrust capability of the turboprop with the high speed and
high altitude capability of a turbojet.
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Figure 19 Exhaust Nozzles on Turbofan Engines

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Thrust on Typical Aircraft Engines cont.

Latest engine research activities are about open rotor engines or so-called
propfans.
The gas turbine engine powers either a single fan or a set of counter−rotating
fans via a gearbox. Because of the number and shape of the fan blades, these
engines have good speed and altitude capabilities.
They also have the advantage of using up to 20% less fuel than high bypass
engines. This is because they have bypass ratios of up to 90:1.
Because of mounting difficulties, these engines are not very common on
modern jet aircraft.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 20 Propfan
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EJAMF M15.01#1 B1 E

TABLE OF CONTENTS
M15.01 JET ENGINES FOR AIRCRAFT -
FUNDAMENTALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
JET ENGINES FOR AIRCRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT ENGINES . . . . . . . . . . 2
GAS TURBINE ENGINES IN AIRCRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
THE THRUST FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
WHAT IS THRUST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON THRUST . . . . . . . . . 22
THRUST ON TYPICAL AIRCRAFT ENGINES . . . . . . . . 30

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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Main Tasks of Jet Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 2 Advantages/ Disadvantages of Piston Type Engines . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 3 Types of Gas Turbine Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 4 Jet Propulsion Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 5 Force Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 6 Air Acceleration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 7 Compressors for Gas Turbine Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 8 The Thrust Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 9 Thrust Test Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 10 Deflector Plate in Outlet Airflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 11 Environmental Effects on Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 12 Relation Thrust vs. Air Pressure and Air Temperature . . . . . 25
Figure 13 Relation Thrust vs. Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 14 Relation Thrust vs. Aircraft Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 15 Thrust of a Turbojet Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 16 Thrust of a Turboprop Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 17 Thrust of a Turbofan Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 18 Bypass Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figure 19 Exhaust Nozzles on Turbofan Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 20 Propfan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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TABLE OF FIGURES

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