The document discusses the topic of surveying, including its importance, definitions, types based on the shape of the earth and purpose, instruments used, units and scales of measurement, and principles of errors in measurement. Surveying involves measuring distances and angles to determine positions and layout new construction, accounting for curvature of the earth when needed. Errors cannot be eliminated but can be minimized, and include gross, systematic and random types.
The document discusses the topic of surveying, including its importance, definitions, types based on the shape of the earth and purpose, instruments used, units and scales of measurement, and principles of errors in measurement. Surveying involves measuring distances and angles to determine positions and layout new construction, accounting for curvature of the earth when needed. Errors cannot be eliminated but can be minimized, and include gross, systematic and random types.
The document discusses the topic of surveying, including its importance, definitions, types based on the shape of the earth and purpose, instruments used, units and scales of measurement, and principles of errors in measurement. Surveying involves measuring distances and angles to determine positions and layout new construction, accounting for curvature of the earth when needed. Errors cannot be eliminated but can be minimized, and include gross, systematic and random types.
The document discusses the topic of surveying, including its importance, definitions, types based on the shape of the earth and purpose, instruments used, units and scales of measurement, and principles of errors in measurement. Surveying involves measuring distances and angles to determine positions and layout new construction, accounting for curvature of the earth when needed. Errors cannot be eliminated but can be minimized, and include gross, systematic and random types.
1.1 Introduction Surveying has been important since the beginning of civilization. Today, the importance of measuring and monitoring our environment is becoming increasingly critical as our population expands, land values appreciates, our natural resources dwindle, and human activities continue to pollute our land, water and air. As a result, the breadth and diversity of practice of surveying, as well as its importance in modern civilization is increasing from time to time. Surveying is a discipline, which encompasses all methods for measuring, processing, and disseminating information about the physical earth and our environment.
1.2 Definition and Technical Terms
Surveying defined as the science of determining the position, in three dimensions, of natural and man-made features on or beneath the surface of the Earth. These features may be represented in analogue form as a contoured map, plan or chart, or in digital form such as a digital ground model (DGM).
In engineering surveying, either or both of the above formats may be used for planning, design and construction of works, both on the surface and underground. At a later stage, surveying techniques are used for dimensional control or setting out of designed constructional elements and also for monitoring deformation movements.
Simply stating, surveying involves the measurement of distances and angles. The distance may be horizontal or vertical in direction. Vertical distances are also called elevations. Similarly, the angles may be measured in horizontal and vertical plane. Horizontal angles are used to express the directions of land boundaries and other lines. There are two fundamental purposes for measuring distances and angles. The first is to determine the relative positions of existing points or objects on or near the surface of the earth. The second is to layout or mark the desired positions of new points or objects, which are to be placed or constructed on or near the surface of the earth. Surveying measurements must be made with precision in order to achieve a maximum of accuracy with a minimum expenditure of time and money. The practice of surveying is an art, because it is dependent up on the skills, judgments and experience of surveyor. It may also be
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considered as an applied science, because field and office procedures rely upon a systematic body of knowledge.
1.3 Types of Surveying
There are two types of surveying: based up on consideration of shape of earth.
A, Plane Surveying
B, Geodetic Surveying
1. Plane surveying
As mentioned earlier that most surveying measurements are carried out as if the surface of the earth were perfectly flat. The method of surveying based on this assumption is called plane surveying. In plane surveying, it is neglect the curvature of the earth, and it is used the principles of plane geometry and plane trigonometry to compute the result of our surveys. The use of plane surveying methods simplifies the work of surveyor. With in a distance of 20 km, the effect of earth’s curvature on our measurement is so small that we can hardly measure it. In other words, a horizontal distance measured between two points along a truly level line is, for practical purposes, the same distances measured along the straight chord connecting the two points.
N.B: In plane surveying horizontal lines are assumed to be straight line and all vertical lines are parallel.
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Fig.2.4. In plane surveying, the curvature of the earth is neglected, and vertical distances are measured with reference of a flat plane.
2. Geodetic surveying
A surveying, which takes the earth’s curvature in to account is called Geodetic survey. These types of surveys are usually considered by agencies like Geological Survey. Geodetic surveying methods are generally used to map large areas and to establish large-scale networks of points on the earth for horizontal and vertical control.
Classifications of survey based up on purpose to use
1. Topographic survey
It is performed in order to determine the relative positions of existing natural and constructed features on a tract of land (like ground elevation, bodies of water, roads, buildings etc.). It provides information on the “shape of the land” hills, valleys, ridges and general slope of the ground. The data’s obtained from a topographic surveys are plotted in a map called topographic map and the shape of the ground is shown with lines of equal elevation called contours.
