Holonomic System: Refers to the relationship between controllable

-Particle Model (PM): massless point, consider position only and total degrees of freedom of a robot. If the controllable degree of
-kinematics model (KM): relates robot’s vel with actuator’s input vel freedom is equal to total degrees of freedom, then the robot is said to
-Dynamics model (DM): relates robot’s acc with actuator’s torques be Holonomic. A robot built on castor wheels or Omni-wheels is a
-At low speeds kinematics model is sufficient good example of Holonomic drive as it can freely move in any
Unicycle Model: A simplified model, where we can think of the robot direction and the controllable degrees of freedom is equal to total
as having one wheel that can move with a desired velocity (V) at a degrees of freedom.
specified heading (θ). Non-Holonomic System: If the controllable degree of freedom is less
than the total degrees of freedom, then it is known as non-Holonomic
drive. A car has three degrees of freedom; i.e., its position in two axes
and its orientation. However, there are only two controllable degrees
of freedom which are acceleration (or braking) and turning angle of
steering wheel. This makes it difficult for the driver to turn the car in
any direction (unless the car skids or slides).
Non-Holonomic Constraints: The non-holonomic constraints of a
system are the restrictions on the motion of the motion of the system
due to presence of constraints on the velocity of the system.
Differential Robot: Is a mobile robot whose movement is based on two How can we calculate these constraints?
separately driven wheels placed on either side of the robot body. -Check the rolling and sliding constraints of the wheel.
-Repeat for all wheels of the system.
Differential Drive KM The constraints can be defined or categorized as rolling and sliding
constraints affecting fixed and steerable wheels of the system.

- If wheels are fixed -> Beta is constant value

For an input of 𝜔𝜔𝑅𝑅 = 𝜔𝜔L ≠ 0 & 𝜽𝜽𝟎𝟎 = 0 - If wheels are steerable -> Beta is function of the steering angle

For an input of 𝜔𝜔𝑅𝑅 = 𝜔𝜔L ≠ 0 & 𝜽𝜽𝟎𝟎 = 90

For an input of 𝜔𝜔𝑅𝑅 > 𝜔𝜔L & 𝜽𝜽𝟎𝟎 = 0 &

Simulink Model of Differential Drive KM

Differential Drive DM

For an input of 𝜏𝜏𝑅𝑅 = 𝜏𝜏L ≠ 0 & 𝜽𝜽𝟎𝟎 = 0

For an input of 𝜏𝜏𝑅𝑅 > 𝜏𝜏L & 𝜽𝜽𝟎𝟎 = 0

𝜽𝜽dot = Wr*r/L

Simulink Model of Differential Drive DM

Beta [line connecting the robot center with the wheel center , sliding
direction of the wheel]
Alpha [Xr , line connecting the robot center with the wheel center]
Theta [Xglobal , Xr]
 Ackermann Mechanism: When a vehicle is turning, the inner front
wheel needs to turn at a different angle to the outer because they are
turning on different radii. The Ackermann steering mechanism is a
geometric arrangement of linkages in the steering of a vehicle
designed to turn the inner and outer wheels at the appropriate angles.

For an input of Vd ≠ 0 & ⌀=0

•The objective of kinematic controller is to follow the desired

trajectory (position, velocity w.r.t time).
•Motion Control is not straight forward problem cause mobile robots
are typically: –Non-holonomic –MIMO systems
•Most controllers consider the kinematic model (not the dynamic
model) of the system.

In order to compare various path planning algorithms, we use the

following metrics of performance:
Speed: Planners are compared based upon their execution time (of the
algorithm).
Completeness: -A complete algorithm is one that guarantees to find a
solution if a solution exist or determines if NO solution exist.
-An exhaustive search that will examine every possible way to find a
solution.
-It may not terminate if No path exist.
Optimality: -Resolution of discretization can lead to suboptimal solution.
-Some algorithms will only guarantee sub-optimal solutions (ex: Greedy
Search).
Feasibility of Solutions: Not all planners consider the exact model of the
robot or the environment.(ex: side motion for non-differential robots)
Blind/Uninformed Search: Uninformed search algorithms have no
additional information on the goal node other than the one provided in
the problem definition. The plans to reach the goal state from the start
state differ only by the order and length of actions.
The BFS algorithm is characterized by the following:
High Memory Requirement -Exhaustive Search -Doesn’t Get stuck in Local
Minima -Find the optimal path.
Travelling criteria (Tree): seeks to investigate all possible options
available at first -solve map by layer by layer (FIFO)- Queue data structure
Stopping criteria: When target node is a visited node

Controller advantages
–velocity direction (V) is always in the same sign.
–This controller guarantees the smooth trajectory
to be followed from starting to goal positions.
Limitations
–Transformation is not defined at Δx=0 and Δy=0
–What if the goal point was behind the starting
position of the robot ??
Informed Search: algorithms that have information on the goal state
which helps in more efficient searching. This information is obtained by The DFS algorithm is characterized by the following:
a function that estimates how close a state is to the goal state. Low Memory Requirement -Exhaustive Search -Could get stuck exploring
The Best-First Search algorithm infinite paths -Used if there are different solutions and need only one.
Travelling criteria (Tree): approach seeks to investigate the depth
of every move before exploring the full map -Exploring branch by branch
(LIFO) - Stack data structure
Stopping criteria: When target node is a visited node -Stack is empty

Autonomous Systems: Systems that can operate in unstructured

environs to do certain tasks without human interaction. (Unstructured
environs means no previous information about the surroundings.)
1.Locomotion: ability of the autonomous system to change its pose
using its actuation system. (wheels, legs, aerial, hybrid…)
2.Navigation: ability of the autonomous system to accurately plan and
obtain a path that allows it to traverse the environment safely in order
to reach its destination. (ultrasonic)
3-Localization: ability of the autonomous system to accurately
determine its pose any moment relative to its environment. (IMU, GPS)
4-Mapping: define and understand surrounding environment (cameras)
5-Control: It is the communication, control and coordination between
the different components of an autonomous system. [Centralized: low
cost, easier & simpler algorithm, single point of failure – Decentralized:
more cost & complicated algorithm using communication protocols-
Hierarchal and distributed: a bit of both].
Main 5 steps to develop a system: Physical System Study - system
modelling - model simulation - performance analysis - controlling