SCHOOL OF AEROSPACE AND VEHICLE ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE AND AVIATION ENGINEERING

PROJECT

DESIGN OF A HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEM TO GENERATE ELECTRIC POWER

USING A SUPERCRITICAL CO2 TURBINE

AUTHOR: VICTOR KIPNGETICH

EEAD/03008P/2019

SUPERVISOR: MR. KILONZO

ABSTRACT
Thermal power cycles using supercritical carbon dioxide could play a big part in power
generation systems with waste heat recovery applications. The possible benefits of employing
sCO2 as a working fluid include excellent thermal efficiency at medium-grade heat source
temperatures. The design and operation of the heat exchangers and turbomachinery components,
the choice of materials, and taking into account the high working pressures and temperatures are
technological obstacles that have to be addressed. A sustainable method of producing electricity
is by recovering the waste heat from the turbine exhaust gases and using it as an energy source.
Pressure levels and the turbine inlet temperature, which is bound by the heat source, are the
optimization variables. The findings point to a huge potential for applications of heat recovery to
improve efficiency.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Due to the potential benefits of reducing energy consumption and raising energy efficiency, heat
recovery has been an active topic in energy system research. Waste heat is the surplus heat that a
heat engine rejects to the environment after performing its primary function in a thermodynamic
process. Waste heat recovery is the utilization of thermal energy to complete a useful function
that would otherwise be transferred to the environment. Waste heat recovery frequently avoids or
reduces the need for additional fuel energy input that would otherwise be necessary to perform
this job [1]. The purpose of waste heat recovery is frequently to generate more work. A more
significant proportion of the waste heat can be turned to work using higher-quality heat sources.
The quality of a specific heat source for WHR is significantly influenced by its temperature.
More heat can be transformed into productive work when a medium is hotter because hotter
materials have higher entropies. Aircraft engines can lose up to 60% of the potential chemical
energy of their fuel as waste heat into the atmosphere. Reclaiming this waste heat and converting
it to practical work would improve the efficiency and power output of the engine.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Due to their low thermal efficiency, aircraft engines waste a significant amount of energy as
waste heat through exhaust gases. Waste heat recovery from exhaust gases, which may be
transformed into other kinds of energy and recycled, can be employed to solve this issue. The
efficiency and power output of the engine will increase as a result.
The hot exhaust gas is a high-grade heat source that is used to heat supercritical CO2, the
working fluid in a supercritical CO2 turbine. The turbine, in turn, drives a generator that
produces electric power through electromagnetic induction.

1.3 OBJECTIVES
I. To design a heat recovery system that uses aircraft exhaust gases as the heat source to
produce electric power
II. To design hot exhaust fittings to transfer heat from the hot exhaust gases to the working
fluid
III. To determine the amount of power generated by the system
1.4 JUSTIFICATION
Waste heat recovery significantly improves overall system efficiency and lowers emissions by
converting it to electric power. The supercritical CO 2 cycle waste heat recovery system has
considerable advantages in that the compactness of the elements makes it practical for
installation on an aircraft. In its supercritical state, the Sco 2 has the density of a liquid, but it acts
like a gas, making it a highly efficient working fluid to generate power with high thermal
efficiencies, i.e.,>50%. The electrical power produced can be backup power for essential
avionics equipment, lighting, or used in the operation of infotainment systems, etc.
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 AIRCRAFT ENGINES
Aircraft engines are of different types, including turbofan, turbojet, turboshaft, and turboprop
engines, all under gas turbine engines. The function of the engine is to generate thrust, which
drives the aircraft forward. To generate work, a gas turbine engine compresses air to high
pressure and combusts fuel in the air stream to raise pressure and temperature. A turbine then
expands the high-pressure exhaust gases. The compressor is powered by all or part of the work
the turbine generates [2].
The thermal efficiency of gas turbine engines is an average of 40%. The performance of gas
turbines is heavily influenced by thermal efficiency. It is the ratio of the engine's net work to the
chemical energy that is given as fuel. The turbine inlet temperature, compression ratio, and
component efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are the three main parameters impacting
thermal efficiency. Compressor inlet temperature and combustion efficiency are other elements
that influence thermal efficiency [3].

