ER 411: Rail Systems Design

Track Structural Design

 Introduction
The current practice for designing the railway track is
based upon satisfying several criteria for the strength of
individual components.
 Some of the important criteria are :
(1) allowable rail bending stress
(2) allowable sleeper bending stress
(3) allowable ballast pressure
(4) allowable subgrade pressure.
 These criteria are generally evaluated in sequence as
shown in Figure 1.
 The purpose of establishing these criteria is to reduce
the amount of track damage caused by particular track
responses (Table 1).
Fig.1: Flow chart for
conventional
ballasted track
structure design
(Prauset al. 1974)
Table 1. Relationship Between Track Response and Track Damage
Track Response Track damage
Rail head contact stresses Rail batter and shelling

Rail shear forces and web Web and bolt hole failures
shear
Rail bending moments Rail fracture and fatigue

Sleeper loads Ballast and Sleepers

Track displacement Ballast

 1. RAIL ANALYSIS
 The starting points for determining the suitability of a
particular rail to carry out its function of withstanding the
applied vehicular loading is to do the following:
(1) Calculate the design wheel loading
(2) Calculate the rail bending stresses caused by the wheel
loading, using the beam as an elastic foundation.

 The rail bending stress is usually calculated at the centre

of the rail base, but the stress at the lower edge of the
rail head may be critical if the vehicles impose high
guiding forces during curving between the wheel flange
and rail head.
 Temperature stresses induced in the rail are then
calculated, and the total combined rail stress is
compared with the allowable stress, based upon fatigue
considerations.
 Having satisfied the bending stress criteria the rail is
evaluated for excessive vertical deflection under the
imposed design loading.

 The rail is then analysed to establish its capacity to

withstand the contact stresses at the point of wheel-
rail interaction.
 The track component that most seriously limits the
progression to higher axle loads in railway operations is
the rail itself.
 The selection of the ultimate strength of the rail
steel has a significant influence upon the operating life
of the rail in service.
 The track panel is further analysed for buckling and
lateral track stability under the expected in-service
conditions.
 Finally an estimate of the rate of rail head wear can be
calculated to determine the expected life of the rail
under particular operating conditions
(a) The Design Vertical Wheel Load

 The nominal vehicle axle load is usually measured

under static condition, but in the design of railway track
the actual stresses in the various components of the
track structure and in the rolling stock must be
determined from the dynamic vertical and lateral forces
imposed by the design vehicle moving at a given speed.
 The dynamic wheel loads cause increases in the rail
stress values above those of the static condition due to
the following factors:
 lateral bending of the rail
 eccentric vertical loading
 transfer of the wheel loads due to the rolling action of
the vehicles
 vertical impact of wheel on rail due to speed
 irregularities and non-uniformities in the track and the
wheel and rail profiles.

The general method used in the determination of the

design vertical wheel load, 𝑭𝒅 , is to express it as a function
of the static wheel load, 𝑭𝒔 , as follows:

𝐹𝑑 = 𝛷 𝐹𝑠 (N) [1]

Where 𝛷 is the dimensionless impact factor (>1).

o Several formulae are used to determine the impact factor
(see table 2)
Table 2. Impact Factor Formulae
Standard Impact Factor
Indian 𝑽
∅=𝟏+
𝟓𝟖. 𝟏𝟒 (𝒌)𝟎.𝟓
𝟎.𝟓
British Rail 𝟖. 𝟕𝟖𝟒 𝑽𝟐 𝜶𝟏 + 𝜶𝟐 𝑽 𝑫𝒋 𝑭𝒖
∅=𝟏+
𝑭𝒔 𝒈

South Africa 𝑽
∅ = 𝟏 + 𝟒. 𝟗𝟐
𝑫

German 𝑽𝟐
∅=𝟏+ for v upto 100 km/hr
𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟒

𝟒.𝟓 𝑽𝟐 𝟏.𝟓 𝑽𝟑
∅=𝟏 − for v > 100 km/hr
𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟕