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2. Construction survey
It is also called layout or location survey and performed in order to mark the positions of new points on the ground. These new points represent the location of building corners, road centerlines and other facilities that are to be built.
3. Route survey
It is performed in order to establish horizontal and vertical controls, to obtain topographic data, and to layout the position of high ways, railroads, pipe lines etc. The primary aspect of route surveying is that the project area is very narrow compared with its length, which can extend for many kilometers.
Other types of surveys
Hyrdraulic Survey: is a preliminary survey applied to a natural body of water, e.g. mapping of shorelines, harbor etc. Reconnaissance Survey: is a preliminary survey conducted to get rough data regarding a tract of land. Photogrammetric surveying: uses relatively accurate methods to convert aerial photographs in to useful topographic maps. 1.4 Types of instruments in surveying Theodolite Dumpy level Total station Optical square Levelling Plumb bob Ranging rod Plane table Measuring tape 3D scanning Level staff Photogrammetry Hand GPS Differential GPS Compass Tripod
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1.5 Units and Scale of Measurement
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Chapter Two Principles and Theory of Error No measurement can be perfect or exact because of the physical limitations of the measuring instrument as well as limits in human perception. The difference between a measured distance or angle and its true value may be due to mistakes and /or errors. These are two distinct terms. It is necessary to eliminate all mistakes and to minimize all errors when conducting a survey of any type. Mistakes may be caused by sighting on a wrong target with the transit when measuring an angle, a by tapping to an incorrect station. They also may be caused by omitting a vital piece of information, such as the fact that a certain measurement was made on a steep slope instead of horizontally. ERRORS: An error is the difference between a measured quantity and its true value, caused by imperfection in the measuring instrument, by the method of measurement, by natural factors such as temperature, or by random variation in human observation. It is not a mistake due to carelessness. Errors can never be completely eliminated, but they can be minimized by using certain instruments and field procedures and by applying computed correction factors. 2.1 Types of Errors Gross errors are, in fact, not errors at all, but results of mistakes that are due to the carelessness of the observer. The gross errors must be detected and eliminated from the survey measurements before such measurements can be used. Systematic errors follow some pattern and can be expressed by functional relationships based on some deterministic system. Like the gross errors, the systematic errors must also be removed from the measurements by applying necessary corrections. These are repetitive errors that are caused by imperfections in the surveying equipment, by the specific method of observation, or by certain environmental errors or cumulative errors Random errors After all mistakes and systematic errors have been detected and removed from the measurements, there will still remain some errors in the measurements, called the random errors or accidental errors. The random errors are treated using probability models. Theory of errors deals only with such type of observational errors.
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2.2Precision and accuracy
Accuracy and precision are two distinctly different terms, which are of importance in surveying. Surveying measurements must be made with an appropriate degree of precision in order to provide a suitable level of accuracy for the problem at hand. Since no measurement is perfect, the quality of result obtained must be characterized by some numerical standard of accuracy. Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in the measurement or how close the measurement is to the true value. When the accuracy of a survey is to be improved or increased, we say that greater precision must be used. Precision refers to the degree of perfection used in the instruments, methods, and observations- in other word, to the level of refinement and care of the survey. Precision – Degree of perfection used in the survey. Accuracy – Degree of perfection obtained in the results. In a series of independent measurements of the same quantity, the closer each measurement is to the average value, the better is the precision. High precision is costly but is generally necessary
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for high accuracy. The essential art of surveying is the ability to obtain the data required, with a specific degree of accuracy, at the lowest cost. The specified degree of accuracy depends on the type and the purpose of the survey.
Fig. 2.1. Illustration of accuracy and precision
2.3Least squares adjustment A least-Squares adjustment uses statistical analysis to estimate the most likely measurements. Least Squares Adjustments are used: – To adjust all the small random errors remaining after all the blunders and systematic errors have been removed. When you want to more heavily weight some measurements more than others. When you want to see the possible expected errors in your survey points. When you want to evaluate the quality of your measurements. When you want to include redundant measurements that cannot be included in conventional adjustments Type of Measurements Can be Adjusted in a Least Squares Adjustment Traverse Levels
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GNSS Type of Data is needed for a Least Squares Adjustment Traverse observations Horizontal angles Distances Vertical angles HI’s Known coordinates Error estimates Levels Differences in elevation Known elevations Error estimates GNSS GNSS vectors Error Estimates Why Do the Field Operators Need to Understand Error Estimates. Field operators need to help the office understand the accuracy for all their measurements. Office and the field need coordination to be sure the field is not exceeding the errors the office expects and to be sure the office is not expecting more accuracy than the field can deliver.