Figure 1: The effect of compression ratio on thermal efficiency at different compressor inlet
temperatures [1].
As a result of the relatively low thermal efficiencies of gas turbine engines, aircraft engines can
lose up to 60% of the potential chemical energy of their fuel as waste heat into the atmosphere.
Reclaiming this waste heat and converting it to useful work would improve the efficiency and
power output of the engine.
2.2 SUPERCRITICAL CARBON-DIOXIDE
2.2 Brayton cycle
The Brayton Cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes how gas turbines operate. The
Brayton Cycle works on the principle that energy can be extracted from moving fuel and air to
provide useful work that may be used to propel several vehicles. Compressing moving air,
igniting it, and then expanding it to produce work and, simultaneously, providing energy for the
compression are the three most fundamental processes in energy extraction. Given that it serves
as the foundation for both gas turbines and jet engines, the Brayton Cycle is incredibly useful.
2.2.1 Open Brayton Cycle
Most gas turbines are based on the open Brayton cycle, which is the Brayton cycle with internal
combustion. During this cycle, air from the surrounding atmosphere is compressed to the higher
pressure and temperature of the compressor. The air in the combustion chamber is heated even
further by burning the fuel-air mixture in the airflow. Gases and combustion byproducts either
expand in the turbine to pressures required by jet engines, or to pressures that are close to
atmospheric pressure for engines that produce mechanical or electrical energy. The gases are
released into the atmosphere directly in an open Brayton cycle [2].
2.2.2 Closed Brayton Cycle
In a closed Brayton cycle, the working medium, such as supercritical carbon dioxide, is recycled
back in the loop and the gas ejected from the turbine is reintroduced into the compressor. These
turbines typically use an external combustion heat exchanger, and only a clean medium free of
combustion byproducts passes through the power turbine. For instance, closed-cycle gas turbines
and high-temperature gas-cooled reactors both make use of the closed Brayton cycle [2].
2.3 Brayton Cycle Process

Figure2: [3] Brayton Cycle T-S Diagram

Figure 3: [4] Brayton Cycle P-V Diagram
I. Isentropic compression
The compressor compresses the working gas while it is being drawn (such as
supercritical carbon dioxide) without causing a change in temperature. The gas is
compressed, which raises its temperature and pressure while also reducing its volume.
Because there is no heat transfer, this process is also known as a reversible adiabatic
process. The work required for the compressor is given by:
WC = H2 – H1
II. Isobaric heat addition
The compressed gas is delivered to the combustion chamber when the isentropic compression
process is complete, where it is heated by an external source. The compressed gas ignites as a
result of heat addition, and this ignition process heats the gas even more. The working gas's
enthalpy rises throughout the entire process, but its pressure remains unchanged. The net heat
provide to the gas is:
Qadd = H3 – H2

III. Isentropic expansion

The heated, pressurized air then expands on a turbine, gives up its energy. The work done by the
turbine is given by:
WT = H4 – H3
IV. Isobaric heat rejection
To complete the cycle, the remaining heat must be rejected. The net heat rejected is given by:
Qre = H4 – H1
An isentropic process is a thermodynamic process in which the entropy of the fluid or gas
remains constant. Meaning there is no transfer of heat or matter, the isentropic process is a
specific case of an adiabatic process. The adiabatic process is reversible.
An isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in which the system pressure remains constant.
The heat transfer into or out the system does work and alters the system’s internal energy.
2.4 Efficiency of Brayton Cycle
Efficiency of the Brayton Cycle is the ratio of work output to the heat input.
Work output = (h3-h2) – (h4-h1)
Heat Input = (h3-h2)
Efficiency = Work Output/Heat Input

Where; W-work output

QH-heat input
QC-heat rejected
The efficiency of the Brayton cycle can be improved through the following ways:
I. Increase turbine inlet temperature
II. Multistage compression
III. Increase pressure ratio
IV. Improve turbine and compressor efficiency
V. Regeneration