AREA 𝑽
∅ = 𝟏 + 𝟓. 𝟐𝟏
𝑫

AREA: American Railroad Engineering Association

where Fu = unsprung weight at one wheel (kN),
Dj = track stiffness at the joints (kN/mm),
g = gravitational constant (m/s),
(𝛼1 + 𝛼2 ) = total rail joint dip angle (radians)
V = vehicle speed (km/h).
D = wheel diameter (mm).
k = track modulus (MPa)

 The relationship between the maximum value of the

impact factor and the train speed I shown in Fig. 2 for
various standards of track.
Fig.2: Impact
factor vs
train speed
for various
track classes
(b) The Design Lateral Wheel Load
• The magnitude of the lateral guiding force, H, imposed
on the rail head can be considered to be dependent
upon the following:
 the curve radius of the track
 the vehicle speed
 the length of the vehicle wheelbase and its bogie
configuration
 the tracking motion of vehicles in the train consist

 It can be seen that the lateral guide force is more

dependent upon the curve radius than the vehicle
speed.
 According to ORE ( International Union of Railways), the
magnitude of the lateral force H(kN), caused by the
wheel flanges of locomotives contacting the rail head
when negotiating curves is dependent only upon the
radius of the curve R(m).
 It is based upon the observed maximum envelope of
experimental results for all vehicles and is expressed as:
𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑯 = 𝟑𝟓 + [2]
𝑹
 If the radius of curvature is kept constant, then the mean
lateral force is determined as:
𝑽
𝑯𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 𝟏𝟕 + [3]
𝟐𝟕. 𝟔
(c) Location of the Maximum Stresses in the Rail Section

 The location of the maximum

rail stresses are shown in Fig.3.
 The evaluation of each point
must satisfy the corresponding
design criteria for the
allowable rail stress.

Fig. 3: Areas of maximum stresses in

rail section
A, B, C : areas of critical stress.
F and H: applied vertical and horizontal
wheel loads
 The maximum shear stress occurring in the web is not
usually considered due to that it is unlikely that the
rail will be subjected to a shear failure (unless there is
an occurrence of a rail fatigue defect, e.g. transverse
defect).

Stress at Point A
 The bending stress which occurs at the centre of the rail
base (point A) is independent of the magnitude of the
guide force and the eccentricity of the point of attack of
the wheel.
 The design criteria for this bending stress is established
to prevent the occurrence of cracks in the rail base.
Stress at Point B
 The bending stress at the lower edge of the rail head
(point B) is important in the evaluation of plastic
deformation of the rail head in the horizontal direction.

Stress at Point C
 High values of rail shearing stress are generated near
the contact point between the rail and the wheel (point
C) as a result of constant repetitive load introduction.
 When the fatigue strength is exceeded, fracture of the
rail head occurs.
 This is commonly termed shelling of the rail head.
The Rail Considered as a Beam On A Continuous Linear
Elastic Foundation
 In order to facilitate the calculation of the rail bending
stress at the centre of the rail base and also the amount
of vertical rail deflection under load, the concept of the
rail considered as a beam on a continuous linear elastic
foundation is used.
 The concept of a foundation modulus to represent rail
support was first introduced by Winkler in 1867, when
he analysed the rail as an infinite beam supported on a
continuous linear elastic foundation.
 The differential equation for the bending theory of an
elastic beam from Fig.4(a) is given by the Winkler
equation as:
Fig.4a: Equilibrium position of a deformed beam subjected to load
q(x)
Fig.4b: Representation of a continuously supported infinite beam
on an elastic foundation subjected to load q(x)
 𝑑4 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 4 + 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑞(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑4 𝑦
or 𝐸𝐼 4 + 𝑘𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥) [4]
𝑑𝑥

Where y(x) = vertical deflection at x

q(x) = distributed vertical load
EI = flexural rigidity of the rail
p(x) = continuous contact pressure between the
sleeper and ballast
p(x) = ky(x), where k is the modulus of the
foundation.
 The Winkler equation may be represented as the
response of an infinite beam attached to a spring base,
subjected to a load q(x) , Fig.4.
 Since the rail is subjected to wheel loads, which are
concentrated loads, the relevant solution to Winkler's
equation is stated in terms of the design wheel load ,F,
instead of a distributed load q(x).
 The solution of the rail deflection, rail shear force and
rail bending moment at any position x, (x positive), from
the load point are:
(i) Rail Deflection, y(x)

