Chapter 4: Network Layer

 4. 1 Introduction  4.4 Routing algorithms

 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state

datagram networks  Distance Vector

 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 IP: Internet
Protocol
 Datagram format
 IPv4 addressing
 NAT
 ICMP
 IPv6

Network Layer 4-1

4.1 Network layer
 on sending side encapsulates
segments into datagrams application
transport
network
data link network
 on rcving side, delivers physical
network data link network
physical
segments to transport layer
data link data link
physical physical
network
data link
network
 network layer protocols in
physical
data link
physical
every host, router
network
network data link
data link physical
physical
 Router examines header fields network

in all IP datagrams passing data link

physical
application
transport

through it network
data link
physical

Network Layer 4-2

Key Network-Layer Functions

 forwarding: move analogy:

packets from router’s
input to appropriate  routing: process of
router output planning trip from
source to dest
 routing: determine
route taken by  forwarding: process
packets from source of correct left turns,
to dest. right turns, exits,
etc.
 Routing algorithms

Network Layer 4-3

Interaction between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-4

Connection setup
 important function in some network
architectures:
 ATM

 Before datagrams flow, two hosts and

intervening routers establish virtual
connection
 Routers get involved

 Network and transport layer cnctn service:

 Network: between two hosts
 Transport: between two processes
Network Layer 4-5
Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel” transporting
datagrams from sender to rcvr?

Example services for Example services for a

individual datagrams: flow of datagrams:
 guaranteed delivery  In-order datagram
 Guaranteed delivery delivery
with less than 40 msec  Guaranteed minimum
delay bandwidth to flow

Network Layer 4-6

4.2 Virtual circuit and datagram networks

Network layer connection and connection-less service

 Datagram network provides network-layer

connectionless service
 VC network provides network-layer
connection service
 Analogous to the transport-layer services,
but:
 Service: host-to-host
 No choice: network provides one or the other
 Implementation: in the core

Network Layer 4-7

Virtual circuits
“source-to-dest path behaves much like telephone
circuit”
 performance-wise
 network actions along source-to-dest path

 call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
 each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
 every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for
each passing connection
 link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC

Network Layer 4-8

VC implementation
A VC consists of:
1. Path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along path
3. Entries in forwarding tables in routers along path
Example next slide

 Packet belonging to VC carries a VC number.

 VC number must be changed on each link.

 New VC number comes from forwarding table
Network Layer 4-9
 Forwarding table VC number

12 22 32

1 3
2

Forwarding table in interface

number
northwest router:
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #

1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …

Routers maintain connection state information!

Network Layer 4-10
Virtual circuits: signaling protocols

 used to setup, maintain teardown VC

 used in ATM
 not used in today’s Internet

application
6. Receive data application
transport 5. Data flow begins
network 4. Call connected 3. Accept call transport
data link 1. Initiate call 2. incoming call network
data link
physical
physical

Network Layer 4-11

Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”

 packets forwarded using destination host address

 packets between same source-dest pair may take
different paths

application
application
transport
transport
network
data link 1. Send data 2. Receive data network
data link
physical
physical

Network Layer 4-12

 4 billion
Forwarding table possible entries

Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

Network Layer 4-13

Longest prefix matching
Prefix Match Link Interface
11001000 00010111 00010 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 1
11001000 00010111 00011 2
otherwise 3

Examples

DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 Which interface?

DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 Which interface?

Network Layer 4-14

Datagram or VC network: why?

Internet ATM
 data exchange among  evolved from telephony
computers
 human conversation:
 “elastic” service, no strict
 strict timing, reliability
timing req.
requirements
 “smart” end systems
 need for guaranteed
(computers)
service
 can adapt, perform
control, error recovery
 simple inside network,
complexity at “edge”
 many link types
 different characteristics
 uniform service difficult
Network Layer 4-15
 Chapter – 4
Network Layer

Lecture -2

IPV4 Addressing

Network Layer 4-16

 The Internet Network layer
Host, router network layer functions:

Transport layer: TCP, UDP

Routing protocols IP protocol

•path selection •addressing conventions
•RIP, OSPF, BGP •datagram format
Network
layer forwarding
ICMP protocol
table
•error reporting
•router “signaling”

Link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-17

 4.3 IP Fragmentation & Reassembly
 network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) - largest
possible link-level frame.
 different link types, fragmentation:
different MTUs in: one large datagram
 large IP datagram divided out: 3 smaller datagrams
(“fragmented”) within net
 one datagram becomes
several datagrams
reassembly
 “reassembled” only at final
destination
 IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments

Network Layer 4-18

 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
Example =4000 =x =0 =0
 4000 byte
One large datagram becomes
datagram several smaller datagrams
 MTU = 1500 bytes
length ID fragflag offset
=1500 =x =1 =0
1480 bytes in
data field length ID fragflag offset
=1500 =x =1 =185
offset =
1480/8 length ID fragflag offset
=1040 =x =0 =370

Network Layer 4-19

4.4 IP Addressing: introduction
 IP address: 32-bit 223.1.1.1

identifier for host, 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2
router interface 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 interface: connection
223.1.2.2
between host/router 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

and physical link

 router’s typically have
multiple interfaces 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
 host typically has one
interface
 IP addresses
associated with each 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
interface
223 1 1 1

Network Layer 4-20

 IP Addressing: introduction
 The address in the network layer of the TCP/IP model is called
Internet Address or IP address and has 32-bit length or Consists
of 4 octets (bytes)
 The IP addresses are unique and universal (must be accepted
by any host wants to connect to the internet).