2.5 Supercritical carbon dioxide properties

Supercritical carbon dioxide is carbon dioxide that is held above its critical point. The critical
point of carbon dioxide is a pressure of 73.8 bar and a temperature of 31.1°C.
Figure 4: Pressure-Temperature phase diagram of CO2
When carbon dioxide is maintained at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure, it is
said to be in supercritical condition. At normal temperature and pressure (STP), carbon dioxide
typically behaves as a gas in the air or as dry ice, a solid when frozen. It can take on qualities
halfway between a gas and a liquid if the temperature and pressure are raised from STP to be at
or above the critical point for carbon dioxide. sCO2 can be utilized effectively in this state for the
duration of the complete Brayton cycle[4].
2.6 Supercritical CO2 Power Cycles
A general thermodynamic power cycle is made up of four essential operations: compression,
heat addition at high pressure, expansion, and heat rejection at low pressure. These operations
can be classified based on whether a phase shift takes place during the cycle. [5] The following
are some of the layout designs of the supercritical CO2 cycle:
a) Simple
Figure 4: [6] shows a block flow diagram for the simple indirect-fired Brayton cycle. Just before
the expansion turbine, thermal energy is added to the working fluid, and a cooler is needed to
reduce the temperature of the working fluid after expansion to the desired inlet temperature of
the compressor.
b) Regenerator / Recuperator

Figure 5: [6] shows a block flow diagram for the recuperated indirect-fired Brayton cycle.
Thermal recuperation is a feature of a more advanced indirect-fired Brayton cycle. The addition
of a heat exchanger between the expander exhaust and the compressor exhaust is the only
modification to the cycle. By decreasing the amount of heat lost in the CO2 cooler and
increasing the volume of working fluid that may move through the cycle for any given amount of
thermal input, this heat exchange increases the cycle efficiency. Cycle efficiency for the
recuperated indirect-fired Brayton cycle increases with higher turbine input temperature and
turbomachinery efficiencies and decreases with higher cycle pressure drop, heat loss, and
minimum approach temperature in the recuperator. [7]
c) Reheating

Figure 6: [6] The reheat cycle increases turbine work, which increases the cycle's net work.
Instead of altering the compressor's workload or the turbine's input temperature, this is achieved
by splitting the expansion of the turbine into two or more portions and applying constant
pressure heating before each expansion. [8]
 d) Recompression

Figure 7: [6] Pre-compression cycle and recompression cycle both have the same number of
components, but their arrangements change. The flow is divided into two streams before cooling,
with one going to the recompression compressor and the other passing through the chiller to the
main compressor.The flow that passes through the low temperature recuperator should be mixed
with another stream at the same pressure and temperature. The low mass flow at the high
pressure side of the low temperature recuperator prevents the pinch point problem, making the
heat capacity mass flow weighted on both sides equal. The pinch point is the area of a heat
exchanger where there is the least temperature difference between hot and cold fluid. [9] This
system rejects minimal heat, and thermal efficiency is increased since the recompressor's work is
less than the heat saved [10].

e) Preheating

Figure 8: [6] The preheating cycle is basically the simple recuperated cycle with the exception
that some of the CO2 flow exiting the compressor is routed to a preheater and the remaining flow
is routed via the recuperator. The two flows are then mixed immediately before going into the
primary heater. Two fundamental advantages of this strategy. First off, by having various mass
flow rates on each side of the heat exchanger, the pinch point issue in the recuperator can be
improved. The heat source temperature can be decreased even more using a primary heater and
preheater than with a straightforward recuperated cycle. As a result of this gain, which increases
energy recovery efficiency at high thermal power conversion efficiency, waste heat recovery
applications are particularly relevant [11]
f) Pre-compression

Figure 9: [6] By adding a pre-compressor between the turbine and main compressor, this cycle
arrangement enhances the Brayton cycle by making the turbine exhaust pressure independent of
the compressor inlet pressure. To prevent the problem of pinch points, the heat exchanger has
been divided in two. The fundamental idea is that when the temperature differential approaches
the minimum, additional compression creates space for additional regeneration [10].
g) Split flow

Figure 10: [6] This cycle developed from the recompression cycle. The design of this cycle was
driven by the need to lessen stress in the system's hottest component. To divide the expansion,
one more turbine is installed. After first turbine expansion from high pressure, heat is applied.
The additional components are arranged in the same way as in the recompression cycle [10].
The various sCO2 power cycle layouts that have been described in the literature all aim to
increase performance either by enhancing the cycle's individual processes (such as heat addition,
working-fluid expansion, regeneration, cooling, and compression processes) or by integrating the
sCO2 cycle with other systems [12]. Each layout has its advantages and disadvantages and
therefore has different cycle efficiencies.
Figure 11: Performance comparison of supercritical CO2 cycle layout. [13]
2.7 Heat Exchangers
A heat exchanger is an equipment that facilitates the process for two fluids with differing
temperatures to exchange heat. Heat exchangers are utilized in a wide range of engineering
applications, including waste heat recovery units, power plants, chemical processing systems,
heating and air conditioning systems, and food processing systems [14].The process of
transferring heat can be done through a solid separator, which keeps the fluids from mixing, or
through direct fluid contact, depending on the type of heat exchanger being used. It can also be
done liquid-to-liquid, liquid-to-gas, or gas-to-liquid. The different types of heat exchangers that
are available can also be categorized and classified according to other design features, including
as construction materials and components, heat transfer mechanisms, and flow arrangements
[15].