𝑭𝜷𝒆−𝜷𝒙
𝒚 𝒙 = (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷𝒙) [5]
𝟐𝒌
(ii) Rail Shear Force, V(x)
𝑭𝒆−𝜷𝒙
V 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷𝒙 [6]
𝟐

(iii) Rail Bending Moment, Mx

𝑭𝒆−𝜷𝒙
𝑴𝒙 = (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷𝒙 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒙) [7]
𝟒. 𝜷

 β includes the flexural rigidity of the beam and the

elasticity of the supporting medium
 β is an important factor influencing the shape of the
elastic beam and is called the characteristic of the
system. It is measured in (𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)−1 .
 the product βx is a dimensionless number, where β is
given as:
𝒌 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
β= [8]
𝟒𝑬𝑰

where k = track modulus (MPa)

E = Young's modulus of the rail steel (MPa)
I = rail moment of inertia (𝑚𝑚4 )
Track modulus, k.

 Track modulus, like the modulus of elasticity, is an

index of measurement of resistance to deformation.
 It is defined as the load in kilograms per unit rail length
required to produce one unit depression in the rail
bottom. The unit of track modulus is MPa or 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 .
 The continuous support deflections, shown in Fig.5(c),
can be approximated by a series of stepped
deflections, considered to be constant over the length
of the sleeper spacing.
 This stepped deflection curve is presented in Fig.5(d).
Using this assumption the sleeper spacing can be
introduced into the expression to determine the rail
support parameter
Fig.5: Modelling of
foundation deflection
properties

Legend:
S = Sleeper Spacing
n, k, m = Sleeper Location
away from Loaded Sleeper

Fs = Known Static Wheel

Load
 For the case of a single rail, k is expressed as:

𝑭𝒔
𝒌= [9]
𝒚. 𝒔.

where Fs = known static wheel load on each rail (kN),

y = total measured rail support deflection (mm),
s = sleeper spacing (mm).

 The main factors influencing the value of the track

modulus, k, are:
(i) the sleeper spacing, dimensions and quality
(ii) the quality, depth and degree of compaction of the
ballast layer which defines the solidarity of the track
construction
(ii) the quality, depth and degree of compaction of the
ballast layer which defines the solidarity of the track
construction

(iii) the subgrade quality and the degree of its compaction

which determines the strength of the foundation

(iv) the rail size affects the load distribution of adjacent

sleepers in the track panel
Table 3
Table 4
 CALCULATION OF BENDING STRESSES
AT THE BASE OF THE RAIL (point A)

 Using the beam on an elastic foundation analysis under

the action of a single design wheel load, the rail bending
moment M (Nm) at a distance x (m) from the load point
is calculated using equation [7].
 A master diagram (Hay, 1953) has been developed, for
the case of a single point load, which relates the
bending moment under the load point Mo (Nm), to the
rail bending moment at any other location (Fig.6).

 The rail bending moment under the load point is the

maximum for the single load case and is expressed
as:

𝑭
𝑴𝒐 = [10]
𝟒𝜷
Fig. 6: Master diagram for moments, pressure intensity and rail
depression under a single wheel load.
 The distance x1(m) is that distance to the position of
zero rail bending moment from the point of load
application and is given by:
𝝅 𝟏 [11]
𝒙𝟏 = .
𝟒 𝜷

 For the actual track loading conditions, the rail at any

point will be subjected to a combination of bending
moments caused by the interaction of adjacent wheel
loads.
 The total length of this zone of interaction is approx. a
distance 6x1, to the left and right of the load point, for
the case of a single point load (Fig.6).
 Using the principle of super-position the rail bending
moment, M, under a particular wheel including the
rail bending moments due to the interaction of adjacent
wheels is:
𝒊=𝒏 [12]
𝑴= 𝒊=𝟎 𝑭𝒙𝒊 𝑨𝒙𝒊

Where i = 0,1,2,……,n = number of adjacent wheels in

interaction. io is reference wheel
xi = distance to adjacent wheels from reference
wheel (Fig.7)
Fxi = wheel load at distance xi from reference
wheel
Axi = rail bending moment coefficient
𝒆−𝜷𝒙𝒊
𝑨𝒙𝒊 = (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙𝒊 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙𝒊 )
𝟒𝜷
 It can clearly be seen that the maximum rail bending
moment depends to a large extent upon the axle
spacing

 Some railway operators restrict the length of the vehicle

wheel base to less than 6x1, thereby reducing the
occurrence of numerous fully unloaded cycles in the rail
during the passage of a train.