Network + Host: Complete IP address

Network ID: identifies the network to which the host is connected
Host ID: identifies the interface of the network connection to the host.
Address Classification five classes: A, B, C, D, and E.
Table 1 Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 addressing

Table 2 Default masks for classful addressing

Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)

 Address Classification method

Example – 1 :- Find the class of each address:

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11110011 10011011 11111011 00001111
c. 227.12.14.87
d. 252.5.15.111
e. 134.11.78.56
 Blocks in class A

Millions of class A addresses are wasted.

Number of complete IP addresses in each block is 2net bit – (all zeros host -
network address, and all ones – broadcast address)
 Blocks in class B

Many class B addresses are wasted.

 Blocks in class C

The number of addresses in class C block is smaller than the needs of

most organizations.
 Network address

In classful addressing, the network address is the one that is assigned

to the organization.
Example - 2
Given the address 23.56.7.91 and 132.6.17.85, find the network
address.
Solution : -1
The class is A. Only the first byte defines the netid. We can find the
network address by replacing the hostid bytes (56.7.91) with 0s. Therefore,
the network address is 23.0.0.0.

Solution : -2
The class is B. The first 2 bytes defines the netid. We can find the network
address by replacing the hostid bytes (17.85) with 0s. Therefore, the
network address is 132.6.0.0.
Default masks
In Dotted-
Class In Binary Using Slash
Decimal

A 11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000 255.0.0.0 /8

B 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 255.255.0.0 /16

C 11111111 111111111 11111111 00000000 255.255.255.0 /24

• The network address can be found by applying the

default mask to any address in the block (including
itself).

• It retains the netid of the block and sets the hostid to 0s.
 Example – 3a

• Figure below shows a block of addresses, in both binary and

dotted-decimal notation, granted to a small business that needs 16
addresses.
• The addresses are contiguous. The number of addresses is a power
of 2 (16 = 24), and the first address is divisible by 16.

Figure. A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization

Note

In IPv4 addressing, a block of

addresses can be defined as
x.y.z.t /n
in which x.y.z.t defines one of the
addresses and the /n defines the mask.

The first address in the block can be

found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 0s.
 Example -3b

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization.

We know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28.
What is the first address in the block?

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or
205.16.37.32.
This is actually the block shown in Figure .
 Note

The last address in the block can be

found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 1s.
Example -3c
Find the last address for the block in previous Example.
Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111 or
205.16.37.47
This is actually the block shown in Figure.
 Note

The number of addresses in the block

can be found by using the formula
232−n.

Find the number of addresses in Example .

Solution
The value of n is 28, which means that number
of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.
 Example -3d

Another way to find the first address, the last address, and
the number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32-
bit binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number. In previous
Example the /28 can be represented as
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000
(twenty-eight 1s and four 0s).

Find
a. The first address
b. The last address
c. The number of addresses.
 Example -3d(continued)

Solution
a. The first address can be found by ANDing the given
addresses with the mask. ANDing here is done bit by
bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1 if both bits are 1s;
the result is 0 otherwise.
 Example -3d (continued)

b. The last address can be found by ORing the given

addresses with the complement of the mask. ORing
here is done bit by bit. The result of ORing 2 bits is 0 if
both bits are 0s; the result is 1 otherwise. The
complement of a number is found by changing each 1
to 0 and each 0 to 1.
 Example-3d (continued)
c. The number of addresses can be found by
complementing the mask, interpreting it as a decimal
number, and adding 1 to it.

Figure A network configuration for the block 205.16.37.32/28

Subnetting
 Subnetting
 Dividing the network into several smaller groups (subnets) with
each group having its own subnet IP address

 Host portion of address partitioned into subnet number (most

significant part) and host number (least significant part)

 In this case, IP address will have 3 levels (Main network, subnet,

host)

 Subnet mask when ANDed with the IP address it gives the

subnetwork address
 Basic Idea of Subnetting
 Split the host number portion of an IP address into a
subnet number and a (smaller) host number.
 Result is a 3-layer hierarchy
network prefix host number

network prefix subnet number host number

extended network prefix

 Then:
 Subnets can be freely assigned within the organization
 Internally, subnets are treated as separate networks
 Subnet structure is not visible outside the organization
IP addressing: the last word...

Q: How does an ISP get block of addresses?

A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers
 allocates addresses
 manages DNS
 assigns domain names, resolves disputes

Network Layer 4-45

 NAT: Network Address Translation

rest of local network

Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7

10.0.0.3

All datagrams leaving local Datagrams with source or

network have same single source destination in this network
NAT IP address: 138.76.29.7, have 10.0.0/24 address for
different source port numbers source, destination (as usual)

Network Layer 4-46

 NAT: Network Address Translation

 Motivation: local network uses just one IP address as

far as outside world is concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one IP
address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
 devices inside local net NOT explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus).

Network Layer 4-47

 NAT: Network Address Translation
Implementation: NAT router must:

 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #)

of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new
port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP
address, new port #) as destination addr.

 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP

address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #)
translation pair

 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port

#) in dest fields of every incoming datagram with
corresponding (source IP address, port #) stored in
NAT table
Network Layer 4-48
 NAT: Network Address Translation
NAT translation table
2: NAT router 1: host 10.0.0.1
WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
source addr from
…… ……
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001, S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
updates table D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345 4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: Reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

Network Layer 4-49

NAT: Network Address Translation

 16-bit port-number field:

 60,000 simultaneous connections with a single
LAN-side address!
 NAT is controversial:
 routers should only process up to layer 3
 violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by app
designers, eg, P2P applications
 address shortage should instead be solved by
IPv6

Network Layer 4-50