The Zeroth, First, and Second Laws of Thermodynamics, which define and govern the transfer or
exchange of heat from one fluid to another, apply to all heat exchangers, regardless of their kind
or design. [15]
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium
with some third body, then they are also in equilibrium with each other.
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Alternatively, it can be described as "the conservation of energy."
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that heat always moves from a body that is warmer
to a colder body.
2.7.1 Heat Exchanger Flow Configurations
Heat exchangers have three primary flow configurations:
I. Parallel Flow - The two fluids enter the heat exchanger at the same end and move parallel
to one another in the same direction. The fluid temperatures in this system will approach
a similar value at the outlets, despite the substantial temperature variations at the input.
II. Counter Flow - The two fluids enter the heat exchanger at opposite ends and flow in the
opposite directions. The temperature changes are less but more constant along the
exchanger's length with this arrangement. It is probable for the fluid being heated to exit
the exchanger at a temperature higher than the heating fluid's exit temperature. Due to the
higher temperature differential along the exchanger's whole length, this is the most
efficient design.
III. Cross flow - the two fluids flow perpendicular to one another.
2.7.2 Types of Heat Exchangers
Based on the design characteristics, there are several different types of heat exchangers available.
Some of the more common variants employed throughout the industry include:
I. Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
In shell and tube heat exchangers, a single tube or a series of parallel tubes are encased inside a
sealed, cylindrical pressure vessel. These devices are made in such a way that one fluid flows
through the smaller tubes and another fluid flows around and between them inside the sealed
shell. Finned tubes, single- or two-phase heat transfer, countercurrent flow, co-current flow, or
crossflow arrangements, as well as single, two, or multiple pass configurations are additional
design features that can be used with this kind of heat exchanger.
Helical coil heat exchangers and twin pipe heat exchangers are a few of the different kinds of
shell and tube heat exchangers that are available, and some of their uses include preheating, oil
cooling, and steam generation.
II. Plate Heat Exchangers
Many thin, corrugated plates are packed together to form plate heat exchangers. Each pair of
plates forms a passageway through which one fluid can flow, and when the pairs are stacked and
joined together using bolts, brazing, or welding, a second passageway through which another
fluid can flow is formed between the pairs.
Plates completely separate the heated liquid from the liquid that is being heated. There are four
in-out ports in typical plate heat exchangers, and two of them are for heated liquid and two are
for heater liquid. Heat exchangers with several heaters or hot liquids can be made using
specialized production techniques [16]
Plate heat exchangers offer better value for your overall heat transfer. A flat plate heat exchanger
typically has a U value that is substantially higher than that of a spiral or shell and tube heat
exchanger.
III. Double Pipe Heat Exchangers
Double pipe heat exchangers, which are a subtype of shell and tube heat exchangers, use the
most basic heat exchanger design and construction, consisting of two or more concentric,
cylindrical pipes or tubes, one larger tube, and one or more smaller tubes. One fluid travels
through the smaller tubes in accordance with the shell and tube heat exchanger's design, and
another fluid circle the smaller tubes inside the bigger tube.
Given that the fluids are kept apart and flow via separate channels during the heat transfer
process, the design specifications for double-pipe heat exchangers include elements from the
recuperative and indirect contact kinds. Double pipe heat exchangers can be built with cocurrent
or countercurrent flow arrangements, and they can be utilized modularly in series, parallel, or
series-parallel configurations within a system, giving them some design flexibility.
2.8 Generators
A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by the process of
electromagnetic induction.
Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction is the process of producing voltage by moving a magnetic field in
relation to a conductor as shown in Figure

Figure 12: Inducing EMF on a conductor [17]