 This is an important consideration in the fatigue life of a

rail.
Note: X1< X2< X3 < X4 < 6x1

Fig.7: General load

interaction diagram
for the calculation of
maximum rail
bending moment
and deflection
 The maximum rail stress at the centre of a rail base 𝝈𝒃
is calculated as follows:
𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝝈𝒃 = [13]
𝒛𝒐

where 𝝈𝒃 = maximum rail bending moment (Nm)

Zo = section modulus of the rail relative to the rail
base (𝑚𝑚3 )
Allowable Rail Bending Stress at the Rail Base
 Several methods are currently used by railway
oganisations for evaluating the maximum allowable rail
bending stress at the rail base.
 Adopted here is the general method by the American
Railway Engineering Association (AREA).
 The AREA (1973) recommended that the acceptable rail
stress for continuous welded rail be established at the
rail base.
 The current procedures limit the allowable rail bending
stress in the rail base to implicitly avoid fatigue
cracking.
 It is suggested that the value of the allowable rail
bending stress should not exceed 50 per cent of the rail
yield stress, 𝜎𝑦 .
 Although the value of the design load F contains the
amplification effect of the impact factor which implicitly
includes the effects of locomotives, track condition etc.,
the allowable rail bending stress makes further
reductions for these and other factors.
 The allowable rail bending stress should be below the
elastic limit (or yield stress) of the rail steel in order to
account for any variability in the rail support, the wheel
loading or other existing service conditions, which may
result in excessive rail bending stresses in the inelastic
domain, or in the worst case, actual rail fracture.
 The general approach for calculating the allowable
bending stress in the rail, 𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍 , relies on the application
of various factors of safety.
 𝝈 𝒚 − 𝝈𝒕
𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍 = [14]
𝟏 + 𝑨 𝟏 + 𝑩 𝟏 + 𝑪 (𝟏 + 𝑫)

where 𝝈𝒚 = yield stress of the rail steel (MPa),

𝝈𝒕 = temperature induced stress in the rail (MPa),
A = stress factor for lateral bending of rail ,
B = stress factor for track conditions,
C = stress factor for rail wear and corrosion,
D = stress factor for unbalanced superelevation
of track.
 The recommended values of these stress reduction
factors are (Magee, 1965):

(A) Lateral Bending:

• Due to wheel loading having a horizontal component
that produces bending of the rail in a horizontal plane,
a lateral bending stress is produced in the base of
the rail which is additive to the vertical bending stress
on one side or the other.
• A value of 20 percent is considered adequate for lateral
bending at all speeds.
(B) Track Condition:
• Due to occurrence of mechanically worn, deteriorated,
or low sleepers, increased rail bending stresses can be
induced. Standard of maintenance or the attention
which is given to proper sleeper support determines
extent to which rail stresses increase as a result of track
condition.
• A factor of 25 percent is adequate to provide for effect
of track condition at all speeds in mainline track and 35
percent in branch line track.
Temperature Stresses:
 In jointed rail track, the temperature stresses of
concern will be tensile stresses in winter due to joint
bar resistance to rail slippage augmented by rail anchor
restraints.
 Temperature induced rail tensile stress should not
exceed 69 MPa and 34.5 Mpa for mainline and branch
line rails respectively.
 With continuous welded rail, an allowance of 138 MPa is
recommended in order to account for the rail dropping
to a temperature of 38 deg.celsius below the laying
temperature.

(c) Rail Wear:

 On the outer rail of curves an allowance should be made
for reduction in strength due to loss of area by wheel
flange wear and corrosion.
 A study of the section modulus about the base of typical
curve worn sections indicates that an allowance of 15
percent is adequate.
(D) Unbalanced Elevation:
 On curves, AREA limit speed of operation to account for
a 75 mm of unbalanced elevation.
 For a height of the centre of gravity of a vehicle of 2.13
m, this would result in an increase in wheel load on the
outer rail of 15 per cent.

Wheel flats
 These are a form of wheel defect resulting from the
wheels sliding along the rails during inefficient braking.
 These flats apply dangerous impacts on the rails, while
the wheels roll along.
 Further dangers for the rail are due to rail or brake block
material being built up on the wheel surface during slow
 slippage of wheels (material welded onto the wheel
tread surface).
 This poses danger to rails and track stability, thus
affecting the life of the wheel sets and the vehicles in
general.
 European agreement limits the versine of depth of
wheel flats to 1 mm, and the flat length to not more
than 85 mm.
Allowable Fatigue Bending Stresses At The Centre Of The
Rail Base

 The highest rail flange stress 𝝈𝑹 is caused by vertical

and simultaneously acting horizontal forces
 It is approx. 1.4 to 1.6 times the stress at the centre of
the rail flange, 𝝈𝑹 , under vertical wheel load alone.
 Taking into account the longitudinal rail stress arising
from temperature fluctuations, the maximum
combined stress in the rail is limited as follows:

𝟏. 𝟔 𝝈𝒃 + 𝝈𝒕 ≤ 𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍 + 𝝈𝒚 [15]

where 𝝈𝒃 = calculated rail stress at centre of rail base

𝝈𝒕 = longitudinal stress in the rail arising from
temperature changes
 Having determined that the allowable bending stress
at the centre of the rail base is not exceeded for a
particular rail section, the rail is further analysed for its
capacity to withstand the expected lateral loads in
service.
 CALCULATION OF THE RAIL BENDING STRESS AT THE
LOWER EDGE OF THE RAIL HEAD (point B)

 The magnitude of the rail bending stress at

the lower edge of the rail head (point B) is
dependent upon the magnitude of the
lateral guiding forces imposed on the rail
head.

 An additional tensile bending stress has to be added to

the usual tensile bending stress calculated at point A.
 This is due to the non-uniform shape of the rail profile
and also that the wheel force acts eccentrically and in
the horizontal direction.
 Combining the applied rail head load due to the
eccentric and skew wheel load application, the stress at
point B ie 𝝈𝑲 , is determined as:

𝝈𝑲 = 𝝈𝑭 + ∆𝝈𝟏 + ∆𝝈𝟐,𝑭 + ∆𝝈𝟐,𝑯 + 𝝈𝑯 [16]

Where, 𝝈𝑭 = stress due to vertical load applied centrally,

∆𝝈𝟏 = additional bending stress caused by a
centrally applied force due to the
discontinuity effects at the rail web,
∆𝝈𝟐,𝑭 = additional bending stress caused by the
torsional moment due to the eccentricity of
the axle load, F
∆𝝈𝟐,𝑯 = additional bending stress caused by the torsional
moment due to the eccentricity of the guiding
force H,
𝝈𝑯 = bending stress due to the horizontal guiding force
applied at the fulcrum.

How to determine 𝝈𝑭
 𝝈𝑭 is the stress at the lower edge of the rail head and is
due to an equivalent centrally located vertical design
wheel load, F, given as:
𝝈𝑭 = 𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 . 𝝀 𝟏 [17]

Where 𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 = maximum bending moment (Nm)

 𝐶1
λ1 = 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚𝑚)−3 =
𝐼
𝐶1 = height of the position of the lower edge of the rail
head above the neutral axis of the rail (mm)
I = moment of inertia of the rail (𝑚𝑚)4
How to determine ∆ 𝝈𝟏

 𝝈𝟏 is the additional bending stress caused by the

disturbance of the rail section where the web meets
the rail head edge is calculated as:
∆𝝈𝟏 = 𝝀𝟐 . 𝑭 [18]

Where F = design wheel load (N)

𝐶1
λ2 = 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚𝑚)−2 =
𝐼
 𝒂𝟐 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
𝟐. 𝟑 𝐥𝐧
𝒂𝟏 [19]
𝝀𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟓
𝟑 𝒃𝟑 . 𝒂𝟒𝟏 . 𝒅

where 𝑎1 = average rail head height (mm),

𝑎2 = height of rail head + web (mm) ,
b = mean rail head width( mm),
d = web thickness (mm).