Electromagnetic induction cannot produce substantial voltages or currents from a single
conductor. In practical use, a coil of wire is passed through the magnetic field of a powerful
magnet as opposed to a single wire. An increased electrical output results from this. A strong
electromagnet is frequently used to generate the magnetic field. Due to the electromagnet's
stronger magnetic field than a regular magnet, a higher voltage or current can be generated as a
result [17].
An aircraft electrical system has components with the ability to generate electricity. Depending
on the aircraft, generators or alternators are applied to generate electricity. These are typically
powered by an engine, although they could also be Ram Air Turbines, APUs, or hydraulic
motors (RAT). 14V DC, 28V DC, or 115–120V/400HZ AC are often the output voltages of
generators. You can use generator power directly, or you can adjust the voltage or type of current
it produces by running it through transformers, rectifiers, or inverters. [18] The output of the
generator will typically be sent to one or more distribution buses. Individual components are
powered from the bus with circuit protection provided by wiring-integrated circuit breakers or
fuses. The airplane battery is additionally charged using the generator output. Batteries are
typically either NI-CAD or lead-acid, however lithium batteries are increasingly prevalent.
Batteries are used to start up airplanes as well as provide as a backup power supply in the event
that a generation or distribution system fails.
There are threats that may cause the aircraft electrical system to fail, including generator failure,
electrical system fire, bus failure etc.
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Aspen Plus Setup
Aspen Plus is the industry’s leading advanced chemical process simulator, based on flowsheet
simulation. I It is a tool used for conceptual design, optimization and monitoring of processes. It
allows users to create a flowsheet model and simulate it using complex computation, regressions,
arithmetic calculations and equations etc. Aspen Plus was used to simulate the supercritical
carbon-dioxide cycle using the simple configuration layout. Figure show the simple
configuration.

Figure 13: Schematic diagram of the Supercritical CO2 layout in ASPEN Plus
3.2 List of Components
3.2.1 Turbine
A turbine is a device that converts fluid rotational energy captured by a rotor system into useful
work or energy. Given their simplicity and ability to accept an input and produce an output,
turbines fall under the category of engines. A collection of blades that allow fluid to flow into the
turbine and force the blades together are what characterize a typical turbine. These blades move
as the fluid flows past them, harnessing some of the energy as rotational motion. The fluid
experiences kinetic energy loss as it moves through the turbine and eventually has less energy
than when it initially entered. The turbine used in this case is the axial type due to its efficiency
and ability to handle high pressure.
3.2.2 Compressor
In this study, an axial type compressor is used due to its advantages over other types of
compressors. It is appropriate for constant load applications and has a higher efficiency than
centrifugal compressors. It is better suited for multiple staging and pressure increases with
minimal losses.
An axial-flow compressor raises the pressure of its working fluid by first propelling it and then
diffusing it. The rotor, a series of revolving airfoils or blades, accelerates the fluid while the
stator, a row of still blades, diffuses it. The velocity gain in the rotor is converted to a pressure
gain by diffusion in the stator. A stage in a compressor is made up of one rotor and one stator.
Typically, a compressor has several stages. At the compressor intake, an additional row of fixed
blades known as inlet guide vanes is usually utilized to make sure that air hits the first-stage
rotors at the correct angle.
3.2.3 Working Fluid
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (sCO2) was selected among all the other gases due to the following
factors

 It is a fluid which critical points are accessible (the critical pressure which is 73.8 bar and
critical temperature which is 31.1°C) are easy to achieve. At this critical point CO2
adopts properties midway between a gas and a liquid.
 It is easily heated to a supercritical state before expansion and can be compressed directly
to supercritical pressures.
 CO2 near its critical point becomes more incompressible and hence, the compression
work can be substantially decreased leading to high cycle efficiency [19]
 It is chemically inert, non-toxic, and non-flammable fluid that makes it safer to use
 It can be found easily at high purities and at a low cost
 Reduction of water consumption, because dry cooling is possible, the use of water on the
system is reduced.
3.2.4 Exhaust Heat Exchanger
The exhaust heat exchanger is used to transfer heat from the hot exhaust gases to supercritical
carbon dioxide before it is fed to the turbine.
Solidworks is software that allows users to manufacture, analyze and design 2D and 3D models
of components. Solidworks has numerous advantages as a design software including

 improved accuracy of the design

 picture assembly process or inner elements
 ability to easily make changes regarding additional variables
 allow users to inspect for interference in sizable assembly design