How to determine ∆𝝈𝟐

 ∆𝝈𝟐 is the additional bending stress caused by the
torsional moment, and is calculated as:
∆𝝈𝟐 = 𝝀𝟑 . 𝑴𝒕 [20]
where 𝑀𝑡 = applied torsional moment to the rail (Nm)
𝑀𝑡 = 𝐻. ℎ − 𝐹. 𝑒 = 𝑀1 + 𝑀2

H = lateral guiding force (N) ,

F = design wheel load (N) ,
h = distance between the position of the loading
point of the lateral force and the fulcrum, (m)
e = eccentricity of the vertical force (m),

𝑀1 = rail section torsional resistance (St. Venant's

torsion),
𝑀2 = torsional - bending resistance of the rail head
and rail flange, (i.e. warping torsion).
λ3 = rail section parameter (𝑚𝑚)−3
 𝑬. 𝒉 𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒆𝒂𝑺 ) 𝒃
𝝀𝟑 = . 𝒂𝑺
. [21]
𝟐 𝑮𝑰𝒑 𝟏 + 𝒆 𝟐

where E = Young's Modulus of the rail steel (MPa) ,

G = Shear Modulus of the rail steel (MPa) ,
e = natural log base,
b = mean width of rail head (m)
S = distance between the rail supports (mm) (i.e. the
sleeper spacing)
Ip = polar moment of inertia of the rail (𝑚𝑚4 ),
𝑰𝒑 = 𝑰𝒑(𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅) + 𝑰𝒑(𝒘𝒆𝒃) + 𝑰𝒑(𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆)

𝟎.𝟓
𝑮. 𝑰𝒑
𝐚=
𝑬. 𝑰𝑯 𝒉𝑯 + 𝒉 𝑭 . 𝒉𝑯
• The distances ℎ𝐻 (mm) and ℎ𝐹 (mm) refer to the
distances from the neutral axis of the centroid of the rail
head and rail flange.

How to determine 𝝈𝑯
 The bending stress 𝝈𝑯 at the lower edge of the rail
head due to the lateral guiding force H applied at the
fulcrum is:
𝝈𝑯 = 𝝀𝟒 . H [22]

𝝀𝟒 = rail section parameter (𝑚𝑚−2 )

𝐼𝐻 𝑆
= .
𝐼𝐻 + 𝐼𝐹 4𝑍ℎ
𝑧ℎ = horizontal bending resistance moment of the rail head
2 𝐼𝐻
= (𝑚𝑚3 )
𝑏

WHEEL TO RAIL CONTACT STRESS CONSIDERATIONS

(point C)
 High values of contact stress and shear
stress are generated at the wheel/rail
contact zone (point C), due to heavy
vehicle wheel loads.
 Because of the ever changing demands of
railway freight operations, it is important
to determine the maximum wheel loads
that a particular rail (and or track) can
carry before irreversible rail head damage
 The calculation of the applied force at which rail head
shelling and problems of a similar nature will occur is of
fundamental importance.
 Several methods have been developed to place limits
upon the vehicle wheel loads. These include the simple
P /D ratio, applied Hertzian theory and shakedown
considerations.

Calculation of Wheel/Rail Contact Stresses and Maximum

Allowable Shear Stress (Applied Hertzian Theory)
 In the immediate vicinity of the contact point between
wheel and rail, the principal stresses are very high, with
the following assumed stress condition ooccurring:
𝝈𝟏 = 𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝟑 [23]
 Although the extreme values of the compressive
stresses exceed the ultimate tensile stress of the steel,
no failure occurs because the shear stresses vanish at
the surface, i.e:
τ𝟏 = τ𝟐 = τ𝟑 = 𝟎 [24]

 The compressive stresses lead to plastification and thus

to hardening of the steel in the top zones of the rail
head.
 With increasing depth below the rail surface the major
principal stress 𝝈𝟏 in the direction of the applied load
decreases slowly, whilst the minor principal stresses
𝝈𝟐 , 𝝈𝟑 decrease very rapidly.
Fig.8: Half space with a
strip load and the stress
distribution with depth

 As a result of this principal stress differential with

increasing rail head depth, a maximum value of shear
stress, amounting to approx. 30 percent of the specific
compressive contact stress 𝝈𝒄 at the surface, occurs at
a depth corresponding to half the contact length.
 It is assumed that the contact pressure is uniformly
distributed over the contact area and that the rail and
the wheel can be represented by a plane and a
cylinder.
 The contact length 2a (mm) is derived from Hertz‘s
formula and can be calculated as:
𝟎.𝟓
𝑭. 𝑹
𝟐𝒂 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟒 [25]
𝟐𝒃. 𝑬
where F = vertical wheel load (N) ,
R = wheel radius (mm) ,
E = Young‘s Modulus of rail steel (MPa),
2b = breadth of contact area (mm);
(Normally 2b = 12 mm)
 Due to the compressive stress being assumed to be
uniformly distributed over the contact surface, the
contact pressure 𝝈𝒄 can be calculated as:
𝑭
𝝈𝒄 = [26]
𝟐𝒂. 𝟐𝒃
 When the ratio of the contact pressure, 𝝈𝒄 to the rail
𝝈𝒄
yield strength, 𝝈𝒚 is such that < 𝟐. 𝟎, the useful life
𝝈𝒚
of the rail will be limited only by wear.
 Neglecting the effects of work hardening, total
plasticity at the contact surface occurs when
𝝈𝒄
≥ 3.0
𝝈𝒚
 From fatigue analysis, the allowable contact pressure
𝝈𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍 is:
𝝈𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝝈𝒖𝒕 [27]

where 𝜎𝑢𝑡 is the ultimate tensile strength of rail (MPa)

 The maximum value of the shear stress ,𝜏, is about 30

percent of the contact stress 𝜎𝑐 at the contact surface,
and this value occurs at a depth of a (half the length
of the contact surface).
 Thus the maximum shear stress in the rail head
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 can be calculated by:

𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝝈𝒄 [28]
 The relation between the allowable shear stress 𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍 and
the allowable normal stress 𝝈𝒄 𝒂𝒍𝒍
𝟏 [29]
𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝝈𝒄 𝒂𝒍𝒍
𝟑

 From fatigue considerations, therefore:

𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝝈𝒖𝒕 [30]

 A special type of fatigue failure, called shelling, may

occur if the rail head shear stress exceeds its allowable
value.
 Failure starts at rail head depths of 5 to 7.5 mm, where
the shear stress reaches a maximum.
 The rail yield stress can be exceeded by the occurrence
of extremely high wheel loads and the resulting shear
stress moves the material into the elastoplastic domain.
 Assuming that the breadth of the contact surface, 2b =
12 mm, preceding equations can be combined to
produce:
𝟎.𝟓
𝑭
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎 [31]
𝑹

 Fig 9 shows maximum shear stress in the rail head as a

function of wheel radius and wheel load.
Fig. Maximum shear stress
in the railhead as a
function of wheel radius
and wheel load
 The problem of excessive maximum shear stress in the
rail head can be solved by:
(i) reducing the wheel load
(ii) increasing the wheel radius
(iii) increasing the yield strength of the rail, 𝜎𝑦

 Once the shear strength of the rail steel, due to local

contact stress, is exceeded the effect of an increase in
the rail mass to prevent yielding from occurring will be
of little value.
 Rail quality, axle load and wheel diameter must
therefore be mutually adapted, and the rails should not
just be regarded as carriers.
 THE CRITICAL LATERAL FORCE REQUIRED TO SHIFT
THE TRACK
 High lateral forces between the wheel flange and the
rail head occur when vehicles travel around curves, and
these forces are redistributed to the track.
 The lateral resistance of any track, Ht can be expressed
in terms of the reference track, Ho
 The reference track is track with known conditions of
material, loading and sleeper spacing dimensions.
 Lateral resistance is thus:
𝟐𝑭 [32]
𝑯𝒕 = 𝒏𝒕 . 𝑯𝒐 = 𝒏𝒕 . ( 10 + )
𝟑