Realistic details may be fully utilized with SolidWorks 3D rendering, improving the efficiency of
your processes and final product.
Figure 14: Solidworks design of Exhaust Heat Exchanger
The heat exchanger is of the shell and tube type. As hot exhaust gases exit the engine, it passes
over the heat exchanger located at the exhaust cone, which has a steel pipe wound onto the
exhaust cone. The conical heat exchanger has its advantages over the straight heat exchanger, in
that heat transfer rate improves up to 22 %. Also, heat transfer rate increases with taper of
conical shell [20].
The conical heat pipes are made from copper due its desirable thermal conductivity. The ability
of a material to conduct or transport heat is referred to as thermal conductivity. It is typically
indicated by the letter "k," however it can also be indicated by the sign “λ" In contrast to
materials with low thermal conductivity, materials with high thermal conductivity transmit heat
more quickly. Thermal insulation is made from materials with low thermal conductivity, while
heat sink applications frequently use materials with high thermal conductivity [21].
Table1: Thermal conductivity of metals [22]

Metal Thermal conductivity (W/m•K)

Silver 429
Copper 398
Steel 45
Brass 111
Aluminum 247

Steel pipes are used to transfer the heated supercritical carbon dioxide to the turbine. Steel pipes
are suitable here because of the low thermal conductivity to reduce heat loss before sCO2 is fed
to the turbine. Furthermore, to prevent heat loss, the steel heat pipes are insulated with asbestos.
The exhaust gas temperature of an aircraft engine depends on a number of parameters like

 If afterburner is used or not

Without the after burner, the exhaust gas is around 600-650 °C, which goes up to
1500 °C with the after burner [23].
 Type of engine i.e. the bypass ratio
High bypass engines typically have lower exhaust gas temperatures compared to low
bypass engines
 Fuel air mixture
Richer mixtures also cause exhaust gas temperature to decrease because excess fuel
absorbs heat energy when it vaporizes. Leaner mixtures cause exhaust gas temperature to
decrease because less fuel produces less energy.
 Engine power setting
Exhaust gas temperature is higher when the engine is in high power setting i.e. during
takeoff and lower temperature when the engine is in low power setting or medium power
i.e. when cruising.
Since it impacts how much heat is transmitted to the supercritical carbon dioxide, the mass flow
rate is also taken into account. The mass flow rate of the GE90 is 1,350 kg/s during takeoff and
576 kg/s during cruise [24].
3.2.5 Cooler
The cooler is also a heat exchanger. An air-cooled heat exchanger is used to cool the Sco2 before
entering the compressor to avoid overheating at the compressor. An air scoop is an air-duct inlet
or cowl that projects from an outer surface of an aircraft to allow cold air from the outside to
cool Sco2.
Figure 15: [25] Scoop air intake
Cold air from the outside enters through the scooper and is directed to the cooler heat exchanger.
The cooler heat exchanger is of the finned-tube type. The outer surface area of the tubes is
significantly increased as a result of the fins on the outside. One most important aspect of this
design is the increase of the heat transfer surface area.

Figure 16: [26] Finned-tube heat exchanger.

As cold air flows through the heat exchanger, it absorbs heat from the Sco2. The cooling air
passes through the finned tubes, which have flat or continuous, plain, wavy, or interrupted
external fins used to increase the heat transfer surface area, as the sCO2 flows through the array
of circular or flat tubes. The operating temperatures and pressures in the cooler are lower than in
the heater. This leads to less concern about structural integrity and material selection. The
finned-tube heat design is suitable for this application because the sCO2 works at a substantially
higher pressure and has a significantly higher heat transfer coefficient than the cooling air [5].
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Compressor Block Results

Figure 17: Shows Aspen Plus compressor block results.

The compressor pressure ratio was held constant for the test cycles. The efficiency of the
compressor was 87%, and required about 420 kW of power to run.

Figure 18: [13] CO2 Compressibility factor

At supercritical conditions, compression process work is significantly reduced because the
compressibility factor is quite favorable at these conditions.
The pressure ratio of the compressor is 2.6 as carbon dioxide is held above its critical conditions
throughout the cycle. The pressure ratio is defined as the ratio of the exit pressure of a
compressor to its inlet pressure.
4.2 Effect of Turbine Inlet Temperature
Variation of the exhaust outlet temperature is used to do a sensitivity analysis on the cycle. By
varying the exhaust temperature, the turbine inlet temperature is altered. This affects the
performance of the turbine.