2𝐹
Where 𝐻𝑜 = 10 + ; 2F = axle load
3
 nt = dimensionless coefficient relating to lateral
strength of track.
= 0.85 for timber sleepered curved track at high track
temperatures;
= 1.10 for concrete slepeered track

 The critical lateral force Hc required to shift the track is

expressed as follows:
𝑯𝒄 = Г 𝑯 𝒕 [33]

Where Г is a dimensionless factor.

 0.125
𝑅𝑜 𝑘 𝜀𝑜 (𝐸𝐼𝑦 )0.25
Г = 1 − 𝜌𝑜 𝐴𝑟 ∆𝑡 1+ [34]
𝑅 𝑘𝑜 (𝐸𝐼𝑥 )0.125

𝜌𝑜 , 𝑅𝑜 , 𝐾𝑜 , 𝜀𝑜 are parameters relating to reference track

The other terms are:

𝐴𝑟 = cross sectional area of rail (𝑚2 )
∆𝑡 = temperature difference from base temperature (deg.C)
𝑅 = curve radius of track in question (m)
𝐼𝑦 = moment of inertia of rail in the transverse direction
(𝑚4 )
𝐼𝑥 = moment of inertia of rail in vertical direction (𝑚4 )
𝐸 = Young's modulus of rail steel (Pa )
𝑘 = track modulus of track
 CWR TRACK BUCKLING CONSIDERATIONS

 The longitudinal force, FB, required to buckle a CWR

track must overcome the buckling resistances of the rail,
rail fastener and the ballast, i.e:
𝑭𝑩 = 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 + 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
+ 𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰𝒔 𝝅𝟐 𝑪𝒕 𝝅𝒍𝒃 𝟎.𝟓 𝑾𝒍 .𝒍𝟐𝒃

𝑭𝑩 = + + [35]
𝒍𝟐𝒃 𝟏𝟔𝑺 𝒒𝒃 𝝅 𝟐 𝒒𝒃
where:
𝑰𝒔 = horizontal moment of inertia of two rails (𝑚𝑚4 )
E = Young’s modulus of rail steel (MPa)
𝑙𝑏 = length over which buckling is likely to occur (m),
S = sleeper spacing (m)
𝑞𝑏 = maximum misalignment occurring over length b (m)
𝐶𝑡 = torsional coefficient of the rail fastener (Nm/𝑟𝑎𝑑 −0.5 )
𝑊𝑙 = maximum lateral ballast resistance per sleeper (N/m)

 The expression 𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰𝒔

𝒍𝟐𝒃

represents that part of the track panel resistance

which relates to track acting as a composite strut.
 𝟎.𝟓
 The expression 𝝅𝟐 𝑪𝒕 𝝅𝒍𝒃
𝟏𝟔𝑺 𝒒𝒃
represents that part of the track panel resistance
relating to the torsional resistance of the rail fastener

𝑾𝒍 . 𝒍𝟐𝒃
 The expression 𝝅𝟐 𝒒𝒃

represents that part of the track panel resistance

relating to the ballast resistance of the track.

 The rail resistance is of the order of about 11-16 percent

of the total buckling resistance, whereas the rail fastener
resistance and the ballast resistance account for 13-37
percent and 50-70 percent respectively.
Fig. 10a: Fasteners used in fastener torsional resistance experiments
Fig. 10b: Fastening types used in fastener torsional
resistance experiments
Fig.11: 68 kg rail as adopted on Australian heavy haul railway
Table: Mechanical Properties for 68kg Rail
References
 Doyle, N.F., (1980), Railway Track Design: A Review of
Current Practice, BHP Melbourne Research
Laboratories, Australian Government Publishing
Service, Canberra.

 Chandra, S. and Agarwal, M.M, (2013), Railway

Engineering, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press
………………End………………

Thank You