Figure 19: Schematic diagram of the Supercritical CO2 layout in ASPEN Plus
By varying the values of the HOT-IN stream in Aspen Plus, which corresponds to the engine
exhaust conditions i.e. temperature and mass flow rate of the exhaust gases. The mass flow rate
was adjusted at 1350 kg/s, 591 kg/s and 500 kg/s for 1500°C, 650°C and 500°C respectively. The
mass flow rate of the exhaust gases at high power mode is higher when compared to cruise, or
low power modes.
Table 2: Aspen Plus Results

Power Exhaust Heat Duty Turbine inlet Turbine Net work

Mode temperature (°C) (kJ/sec) temperature Power (kW) (kW)
(°C)

High 1500 1487 511 531 111

Cruise 700 578 449 486 66

Low 500 479 290 424 4

The net work of the system is the turbine work minus the compressor work. More power is
available when the engine is on high power setting and least when the engine is in low power
setting. For the three inlet temperatures used in this analysis, the overall cycle efficiency
increases as the turbine inlet temperature increases. This behavior is expected as more heat is
recovered from the flow and converted to work.
4.3 Heater Block Results

Figure 20: Aspen Plus Exhaust block results

The heat exchanger required area for heat transfer from the hot exhaust gases to the supercritical
carbon dioxide was set at 1.5 m2. This is because of the limited area at the exhaust cone. This
translates to a 9m long heat pipe coil with a diameter of 50mm.

Figure 21: Solidworks exhaust cone heat exchanger.

The coil has an inlet and outlet for the flow of the supercritical carbon dioxide. As hot exhaust
gases flow over the exhaust cone heat exchanger, heat is transferred to the supercritical carbon
dioxide. Copper has one of the highest thermal conductivity thus making it suitable for heat
exchanger applications.
Assumptions

 There is no heat loss through the pipes from the exhaust heat exchanger
 The is no pressure drop in the system
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
Compared to other power conversion systems, the S-CO2cycle may operate at a relatively high
efficiency throughout the range of mild turbine inlet temperatures. The key advantage of the S-
CO2 cycle is how easily it can be integrated into an airplane and how compact the system simply
is. ASPEN Plus is a software tool that makes cycle analysis and adjustment faster than doing the
calculations by hand. By modifying it till you reach the desired outcome and then prototyping the
cycle, this program will enable you to create more effective cycles more quickly. This will
reduce search time significantly.
High inlet temperatures are a key parameter that impacts the overall cycle efficiency. Higher
inlet temperatures will lead to higher overall cycles efficiencies. The cycle efficiency could be
improved by adding a recuperator but this would further add weight to the aircraft which is
undesirable.
However, the system has several drawback such as increase in noise and vibration at the exhaust.
 REFERENCES
[1] “Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Performance.” https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/p/gas-turbine-
engine-performance.html (accessed Dec. 02, 2022).

[2] “Brayton Cycle - Gas Turbine Engine | Characteristics | nuclear-power.com.” https://www.nuclear-

power.com/nuclear-engineering/thermodynamics/thermodynamic-cycles/brayton-cycle-gas-turbine-
engine/ (accessed Nov. 25, 2022).

[3] W. M. Stacey, “W. M. Stacey, Nuclear Reactor Physics, John Wiley & Sons, 2001, ISBN: 0- 471-39127-1,”
2001, Accessed: Nov. 26, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://scholar.google.com/scholar?
hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=W.+M.+Stacey%2C+Nuclear+Reactor+Physics%2C+John+Wiley+%26+Sons
%2C+2001%2C+ISBN%3A+0-+471-39127-1&btnG=

[4] “Brayton Cycle | Efficiency, P-V & T-S Diagrams | Heat & Work Table.”
https://clubtechnical.com/brayton-cycle (accessed Nov. 26, 2022).

[5] M. T. White, G. Bianchi, L. Chai, S. A. Tassou, and A. I. Sayma, “Review of supercritical CO2 technologies
and systems for power generation,” Appl Therm Eng, vol. 185, Feb. 2021, doi:
10.1016/J.APPLTHERMALENG.2020.116447.

[6] L. Liu, Q. Yang, and G. Cui, “Supercritical carbon dioxide(S-co2) power cycle for waste heat recovery: A
review from thermodynamic perspective,” Processes, vol. 8, no. 11, pp. 1–18, Nov. 2020, doi:
10.3390/PR8111461.

[7] “Quadrennial Technology Review 2015 | Department of Energy.” https://www.energy.gov/quadrennial-

technology-review-2015 (accessed Nov. 06, 2022).

[8] S. Green, “Combined cycle power plants,” PEI Power Engineering International, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 1–43,
Jan. 2012, doi: 10.1533/9780857096180.1.

[9] N. Connor, “What is Thermal Conductivity of Cotton Insulation – Definition,” Thermal-engineering, 2019,
Accessed: Nov. 16, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.thermal-engineering.org/what-is-stagnation-
pressure-pitot-pressure-definition/

[10] I. M. Kulhánek and I. Václav Dostál, “SUPERCRITICAL CARBON DIOXIDE CYCLES THERMODYNAMIC
ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON”.

[11] B. J. Thorsson and H. R. Soliman, “Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Brayton Cycle for Power Generation
Utilizing Waste Heat in EU Industries.” [Online]. Available: www.kth.se

[12] A. K. Sleiti, W. Al-Ammari, S. Ahmed, and J. Kapat, “Direct-fired oxy-combustion supercritical-CO2 power
cycle with novel preheating configurations -thermodynamic and exergoeconomic analyses,” Energy, vol.
226, p. 120441, Jul. 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.ENERGY.2021.120441.

[13] Y. Ahn et al., “Review of supercritical CO2 power cycle technology and current status of research and
development,” Nuclear Engineering and Technology, vol. 47, no. 6, pp. 647–661, Oct. 2015, doi:
10.1016/J.NET.2015.06.009.

[14] C. Balaji, B. Srinivasan, and S. Gedupudi, “Heat exchangers,” Heat Transfer Engineering, pp. 199–231,
2021, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-818503-2.00007-1.
[15] “Understanding Heat Exchangers - Types, Designs, Applications and Selection Guide.”
https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/process-equipment/understanding-heat-exchangers/ (accessed
Aug. 30, 2022).

[16] “Plate Heat Exchanger: Types and Working Principles | Linquip.” https://www.linquip.com/blog/plate-
heat-exchanger/ (accessed Nov. 17, 2022).

[17] “Electromagnetic Generation of Power.”

https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/2021/06/electromagnetic-generation-of-power.html (accessed
Nov. 17, 2022).

[18] “Aircraft Electrical Systems | SKYbrary Aviation Safety.” https://www.skybrary.aero/articles/aircraft-

electrical-systems (accessed Dec. 05, 2022).

[19] “What Are Supercritical CO2 Power Cycles?” https://www.powermag.com/what-are-supercritical-co2-

power-cycles/ (accessed Dec. 01, 2022).

[20] J. A. Vadher, “ANALYSIS OF HEAT TRANSFER IN CONICAL SHELL AND CIRCULAR TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
A synopsis.”

[21] “Thermal Conductivity - Definition and Detailed Explanation.” https://byjus.com/chemistry/thermal-

conductivity/ (accessed Dec. 01, 2022).

[22] “Top 10 Thermally Conductive Materials.”

https://thermtest.com/thermal-resources/top-10-resources/top-10-thermally-conductive-materials
(accessed Dec. 01, 2022).

[23] “What is a normal EGT range of a jet engine? - Aviation Stack Exchange.”
https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/20739/what-is-a-normal-egt-range-of-a-jet-engine
(accessed Nov. 30, 2022).

[24] “jet engine - What are the mass flow rate and exhaust velocity for a CF6 or GE90 turbofan? - Aviation
Stack Exchange.” https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/35046/what-are-the-mass-flow-rate-
and-exhaust-velocity-for-a-cf6-or-ge90-turbofan (accessed Nov. 30, 2022).

[25] O. de Almeida, P. C. Souza, and E. Cunha, “A numerical approach for implementing air intakes in a
canard type aircraft for engine cooling purposes,” Journal of Aerospace Technology and Management,
vol. 13, pp. 1–18, 2021, doi: 10.1590/JATM.V13.1192.

[26] “Schematic of a fin–tube heat exchanger | Download Scientific Diagram.”

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-of-a-fin-tube-heat-exchanger_fig1_236009504
(accessed Dec. 04, 2022).